Chapter-2

Basics of Electronic Engine Control

• Goal-Understand
– general terms,
– the theory of electronic control of the automotive
engine
• Motivation
– authority of the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA).
– Improve the national average fuel economy by
government regulation.
 Exhaust Emissions
• The engine exhaust consists of the products of combustion of the air and gasoline
mixture.
• Gasoline is a mixture of chemical compounds that are called hydrocarbons (each of
which is a chemical union of hydrogen (H) and carbon (C) in various proportions).
• Gasoline also contains natural impurities as well as chemicals added by the refiner.
• All of these can produce undesirable exhaust elements.
• During the combustion process, the carbon and hydrogen combine with oxygen
from the air, releasing heat energy and forming various chemical compounds.
• If the combustion were perfect, the exhaust gases would consist only of carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), neither of which are considered harmful in the
atmosphere.
• Unfortunately, the combustion of the SI engine is not perfect.
• In addition to the CO2 and H2O, the exhaust contains amounts of
– carbon monoxide (CO),
– oxides of nitrogen (chemical unions of nitrogen and oxygen that are denoted
NOx),
– unburned hydrocarbons (HC),
– oxides of sulfur, and other compounds.
 Fuel Economy
• Everyone has some idea of what fuel economy means. It is
related to the number of miles that can be driven for each gallon
of gasoline consumed.
• It is referred to as miles per gallon (MPG) or simply mileage.
• Just like it improves emission control, another important feature
of electronic engine control is its ability to improve fuel economy.
• The government fuel economy standards are not based on just
one car, but are stated in terms of the average rated miles per
gallon fuel mileage for the production of all models by a
manufacturer for any year.
• This latter requirement is known in the automotive industry by
the acronym CAFÉ (corporate average fuel economy).
• It is a somewhat complex requirement and is based on
measurements of the fuel used during a prescribed simulated
standard driving cycle.
 CONCEPT OF AN ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEM

• In order to understand electronic engine control it is

necessary to understand some fundamentals of how
the power produced by the engine is controlled.
• Any driver understands intuitively that the throttle
directly regulates the power produced by the engine
at any operating condition.
• It does this by controlling the air flow into the engine.
• In essence the engine is an air pump such that at any
RPM the mass flow rate of air into the engine varies
directly with throttle plate angular position.
• As the driver depresses the
accelerator pedal, the throttle
angle (θ)increases, thereby
allowing an increased air flow
into the engine.
• The role of fuel control is to
regulate the fuel that is mixed
with the air so that it
increases in proportion to the
air flow.
• for any given mixture the
power produced by the
engine is directly proportional
to the mass flow rate of air
into the engine.
• Metric units are sometimes used, in which engine
power is given in kilowatts (kw) and air mass is
given in kilograms (kg).
• In mathematical terms we can write:
 DEFINITION OF GENERAL TERMS
I. Parameters
– A parameter is a numerical value of some engine dimension
that is fixed by design.
– Design parameters such as engine size, compression ratio,
and so forth, are fixed; therefore, they are not subject to any
engine operating control.
• Exa
– the piston diameter (bore),
– the distance the piston travels on one stroke (stroke), and
– the length of the crankshaft lever arm (throw).
– The bore and stroke determine the cylinder volume and the
displacement.
– Displacement is the total volume of air that is displaced as
the engine rotates through two complete revolutions.
– Compression ratio is the ratio of cylinder volume at BDC to
• Other Combustion type
– combustion chamber shape,
– camshaft cam profile,
– intake and exhaust valve size, and
– valve timing.
II. Variables
– A variable is a quantity that changes or may be changed
as the engine operates, typically under the control of the
electronic control system.
– Some of the important engine variables are
• mass air flow,
• fuel flow rate,
• spark timing,
• power,
• intake manifold pressure, and many others
– A variable is a quantity that can be changed as the
engine operates.
• Inputs to Controllers
– major physical quantities that are sensed and provided to the electronic controller as inputs.
– They are as follows:
1. Throttle position sensor (TPS)
2. Mass air flow rate (MAF)
3. Engine temperature (coolant temperature) (CT)
4. Engine speed (RPM) and position
5. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valve position
6. Exhaust gas oxygen (EGO)
• Outputs from Controllers
– the major physical quantities that are outputs from the
controller. These outputs are
1. Fuel metering control
2. Ignition control
3. Ignition timing
4. Exhaust gas recirculation control
DEFINITION OF ENGINE PERFORMANCE TERMS
I. Power
– Power is a measurement of an engine’s ability to perform useful work.
– Brake power, which is measured with an engine dynamometer, is the actual
power developed by the engine minus losses due to internal friction.
– The most common performance rating that has been applied to automobiles
is a power rating of the engine.
– It normally is given in kilowatts or, formerly, in horsepower (note: / kilowatt =
3 4

1 horsepower).
– Power is the rate at which the engine is doing useful work. It varies with
engine speed and throttle angle.
– Power may be measured at the drive wheels or at the engine output shaft.
– It is more convenient and useful to the designer of an electronic engine
control system to know the output power of only the engine. This permits
realistic comparisons of engine data as engine controls are varied.
– To make such measurements, an engine dynamometer is used.
• The power delivered by the engine to the
dynamometer is called the brake power (Pb).
• The brake power of an engine is always less than
the total amount of power that is actually
developed in the engine. This developed power is
called the indicated power of the engine (Pi).
• The indicated power differs from the brake power
by the loss of power in the engine due to friction
between cylinders and pistons, and other friction
losses. That is,
Pb = Pi – friction and other losses
II. BSFC
– BSFC is a measurement of an engine’s fuel economy.
– It is the ratio of fuel flow to the brake power output of
the engine.

– Fuel economy can be measured while the engine

delivers power to the dynamometer.
– The fuel consumption is then given as the ratio of the
fuel flow rate (rf ) to the brake power output (Pb). This
fuel consumption is known as the brake-specific fuel
consumption, or BSFC.
III. Torque
• Engine torque is the twisting action produced on the
crankshaft by the cylinder pressure pushing on the
piston during the power stroke.
• Torque is produced whenever a force is applied to a
lever. The length of the lever (the lever arm) in the
engine is determined by the throw of the crankshaft
(the offset from the crankshaft centerline of the
point where the force is applied).
• The torque is expressed as the product of this force
and the length of the lever.
• The torque of a typical engine varies with RPM
IV. Volumetric Efficiency
• The variation in torque with RPM is strongly
influenced by the volumetric efficiency, or
“breathing efficiency.”
• Volumetric efficiency actually describes how well
the engine functions as an air pump, drawing air
and fuel into the various cylinders.
• It depends on various engine design parameters
such as piston size, piston stroke, and number of
cylinders.
V. Thermal Efficiency
• Thermal efficiency expresses the mechanical energy
that is delivered to the vehicle relative to the energy
content of the fuel.
• In the typical SI engine, 35% of the energy that is
available in the fuel is lost as heat to the coolant
and lubricating oil, 40% is lost as heat and unburned
fuel in exhaust gases, and another 5% is lost in
engine and drive train friction.
• This means that only about 20% is available to drive
the vehicle and accessories.
• These percentages vary somewhat with operating
conditions but are valid on the average.
VI. Calibration
• The definition of engine calibration is the setting of
the air/fuel ratio and ignition timing for the engine.
With the new electronic control systems, calibration
is determined by the electronic engine control
system.
• ENGINE MAPPING
– Engine mapping is a process by which measurements are
made of important engine variables while the engine is
operated throughout its speed and load ranges.
– Measurements are made of the important engine
variables while quantities, such as the air/fuel ratio and
the spark control, are varied in a known and systematic
manner.
– From this mapping, a mathematical model is developed
that explains the influence of every measurable variable
and parameter on engine performance.
– The control system designer must select a control
configuration, control variables, and control strategy that
will satisfy all performance requirements (including
stability) as computed from this model and that are within
I. Effect of Air/Fuel Ratio on Performance
– the variation in the performance variables of torque (T)
and brake power (BSFC) as well as engine emissions with
variations in the air/fuel ratio with fixed spark timing and
a constant engine speed.
– The standard way to characterize exhaust gases whose
absolute emission levels are proportional to power.
– The definitions for the brake-specific emission rates are
• BSHC = brake-specific HC concentration

• BSCO = brake-specific CO concentration

• The stoichiometric mixture
– 14.7:1
– Produces Equivalence ratio

– Rich mixture- air_fuel ratio below 14.7

– Lean Mixture- air_fuel ratio above 14.7
II. Effect of Spark Timing on Performance
– Spark advance is the time before top dead center (TDC)
when the spark is initiated.
– It is usually expressed in number of degrees of
crankshaft rotation relative to TDC.
– maximum torque occurs at a particular advanced timing
referred to as minimum advance for best timing (MBT).
– Spark timing also has a major effect on emissions and
engine performance.
– Maximum engine torque occurs at MBT.
III. Effect of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on
Performance
• Exhaust gas recirculation greatly reduces nitrous
oxide emissions.
• Maintains a relatively high level of torque
• The emission rate of NOx is most strongly
influenced by EGR and decreases as the percentage
of EGR increases.
• The HC emission rate increases with increasing EGR
• EGR affects NOx production is related to the peak
combustion temperature.
• CONTROL STRATEGY
– It is the task of the electronic control system to set the
calibration for each engine operating condition.
– There are many possible control strategies for setting the
variables for any given engine, and each tends to have its own
advantages and disadvantages
– One of such is catalytic converter in the exhaust system.
– In catalytic converters, exhaust gases are chemically altered in
a way that helps meet EPA standards.
– Several types of catalytic converters are available for use on
an automobile.
– The desired functions of a catalytic converter include
1. Oxidation of hydrocarbon emissions to carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
2. Oxidation of CO to CO2
I. Oxidizing Catalytic Converter
– the oxidizing catalyst (OC) is to increase the rate of chemical
reaction, which initially takes place in the cylinder as the
compressed air–fuel mixture burns, toward an exhaust gas that has
a complete oxidation of HC and CO to H2O and CO2.
– The oxidizing catalytic converter increases the rate of oxidation of
HC and CO to further reduce HC and CO emissions.
– The extra oxygen (Secondary Air) required for this oxidation is often
supplied by adding air to the exhaust stream from an engine-driven
air pump.
– The most significant measure of the performance of the OC is its
conversion efficiency, nc.

nc = M /M
o i

where
Mo is the mass flow rate of gas that has been oxidized
leaving the converter
II. The Three-Way Catalyst (TWC)
– It uses a specific catalyst formulation containing
platinum, palladium, and rhodium to reduce NOx and
oxidize HC and CO all at the same time.
– It is called three-way because it simultaneously reduces
the concentration of all three major undesirable exhaust
gases by about 90% if used optimally.
– The conversion efficiency of the TWC for the three
exhaust gases depends mostly on the air/fuel ratio.
– The TWC operates at peak efficiency when the air/fuel
ratio is at or very near stoichiometry.
– An electronic fuel control system is required to maintain
the required air/fuel ratio.
• Comparision
• ELECTRONIC FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM
– The primary function of this fuel control system is to accurately
determine the mass air flow rate into the engine.
– Then the control system precisely regulates fuel delivery such that the
ratio of the mass of air to the mass of fuel in each cylinder is as close as
possible to stoichiometry (i.e., 14.7).
• Engine Control Sequence
– Once the engine starts and until a specific set of
conditions is satisfied, the engine control operates in the
open-loop mode.
– After combustion the exhaust gases flow past the EGO
sensor, through the TWC, and out the tailpipe. Once the
EGO sensor has reached its operating temperature
(typically a few seconds to about 2 min), the EGO sensor
signal is read by the controller and the system begins
closed-loop operation.
• Closed-Loop Control
– In the closed-loop mode of operation, the signals from
the EGO sensor are used by the electronic controller to
adjust the air/fuel ratio through the fuel metering
actuator.
• Exhaust Gas Oxygen Concentration
– The EGO sensor is used to determine the air/fuel ratio.
– the EGO generates an output signal that depends on the amount
of oxygen in the exhaust.
– The amount of oxygen is relatively low for rich mixtures λ<1 and
relatively high for lean mixtures λ>1 .
– In a closed-loop system, the time delay between sensing a
deviation and performing an action to correct for the deviation
must be compensated for in system design.
– Reduced to its essential features, the engine control system
operates as a limit-cycle controller in which the air/fuel ratio cycles
up and down about the set point of stoichiometry,
– The air/fuel ratio in a closed-loop system is always increasing or
decreasing in the vicinity of stoichiometry. This is in response to
the EGO sensor’s output, which indicates a rich or lean fuel
mixture.
• Frequency and Deviation of the Fuel Controller
– the control variable oscillates about the set point or the
desired value for the variable.
– The two end limits are determined by the rich and lean
voltage levels of the EGO sensor, by the controller, and by
the characteristics of the fuel metering actuator.
– The time necessary for the EGO sensor to sense a change in
fuel metering is known as the transport delay. As engine
speed increases, the transport delay decreases.
– frequency of oscillation fL of this limit-cycle control system

– Although the air/fuel ratio is constantly swinging up and

down, the average value of deviation is held within ±0.05
of the 14.7:1 ratio.
• OPEN-LOOP MODE
– Fuel control systems in open-loop mode must maintain the
air/fuel mixture at or near stoichiometry, but must do it
without the benefit of feedback.
• ANALYSIS OF INTAKE MANIFOLD PRESSURE
– The air and fuel mixture enters the engine through the
intake manifold, a series of channels and passages that
directs the air and fuel mixture to the cylinders.
– One very important engine variable associated with the
intake manifold is the manifold absolute pressure (MAP).
– The MAP sensor output voltage is proportional to the
average pressure within the intake manifold.
– The manifold absolute pressure varies from near
atmospheric pressure when the throttle plate is fully
opened to near zero pressure when the throttle plate is
 – Each cylinder contributes to the pumping action every second
crankshaft revolution.
– For an N-cylinder engine, the frequency fp, in cycles per second,
of the manifold pressure fluctuation for an engine running at a
certain RPM is given by

• Measuring Air Mass

– A critically important aspect of fuel control is the requirement
to measure the mass of air that is drawn into the cylinder (i.e.,
the air charge).
– The amount of fuel delivered can then be calculated such as to
maintain the desired air/fuel ratio.
– There is no practically feasible way of measuring the mass of
air in the cylinder directly. However, the air charge can be
determined from the mass flow rate of air into the engine
intake since all of this air eventually is distributed to the
• Two methods to measure the air
1. single sensor that directly measures mass air flow
rate.
2. number of sensors that provide data from which
mass flow rate can be computed (Speed-Density
Method).
– For a given volume of air (V ) at a specific pressure(p)
and temperature (T ), the density of the air (da) is the
ratio of the mass of air in that volume (Ma) divided by V
or
– air is assumed to be moving through a uniform tube past
a reference point for a specific period of time. This is
known as the volume flow rate. The mass flow rate is
the product of the volume flow rate and the air density.
• The intake air can be computed relative to a standard
condition. Normally, the standard condition is sea level
standard day (SLSD).
• The SLSD conditions are denoted do, po, To, referring to
density, absolute pressure, and absolute temperature.

• The volume flow rate would be

• where
• Rv is the volume flow rate
• D is the engine displacement
• RPM is the engine speed
• the actual volume flow rate for an engine having
displacement D and running at speed RPM is given by
• Volumetric Efficiency
– Volumetric efficiency varies with MAP and engine speed.
A table of values representing volumetric efficiency for
given speeds and MAP values can be stored in memory
as a lookup table.
– The volumetric efficiency is a number between 0 and 1
that depends on intake manifold pressure (MAP) and
RPM for all engine operating conditions.
• Including EGR
– Exhaust gas recirculation also must be considered when
calculating volume flow rate.
– The true volume flow rate of air is calculated by
subtracting the volume flow rate of EGR from the total
volume flow rate.
• The total cylinder air charge

• Substituting the equation for Rv, the volume flow

rate of air is

• Knowing Ra and the density da gives the mass flow

rate of air Rm as follows:

• Knowing Rm, the stoichiometric mass flow rate for

the fuel, Rfm, can be calculated as follows:
• ELECTRONIC IGNITION-Distributorless EI