Chapter 2 & 3:

Sensation & Perception

Elementary Psychology
Perception
Figure and Background
 Perception
Sensation refers to the process of obtaining sensory information
through the stimulation of body parts or to the conscious feelings
or sense impressions themselves.

Perception: where sensation refers to the reception of stimulus

from the environment , while perception describes the
interpretation and understanding of that stimulation
 Perception
• The process by which an individual
selects, organizes, and interprets
stimuli into a meaningful and coherent
picture of the world
• How we see the world around us

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 Elements of Perception
• Sensation
• Absolute threshold
• Differential threshold
• Subliminal perception

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 Sensation
• The immediate and direct response of
the sensory organs to stimuli
• A stimulus is any unit of input to any of
the senses.
• The absolute threshold is the lowest
level at which an individual can
experience a sensation.

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 Differential Threshold
• Minimal difference that can be detected
between two similar stimuli
• Also known as the just noticeable
difference (the j.n.d.)

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 Weber’s Law
• The j.n.d. between two stimuli is not an
absolute amount but an amount
relative to the intensity of the first
stimulus
• Weber’s law states that the stronger
the initial stimulus, the greater the
additional intensity needed for the
second stimulus to be perceived as
different.
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 Marketing Applications
of the J.N.D.
• Marketers need to determine the
relevant j.n.d. for their products
– so that negative changes are not readily
discernible to the public
– so that product improvements are very
apparent to consumers

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 Discussion Question
• How might a juice manufacturer such
as Pran use the j.n.d. for Fruit Loops
in terms of:
– Product decisions
– Packaging decisions
– Advertising decisions
– Sales promotion decisions.

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 Subliminal Perception
• Stimuli that are too weak or too brief to
be consciously seen or heard may be
strong enough to be perceived by one
or more receptor cells.

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 Is Subliminal Persuasion
Effective?
• Extensive research has shown no
evidence that subliminal advertising
can cause behavior changes
• Some evidence that subliminal stimuli
may influence affective reactions

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Characteristics of Perception
1. Organization (Perceptual Organization)
2. Selectivity (Choice)
3. Constancy (Unchangeable)
4. Flexibility (Different people see
differently the same stimulus)
5. Holistic Property (at a whole, not part)
 Principles of Perception

1. Proximity
2. Similarity
3. Continuity
4. Familiarity
5. Closure
Proximity
Similarity
Continuity
Closure
Factors Affecting Perception
 Difference Between Sensation and
Perception

1. Peripheral Vs Central
2. Presentation Vs Evaluation
3. Unorganized Vs Organized
4. Non- Selective Vs Selective
5. Simple to Complex
6. Not Learned to Learned
 Aspects of Perception

Selection

Organization

Interpretation

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 Aspects of Perception

Selection

Organization

Interpretation

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 Perceptual Selection
• Consumers subconsciously are selective as
to what they perceive.
• Stimuli selected depends on two major
factors
– Consumers’ previous experience
– Consumers’ motives
• Selection depends on the
– Nature of the stimulus
– Expectations
– Motives

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 Discussion Questions
• What marketing stimuli do you
remember from your day so far?
• Why do you think you selected these
stimuli to perceive and remember?

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 Perceptual Selection

Concepts

• Selective • Consumers seek out

messages which:
Exposure – Are pleasant
– They can
• Selective
sympathize
– Reassure them of
Attention good purchases
• Perceptual
Defense
• Perceptual 6 - 27
 Perceptual Selection

Concepts

• Selective • Heightened
awareness when
Exposure stimuli meet their
• Selective needs
• Consumers prefer
Attention different messages
•• Perceptual and medium
Perceptual
Defense
Blocking
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 Perceptual Selection

Concepts

• Selective • Screening out of

stimuli which are
Exposure threatening
• Selective

Attention
•• Perceptual
Perceptual
Defense
Blocking
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 Perceptual Selection

Concepts

• Selective • Consumers avoid

being
Exposure bombarded by:
• Selective – Tuning out
– TiVo

Attention
• Perceptual
Defense
• Perceptual 6 - 30
 Aspects of Perception

Selection

Organization

Interpretation

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 Organization

Principles

• Figure and • People tend to

ground organize perceptions
• Grouping into figure-and-ground
• Closure relationships.
• The ground is usually
hazy.
• Marketers usually
design so the figure is
the noticed stimuli.
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Lacoste’s campaign uses a very
plain ground so the symbol really weblink

shows.
 Organization

Principles

• Figure and • People group stimuli

ground to form a unified
• Grouping impression or
• Closure concept.
• Grouping helps
memory and recall.

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 Organization

Principles

• Figure and • People have a need for

ground closure and organize
• Grouping perceptions to form a
• Closure complete picture.
• Will often fill in
missing
pieces
• Incomplete messages
remembered more
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 Discussion Question
• Do you agree you remember more of
what you have NOT completed?
• How might a local bank use this in their
advertising?

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 Aspects of Perception

Selection

Organization

Interpretation

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In social psychology, a stereotype is any
thought widely adopted about specific types
of individuals or certain ways of behaving
intended to represent the entire group of
those individuals or behaviors as a whole.
These thoughts or beliefs may or may not
accurately reflect reality.
Selective attention: Selective attention is the tendency for people
to screen out most of the information to which they are exposed
— means that marketers must work especially hard to attract the
consumer’s attention.
Selective distortion: Selective distortion describes the tendency
of people to interpret information in a way that will support what
they already believe.
Selective retention: Consumers are likely to remember good
points made about a brand they favor and to forget good points
made about competing brands.
 Interpretation

Perceptual Distortion

• Physical • Positive attributes of

Appearances people they know to
• Stereotypes those who resemble
• First them
• Important for model
Impressions
selection
• Jumping to • Attractive models
Conclusions are more persuasive
• Halo Effect for some products
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 Halo Effects
The halo effect describes a cognitive bias
when judging others whereby judgements
about that person’s character are influenced
by an overall positive impression about that
person.
Originally developed by psychologist Edward
Thorndike, the halo effect has been
extensively studied in a variety of fields
including physical attractiveness in relation
to societal success as well as product
Dove’s campaign
stresses the
everyday
woman.

weblink
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 Interpretation

Perceptual Distortion

• Physical • People hold

Appearances meanings related to
• Stereotypes stimuli
• First • Stereotypes
Impressions influence how
stimuli are perceived
• Jumping to
Conclusions
• Halo Effect
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Putting a “Face” on Customer
Service

weblink

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 Interpretation

Perceptual Distortion

• Physical • First impressions

Appearances are lasting
• Stereotypes • The perceiver is
• First trying to determine
Impressions which stimuli are
relevant, important,
• Jumping to
or predictive
Conclusions
• Halo Effect
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 Interpretation

Perceptual Distortion

• Physical • People tend not to

Appearances listen to all the
• Stereotypes information before
• First making conclusion
• Important to put
Impressions
persuasive
• Jumping to
arguments first in
Conclusions advertising
• Halo Effect
Copyright 2007 by Prentice Hall 6 - 32
 Interpretation

Perceptual Distortion

• Physical • Consumers perceive

Appearances and evaluate multiple
• Stereotypes objects based on
• First just one dimension
• Used in licensing of
Impressions
names
• Jumping to • Important with
Conclusions spokesperson choice
• Halo Effect
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The halo effect
helps Adidas
break into new
product
categories.

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 Issues in Consumer Imagery
• Product Positioning and Repositioning
• Positioning of Services
• Perceived Price
• Perceived Quality
• Retail Store Image
• Manufacturer Image
• Perceived Risk

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 Positioning
• Establishing a specific image for a
brand in the consumer’s mind
• Product is positioned in relation to
competing brands
• Conveys the concept, or meaning, of
the product in terms of how it fulfills a
consumer need
• Result of successful positioning is a
distinctive, positive brand image

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 Positioning Techniques
• Umbrella • Finding an
Positioning “Unowned” Position
• Positioning against • Filling Several
Competition Positions
• Positioning Based • Repositioning
on a Specific Benefit

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 Perceptual Mapping
• A research technique that enables
marketers to plot graphically
consumers’ perceptions concerning
product attributes of specific
brands

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Perceptual Mapping
Figure 6.14

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 Issues in Perceived Price
• Reference prices – used as a basis for
comparison in judging another price
– Internal
– External
• Acquisition and transaction utility
• One study offers three types of pricing
strategies based on perception of
value.

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 Three Pricing Strategies
Focused on Perceived Value (Table 6-1)
Pricing Strategy Provides Value By… Implemented As…

Satisfaction-based Recognizing and reducing Service guarantees

pricing customers’ perceptions of Benefit-driven pricing
uncertainly, which the Flat-rate pricing
intangible nature of services
magnifies
Relationship pricing Encouraging long-term Long-term contracts
relationships with the company Price bundling
that customers view as
beneficial
Efficiency pricing Sharing with customers the Cost-leader pricing.
cost savings that the company
has achieved by
understanding, managing, and
reducing the costs of providing
the service

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 Acquisition-Transaction
Utility
• Acquisition utility • Transaction utility
– The consumer’s – The perceived
perceived economic pleasure or
gain or loss displeasure
associated with the associated with the
purchase financial aspect of
– Function of product the purchase
utility and – Determined by the
purchase price difference between
the internal reference
price and the
purchase price

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 Perceived Quality
• Perceived Quality of Products
– Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Cues
• Perceived Quality of Services
• Price/Quality Relationship

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Perceived Quality of Services
• Difficult due to characteristics of services
– Intangible
– Variable
– Perishable
– Simultaneously Produced and Consumed
• SERVQUAL scale used to measure gap
between customers’ expectation of service
and perceptions of actual service

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 A Scale Measuring Customer’s Perception of
Call Center Employees (Table 6-4)
ATTENTIVENESS
2. The agent did not make an attentive impression.
3. The agent used short, affirmative words and sounds to indicate that (s)he
was really listening.
PERCEPTIVENESS
6. The agent asked for more details and extra information during the
conversation.
7. The agent continually attempted to understand what I was saying.
8. The agent paraphrased what had been said adequately.
RESPONSIVENESS
10. The agent offered relevant information to the questions I asked.
11. The agent used full sentences in his or her answers instead of just saying
yes or no.
12. The agent did not recognize what information I needed.
TRUST
14. I believe that this company takes customer calls seriously.
15. I feel that this company does not respond to customer problems with
understanding.
16. This company is ready and willing to offer support to customers.
 Table 6-4 (continued)

SATISFACTION
I am satisfied with the level of service the agent provided
I am satisfied with the way I was spoken to by the agent.
I am satisfied with the information I got from the agent.
The telephone call with this agent was a satisfying
experience.
CALL INTENTION
I will very likely contact this company again.
Next time I have any questions I will not hesitate to call
again.
I would not be willing to discuss problems I have with this company over the
phone.
 Price/Quality Relationship
• The perception of price as an indicator
of product quality (e.g., the higher the
price, the higher the perceived quality
of the product.)

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 Perceived Risk
• The degree of uncertainty perceived by the
consumer as to the consequences (outcome)
of a specific purchase decision
• Types
– Functional Risk
– Physical Risk
– Financial Risk
– Psychological Risk
– Time Risk

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 How Consumers Handle Risk
• Seek Information
• Stay Brand Loyal
• Select by Brand Image
• Rely on Store Image
• Buy the Most Expensive Model
• Seek Reassurance

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 What is Illusions
Very Simply, a wrong or misinterpreted perception of a sensory
experience is known as illusion.

An illusion is a distortion (Misrepresentation) of the senses, which

can reveal how the human brain normally organizes and interprets
sensory stimulation. Though illusions distort our perception of
reality, they are generally shared by most people.

An illusion occurs when our perception of an objects does not agree

with true physical characteristics of the object.

Examples: A child who perceives tree branches at night as if they are

goblins may be said to be having an illusion.
Types of Illusions

Optical
Auditory
Tactile
 Optical Illusion
Optical Illusion An optical illusion is characterized by
visually perceived images that differ from objective
reality.
 Auditory Illusion

An auditory illusion is an illusion of hearing. In

this, the listener hears either sounds which are
not present in the stimulus or impossible sounds.
 Tactile Illusion

Tactile illusions are illusions that exploit the

sense of touch.
Movement (Phi phenomenon)
Physical Illusion
 Hallucination?
That is, a person experiences something that
doesn't really exist (except in their mind).

A hallucination can occur in any sensory

modality — visual, auditory , tactile (Tangible),
etc. Auditory hallucinations (e.g. hearing voices
or some other sound) are most common type of
hallucination in schizophrenia.

Schizophrenia is a chronic debilitating

(Devastating) mental disorder.
 Similarities and Dissimilarities between
illusion and hallucination
Both are wrong perception
Both are different from normal
occurrences
In both cases imagination works
Not acquired/ learned correct knowledge
Normal Person vs Abnormal
Real Fact vs unrealistic fact
External element present vs absent
Treatment (
Practise ( minimize illusion)