SYLLABUS Module - 2

Module – II: Angle Modulation and Noise

ANGLE MODULATION - Time and Frequency Domain
Representation, FM, NBFM, WBFM and PM, Modulation Index
of FM and PM, Transmission bandwidth of FM waves, Relation
between FM and PM. Generation of FM waves: Indirect FM,
Direct FM. Demodulation of FM waves: Balanced frequency
discriminator, Zero-crossing detector.

TRANSMITTER, RECEIVER AND NOISE –AM Transmitter,

FM
Transmitter, Tuned radio frequency receiver, Superheterodyne
receiver, Comparison of FM receiver with AM Receiver, Source
of noise, Noise in AM using envelop detector, Noise in FM, Pre-
emphasis & de-emphasis in FM.
Radio
spectrum
Remember the radio
spectrum:

AM FM radio/
radio TV
For example, an AM radio system transmitselectromagnetic
waves with frequencies of around a few hundred kHz (540 kHz
up to 1700 kHz) (MF band).

The FM radio system must operate with frequencies in the range of 88-
108 MHz
(VHF band)
Angle
modulation
Angle modulation is a method of analog modulation in which either the
phase or frequency of the carrier wave is varied according to the
message signal. In this method of modulation the amplitude of the

𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬(w𝒄𝒕 + 𝝓𝒄) = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬

constant.
carrier wave is maintained

𝜽(𝒕)
Consider the general

(w𝒄𝒕 +
carrier

𝝓𝒄)
represents the angle of the
carrier has the angle 𝜃(𝑡) defined as
carrier.
An un-modulated
𝜃 𝑡 = w𝒄𝒕 + 𝝓𝒄 =
2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 𝜙𝑐.

Where 𝑓𝑐 is the carrier signal frequency and 𝜙𝑐 is the value of

𝜃(𝑡) at 𝑡 = 0.

There are two ways of varying the angle of the carrier.

a) By varying the frequency, w𝒄– Frequency Modulation.
b) By varying the phase, 𝝓𝒄– Phase Modulation
Frequency
modulation
In FM, the message signal 𝒎 𝒕 controls the frequency 𝒇𝒄 of the
𝑓 = 𝑓 + 𝑘 𝑚(𝑡)
𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄
carrier.
𝑖 𝑐 𝑓

𝐜𝐨𝐬(wfor𝒄𝒕 ) we may
Consider the carrier: instantaneous
then FM frequency

𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + Frequency
write:
𝒔𝑭
𝑴 deviation 𝑡

𝒎 𝒕
where the frequency deviation will depend on

.Given that the carrier frequency will change we may write for
an

𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝐜𝐨𝐬 w𝒊𝒕 =
instantaneous carrier signal

𝑨𝒄𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒊𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓𝒊

where 𝝓𝒊 is the instantaneous angle = wi𝒕 = and 𝒇𝒊 is
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒊 𝒕 , the
instantaneous frequency
Frequency
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 +
𝑘𝑓𝑚(𝑡)
modulation
𝝓𝒊 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒊𝒕, 𝑑𝜙 1
=
Sinc
OR 𝑓 = 𝑑𝜙
𝑖
𝑑𝑡 2𝜋𝑓𝑖 𝑖
e
𝑖
then

2𝜋 𝑑𝑡to the rate of change of angle.

i.e. frequency is proportional

If 𝑓𝑐 is the unmodulated carrier and 𝑓𝑚 is the modulating

1
frequency, then we
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 +
𝑑𝜙𝑖
2𝜋
may deduce that
𝑘𝑓𝑚(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
1
𝑑𝜙 = 𝑓𝑐 +
𝑖
2𝜋
Hence, we i.
have
𝑑 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑘𝑓𝑚(𝑡) e
𝜙𝑑 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 +
2𝜋𝑘 𝑚(𝑡)
Take integration𝑡both 𝑓
sides
Frequency
modulation
After integration 𝜙𝑖 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫
𝑚(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐
i.e.
Hence for the FM
signal, cos 𝜙𝑖

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos
Main

2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 …

equation

(1)
for FM

𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 +
𝑘𝑓𝑚(𝑡)
Δ𝑓𝑐 =max 𝑓𝑖 − 𝑓𝑐 = max 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑚𝑡)

Δ𝑓𝑐 = 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 , is the peak deviation (maximum deviation) of

Δ𝑓𝑐
the carrier.
𝑓 =is called the𝐏𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲
The
𝖰
Modulation Index denoted
𝐝𝐞𝐯𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝖰=
ratio
𝑚
by i.e.
�
�
Single tone frequency 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos
modulation 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 …
Consider a sinusoidal modulating (1) 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑚 cos
Substituting for 𝑚 𝑡 in Eq. (1), the instantaneous 2𝜋𝑓 𝑚𝑡
signal

.
defined as:
frequency of the
FM signal is

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 +
2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝐴 𝑚 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡2𝜋𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑠 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝐴𝑚sin(2𝜋𝑓
2
𝑓 𝜋𝑚
𝑡 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 𝑚𝑡)
𝑓

∆
𝑠 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝑓 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚
�𝑚
𝑡 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + � 𝑡)

where ∆𝑓 is called the frequency deviation given by

∆𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚
and the instantaneous angle is
Single tone frequency modulation

The resultant FM

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 +
signal is

𝛽sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡)
𝛽 = ∆𝑓 ; modulation
𝑓𝑚
index
The frequency deviation factor indicates the amount of frequency
change in the FM signal from the carrier frequency fc on either side

components between ( 𝑓𝑐 − ∆𝑓 ) to ( 𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓 ). The modulation

of it. Thus FM signal will have the frequency

index, 𝛽 represents the phase deviation of the FM signal and is

measured in radians. Depending on the value of 𝛽, FM signal can be
classified into two types:

1. Narrow band FM (𝛽 << 1) and

2. Wide band FM (𝛽 >> 1).
Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM
Wave
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐𝑡 +
𝛽sin(𝜔
Spectral properties 𝑚𝑡)
of this

𝑠 𝑡 =
signal,
𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑐 𝑡 × 𝑒 𝑗𝛽
𝐴𝑐 𝑅𝑒
complex periodic
sin 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡
function
period 𝑇 =
𝑓1𝑚
With time
We can represent it by a Fourier series and
therefore
Fourier series 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 sin
𝜔𝑚 𝑡
representation of
𝑓 𝑡 represent this fourer
function are 𝐶𝑛, this is the 𝑛 𝑡ℎ harmonic, the
Let know
We exponential so the coefficient of Fourier series
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑛 =−∞ 𝐶𝑛
𝜔
series

𝜔𝑜 = � = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑚 , so we is
need to find what 𝑛
is 𝐶 .
2𝜋
∑∞
the
𝑚
fundamental
=𝜔 𝑚 1 �𝑒
𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑡,
where
𝑇/ 𝑜

𝐶𝑛 ∫ 2 𝑓(𝑡) ×
� −𝑇/
= 𝑒 − 𝑗 𝑛 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜔𝑚 𝜋/ Assume 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 =
2
𝐶𝑛 ∫ 𝜔 𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 sin 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 ×
�
= 2 −𝜋/ 𝑥
𝜋 𝜔𝑚
𝑒 𝑑𝑡
−𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑚 𝑡
Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM
Wave 1
𝑒 𝑗(𝛽 sin
𝐶𝑛 = ∫
nth coefficient of the Fourier
𝜋
2𝜋
𝑒 𝑗 𝛽 s i n 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 is nothing but, 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 .
series of
𝑥−𝑛𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
= 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 : Bessel
−𝜋
1 ��
𝐽𝑛 𝛽 2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑗(𝛽 sin
function 𝑠 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑐 𝑡 × 𝑒 𝑗𝛽
=
− 𝑡 𝐴𝑐 𝑅𝑒 sin 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡
𝜋 𝜋 𝑥−𝑛𝑥)
Our main purpose to𝑑𝑥
∞

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑐 ∑ 𝐶 𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔
study

𝐴𝑐 𝑅𝑒 𝑡 𝑛=−∞ 𝑡
𝑚 ∞

𝑠 𝑡 = ∑ 𝛽
𝐴𝑐 𝑅𝑒 𝑛𝐽
=−∞
𝑛
Take the real part 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔 𝑐 +𝑛𝜔 𝑚 )𝑡
∞ 𝑠 𝑡 = ∑ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 Frequency domain
𝐴𝑐 cos(𝜔𝑐+𝑛𝜔𝑚)𝑡
representation,
A series𝑛=−∞
expansion of FM
signal
Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM
𝑠 𝑡 = ∑𝑛∞=−∞ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 cos(𝜔
𝑐 +𝑛𝜔
Wave
𝐴𝑐 )𝑡 ---(a)
Frequency domain
𝑚 representation,
Applying the Fourier transform
∞
𝐴
∑
Eq. (a)
𝑆 𝑓 =𝑐
2 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 +𝛿 𝑓+
𝐽𝑛say is comprised
𝑠 𝑡 , therefore we can 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 of recursive
. components 𝜔𝑐
plus 𝑛𝜔𝑚, 𝛽
𝑛going from −∞ to ∞𝑛=−∞
𝐽𝑛 𝛽 is a real value

1. Modulating signal was the signal of frequency 𝜔 𝑚 , let us

keep the AM signal as reference
what A
s(t) was
––cJthe
 ) cos(⏟c )tcomponents
0(frequency  Ac J 1 ( ) cos( c AM
in the  msignal?
)t  A cJ 1 (  ) cos(c   m )t
2 ––
 ––
 ––
 ––

Amp fc Amp fc  fm Amp fc  fm
.
 Ac J 2 (  ) cos(c  2m )t  Ac J  2 (  ) cos(c  2m )t 
––
 –– ––
 ––
Amp f c 2 f m Amp f c 2 f m
Spectrum Analysis of Sinusoidal FM
Wave
Theoretically it appears as the bandwidth of the signal is ∞

Practically it turns out that this function 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 as you increase the

value of 𝑛 it is magnitude decreases.

So, not all the components are significant, a certain number of

of 𝛽 and how many component are significant will therefore decide,

frequency component are significant that will depend on the value

what is the effective bandwidth of the FM signal.

The amplitudes drawn are completely arbitrary, since we have not

found any
Bessel Function
1 �
properties
𝐽𝑛 𝛽 = ∫ �𝑒 𝑗(𝛽 sin
2 −
𝜋 𝜋 𝑥−𝑛𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝐽𝑛 𝑥 𝐽0 𝑥 𝑥 > 𝐽2 𝑥
Properties

𝑛 > 𝐽1
1) as

2) 𝐽−𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑛𝐽 �
…

−1
𝑥 = 𝐽 𝑛 𝑥 𝒏 even
�
𝑛
𝐽−
𝑥 = 𝒏
𝑛
−𝐽 𝑛 𝑥
𝐽3− ∞
odd
𝑛) ∑ 𝐽 𝑥 =
1
𝑛
𝑛=−∞ 2

4) 𝐽𝑛 𝑥 always
results in real
quantity
Significant Sidebands –
Spectrum
As may be seen from the table of Bessel functions, for values of 𝑛
above a certain value, the values of 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 become progressively
smaller. In FM the sidebands are considered to be significant if 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 
0.01 (1%).
Although the bandwidth of an FM signal is infinite, components with

𝐴𝑐 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 , for which Jn() < 0.01 are deemed to be insignificant

amplitudes

and may be ignored.

carrier fc to produce FM with a modulation index 𝛽 = 1. Sketch the

Example: A message signal with a frequency fm Hz modulates a

spectrum. n Jn(1) Amplitude Frequency

0 0.7652 0.7652Vc fc
1 0.4400 0.44Vc fc+fm fc - fm
2 0.1149 0.1149Vc fc+2fm fc - 2fm
3 0.0196 0.0196Vc fc+3fm fc -3 fm
4 0.0025 Insignificant
5 0.0002 Insignificant

𝑉𝑐
Significant Sidebands –
Spectrum
𝑉𝑐
= 𝐴𝑐

As shown, the bandwidth of the spectrum containing significant

components is 6fm, for  = 1.
Significant Sidebands –
Spectrum
The table below shows the number of significant sidebands
for various
modulation indices
 () and the associated spectral bandwidth.
No of sidebands  1% Bandwidth
unmodulated carrier
of
0.1 2 2fm
0.3 4 4fm
0.5 4 4fm
1.0 6 6fm
2.0 8 8fm
5.0 16 16fm
10.0 28 28fm

e.g. for  =
5, 16
sidebands
(8 pairs).
Transmission bandwidth of FM
waves. ∞

𝑠 𝑡 = ∑ ….
𝐴𝑐 (𝑎)
𝐴
∞
𝐽𝑛
∑ 𝐽 𝛿 𝑓 −� 𝑓 + 𝛿 𝑓 +� 𝑓 +𝑚
𝑆 𝑓=2 𝛽𝑛𝑓
𝑐 𝑛 𝑚
𝑛 =− 𝛽 + 𝑛𝑓 �
∞ .
�

cos
(𝜔𝑐
An approximation for the bandwidthof an FM signal
is given by BW = 2(Maximum frequency deviation +
highest modulated frequency) +𝑛
𝜔𝑚
Bandwidth  2(f  Carson’s Rule
)𝑡
fm )
𝑛=−∞
Narrowband FM NBFM
From the graph/table of Bessel functions it may be seen that for small 
, ( 
0.3) there is only the carrier and 2 significant sidebands, i.e. BW = 2fm.

FM with   0.3 is referred to as narrowband FM (NBFM) (Note, the

bandwidth
Wideband FM is WBFM
the same as AM).

For  > 0.3 there are more than 2 significant sidebands. As 

increases the
Frequency Domain Representation of
Narrow Band FM signal:
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑐os 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 +
𝛽sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡) ,
= 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 cos 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡
− 𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 sin 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡
.
For NBFM, (𝛽 << 1), we can approximate,

cos 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡 ≈ 1 and sin 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡

≈ 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡 ,
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡
− 𝐴𝑐 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡
sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡 .
𝐴𝑐
𝑠 trigonometric
𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos relations;cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
𝛽
2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + − cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
Using

𝐴𝑐 2 . 𝐴𝑐
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐
𝛽 𝛽
2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 − − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2 2
Frequency Domain Representation of
Narrow Band FM signal:
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐
𝛽 𝛽
2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 − − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡
2
The above equation represents 2 This representation
the NBFM signal.
is similar to an AM signal, except that the lower side frequency has
negative sign. The magnitude spectrum of NBFM signal is shown in
Fig. 1, which is similar to AM signal spectrum. The bandwidth of the
NBFM signal is 2𝑓𝑚, which is same as AM signal.

Figure 1: Spectrum content of a NBFM wave for single-tone

modulation.
Frequency Domain Representation of Wide-
Band FM signals:

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠
The FM wave for sinusoidal modulation is given by

2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 𝛽sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡) ,

The FM wave can be expressed in terms of complex

envelope as:

𝑠 𝑡 = Re 𝐴𝑐exp(𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡
+ 𝑗𝛽sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡)) ,
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑐 𝑡 × 𝑒 𝑗𝛽
𝐴𝑐 𝑅𝑒
complex periodic
sin 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡
function
period 𝑇 =
𝑓1𝑚
With time
Spectral properties of this signal,
We can represent it by a Fourier series and
therefore
Fourier series 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 sin
𝜔𝑚 𝑡
representation of
Frequency Domain Representation of Wide-
Band FM signals:
Let 𝑓 𝑡 represent this
function
are 𝐶𝑛,
We know exponential fourer so the coefficient of Fourier series
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑛 =−∞ 𝐶𝑛
this 𝜔
series
, so𝑛we
𝜔𝑜 = � = 2𝜋𝑓
is𝑚the 𝑡ℎ harmonic,
2𝜋
∑∞
𝐶𝑛.
the need to find
thewhat
𝑚
=𝜔 𝑚 1� 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑜 𝑡 ,
where
𝑇/
∫ 2 𝑓(𝑡) ×
is
𝐶𝑛
fundamental is

� −𝑇/ − 𝑗 𝑛 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡
= 𝑒 𝑑𝑡
𝜔𝑚 Assume 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 =
2 𝜋/
𝐶𝑛 ∫ 𝜔𝑚
�
= 2 −𝜋/ 𝑒 𝑥
𝑗𝛽 sin 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 ×

𝜋 𝜔𝑚
𝑒−𝑗𝑛𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1 �
𝐶𝑛 ∫�
2 − 𝑒
𝑗(𝛽 sin
=
nth coefficient of the Fourier
𝜋 𝜋 𝑥−𝑛𝑥)
𝑒 𝑗 𝛽 s i n 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡 is nothing but, 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 .
series of
𝑑𝑥
= 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 : Bessel
1 ��
𝐽𝑛 𝛽 2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑗(𝛽 sin
function
𝑠 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑐 𝑡 × 𝑒 𝑗𝛽
=
− 𝑡 𝐴𝑐 𝑅𝑒 sin 𝜔 𝑚 𝑡
𝜋 𝜋 𝑥−𝑛𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Frequency Domain Representation of Wide-
Band FM signals:
Our main purpose to
∞

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑐 ∑ 𝐶 𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛𝜔
study

𝐴𝑐 𝑅𝑒 𝑡 𝑛=−∞ 𝑡
∞ 𝑚

𝑠 𝑡 = ∑ 𝛽
𝐴𝑐 𝑅𝑒 𝑛𝐽
=−∞
𝑛
Take the real part 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔 𝑐 +𝑛𝜔 𝑚 )𝑡
∞ 𝑠 𝑡 = ∑ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽
𝐴𝑐 cos(𝜔𝑐 +𝑛𝜔𝑚 )𝑡 ….
(𝑎)is the Fourier series representation of the
𝑛=−∞
The above equation
single tone FM wave. Applying the Fourier transform Eq. (a)
∞
𝐴
∑ 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚
𝑆 𝑓 =𝑐
2 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚
𝐽𝑛 .
𝛽
𝑛=−∞
Frequency Domain Representation of Wide-
Band FM signals:
∞
𝐴
𝑆 = ∑ 𝐽𝑛 𝛽𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 +𝛿 𝑓
𝑓 2
𝑐

Although 𝑛+∈𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚 … … (𝑏)−∞ 𝑡𝑜 ∞ , a realistic value

𝑛=−∞is those frequency (𝑓 + 𝑛𝑓 ) for
𝑐 𝑚
which 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 is significant.
of BW of Fm signal

The spectrum 𝑆 𝑓 is shown in Fig. b. The above equation

indicates the following:

(𝑓𝑐 + 𝑛𝑓𝑚).
(i) FM signal has infinite number of side bands at frequencies

value of 𝐽𝑛 𝛽 .
(ii)Relative amplitudes of all the spectral lines depends on the

modulation index (𝛽). With (𝛽 <<1), only 𝐽0 𝛽and 𝐽1 𝛽

(iii)The number of significant side bands depends on the

are significant. But for (𝛽 >>1), many sidebands exists.

Fig. Magnitude
Spectrum of Wide
Band FM Wave.
Generation of FM Waves
Generation of FM Waves
𝑠1 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 +
𝑡 𝜙1(𝑡) .
A frequency modulated wave is
𝑡
Where 𝜙1 𝑡 = ∫0 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡…….(1)
defined as

2𝜋𝑘𝑓
𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 cos 𝜙1 𝑡 − 𝐴𝑐
sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 sin 𝜙1 𝑡.
Assuming 𝜙1 𝑡 is small, then using cos = 1 and sin 𝜙1 = 𝜙1 𝑡
𝜙1 𝑡 𝑡 .
𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
− 𝐴𝑐 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) 𝜙1 𝑡
… … (2)

𝑡
Substitute Eq.𝑠1(1)𝑡 in Eq.
= (2)
𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 −
2𝜋𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑐 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) ∫ 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 .
0
Generation of FM Waves
𝑡
𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑐
sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) ∫ 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 .
0

Figure 1: Scheme
to generate
narrow band FM
wave.

The above equation defines a narrow band FM wave. The

generation scheme of such a narrow band FM wave is shown in the
Fig. 1. The scaling factor, (2𝜋𝑘𝑓) is taken care of by the product
modulator. The part of the FM modulator shown inside the dotted
lines represents a narrow-band phase modulator. The narrow band FM
wave, thus generated will have some higher order harmonic

restricting the modulation index to 𝛽 < 0.5.

distortions. This distortion can be limited to negligible levels by
Generation of WBFM by Armstrong’s
Method OR Indirect Method:
 Armstrong method is an indirect method of FM generation. It is
used to generate FM signal having both the desired frequency
deviation and the carrier frequency.
 In this method, two-stage frequency multiplier and an
intermediate stage
of frequency translator is used.
• The first multiplier converts a narrow band FM signal into a
wide band signal.
• The frequency translator, consisting of a mixer and a crystal
controlled oscillator shifts the wide band signal to higher or lower
frequency band.
• The second multiplier then increases the frequency deviation
and at the same time increases the center frequency also.

Typical value 𝑓𝑐 = 91.2 𝑀𝐻𝑧, Δ𝑓 =

75 𝑘 𝐻𝑧
Generation of WBFM by Armstrong’s
Method OR Indirect Method:

Frequenc
y
translato
r

Select the value of 𝛽 < 0.5 for the narrow band phase modulator. This
value limits the harmonic distortion by NBFM to minimum
Frequency Translator (mixer & oscillator) will not change the frequency
deviation, it
only shifts the FM signal to either upwards and downwards in the
Generation of WBFM using Direct Method:
In direct method of FM generation, the instantaneous frequency of
the carrier wave is directly varied in accordance with the message
voltageby
signal controlled
means of a

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
oscillator.
 Use Hartley or colpitt
Methods
oscillators. + 𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 …
(1)
𝜔𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝜔𝑐𝑡 +
 Schmitt trigger circuit.

𝑘𝑓𝑚(𝑡)
 Using a saturable core
reactor, where the
inductance of a coil is
varied by a current through
a second coil. The i controlled by
oscillator
incremental variatio
s theof the
components n the
in
oscillator. A Hartley
tankOscillator
reactive
can be
used circuit
for this purpose. of
the

Hartley
Generation of WBFM using Direct Method:

Hartley oscillator

The capacitive component of the tank circuit consists of a fixed

capacitor shunted by a voltage-variable capacitor. The resulting
capacitance is represented by C(t) in the figure. The voltage
variable capacitor commonly called as varactor or varicap, is one
whose capacitance depends on the voltage applied across its
electrodes.
The varactor diode in the reverse bias condition can be used as a
voltage variable capacitor. The larger the voltage applied across
the diode/transistor, the smaller the transition capacitance of the
diode.
Generation of WBFM using Direct Method:
The frequency of oscillation of the Hartley oscillator is
given by:
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 = 1 …..
(1) 2𝜋 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 𝑐(𝑡)
Where the 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are the inductances in the tank
circuit and the total capacitance, 𝑐(𝑡) is the fixed capacitor and
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑐 0 + Δ𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
by
voltage variable capacitor and given

𝑐0 is the total capacitance in…the

. . (2)
:

i.e. 𝑓𝑚 = 0 Δ𝑐 is maximum change in capacitance.

absence of modulation

1
Substituting Eq. (2) in Eq. (1), we get
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 =
2𝜋 𝐿1 𝑐0 + Δ𝑐 cos
+ 𝐿2 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡 1
𝑓𝑖 𝑡
= 2𝜋 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 𝒄𝟎 𝑐0 1+
Δ𝑐 −1/
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓0 1 + Δ𝑐
cos cos
2 ,2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡
=
𝑚 0
𝑡
1
2𝜋𝑓 𝑡
𝑐0

𝑓
where
2𝜋
Generation of WBFM using Direct Method:
−1/2
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓0 1 +Δ𝑐
cos 𝑚 ,
𝑡 2𝜋𝑓 𝑡
𝑐0

Δ
.
≅ 𝑓0 1 −𝑐 0 cos
2𝑐
2𝜋𝑓the
Thus 𝑚𝑡 instantaneous frequency 𝑓𝑖 𝑡 is

defined as: 𝑓 𝑡 ≅ 𝑓 + ∆𝑓 cos

𝑖 0
2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑡
. by:
with Δ𝑐 is given
The term,∆𝑓 represents the frequency deviation and the relation
∆𝑐
2Δ𝑓0
=−
𝑓
𝑐 .0
Thus the output of the oscillator will be an
FM wave
Demodulation of FM Waves
Figure 1 shows the circuit diagram of a simple slope detector. When
frequency of the input signal increases, it becomes more close to the
resonant frequency, increasing the output voltage.
When frequency of the input signal decreases, it moves away from
the resonant frequency, decreasing the output voltage. Therefore,
frequency variation in the input signal about the carrier center
frequency produce proportional output variations as shown in Fig. 2.
The output voltage is applied to a diode detector with a RC load of
suitable time constant to get the original modulating signal.

Fig. 1Simple slop

detector Fig. 2Characteristic Dr.
ofPayal
slopVerma, DSU
Demodulation of FM Waves
Balanced Frequency discriminator Or
Balanced slope detector
Ideal slope circuit is characterized by an imaginary transfer
function, varying
linearly with frequency inside a prescribed interval.

(a
)

(b
)
Balanced Frequency discriminator Or
Balanced slope detector
The balanced slope detector consists of two slope detector circuits.
The input transformer has a center tapped secondary. Hence the input
voltages to the two slope detectors are 1800 out of.

The primary is tuned phase to IF i.e. 𝑓𝑐.

• The upper tuned circuit of secondary (T1) is tuned above 𝑓𝑐 by Δ𝑓

i.e. its resonant frequency is 𝑓𝑐 + Δ𝑓.

• The lower tuned circuit of the secondary (T2) is tuned below 𝑓𝑐 by

Δ𝑓 i.e. its
resonant frequency is 𝑓𝑐 − Δ𝑓.

• R1C1 & R2C2 are the filter circuits, V01 & V02 are the output voltages of
two slope detectors. The final output voltage V0 is obtained by
taking the difference of the individual output voltage V01 & V02
V0 = V01 - V02.
Balanced Frequency discriminator Or
Balanced slope detector

(c) frequency
response.
Balanced Frequency discriminator Or
Balanced slope detector
Balanced Frequency discriminator Or
Balanced slope detector
Operation of the circuit:
The operation of the circuit we can understand by dividing the input
frequency

𝑓𝑖𝑛 = 𝑓𝑐
into three ranges as follow:

When input frequency is equal to carrier frequency ‘𝑓𝑐’, the induced

voltage in
the T1 winding of secondary is exactly equal to that induced in the
winding T2. Thus the output voltages to both the diodes D1 & D2
>
will be same. The dc output voltages V01 & V02 will also be identical
𝑓𝑖 hence V0 = 0V.
𝑓𝑐
but they have opposite polarities
𝑛
When input frequency is greater than ‘𝑓𝑐’, the induce voltage in ‘T1’
winding is higher than that induced in ‘T2’, Therefore input to D1 is
higher than D2. So +ve output V01 (of D1) is higher than the –ve
output V02 (of D2).
Thus output voltage V0 is positive. (The +ve output voltage
increases as the
Balanced Frequency discriminator Or
Balanced slope detector
𝑓𝑖𝑛 < 𝑓𝑐
When input frequency is less than ‘𝑓𝑐’, the induced voltage in T2
winding is higher than in T1, so input voltage to diode D2 is higher
than that of D1. Hence the –ve output “V02” is greater than V01.
Therefore the output voltage of the balanced slope detector is –ve

0, 𝑓𝑖 𝑛 = 𝑓𝑐
in this frequency range.

𝑉0 = { +𝑣𝑒, 𝑓𝑖𝑛 > 𝑓𝑐

−𝑣𝑒, 𝑓𝑖𝑛 < 𝑓𝑐

Advantages:
• This circuit is more efficient than simple
slope detector.
• It has better linearity than the than the
simple slope detector.
Disadvantages:
• This circuit is difficult to tune, since the
three tuned circuits are to be tuned at
Zero Crossing Detector:
signal m(𝑡); it can be recovered from the knowledge of 𝑛0. A
Thus the instantaneous frequency is linearly related to the message

simplified block diagram of a zero crossing detector based on the

above principle is shown in the Fig.. The basic blocks are Limiter,
Pulse generator and Integrator. The Limiter produces a square wave
version of the input FM wave. The Pulse generator produces pulses at
the positive going edges and negative going edges of the limiter
output. The Integrator performs the averaging over the interval ‘T’
and hence produces the message signal.
Advantages of Angle Modulation over
AM-
1. All transmitted power in FM is useful, while in
thetransmitted
AM power most
is in carrier
of thewhich contains no information.

2. The amplitude of FM is constant which makes it independent of the

modulation deption, while in AM modulation depth directs the
transmitted power.

3. Noise in FM is reduced to a large extent by employing amplitude

limiters to remove the amplitude variations caused by noise.
However these amplitude limiters cannot be used in AM as
information is contained in the amplitude variations of the signal.
Thus FM reception is immune to noise than AM reception.

4. The noise in FM can be further reduced by increasing the

deviation, which
is not in AM.

Dr. Payal Verma, DSU

Advantages of Angle Modulation over
AM-
5.In FM if there are two or more signals received at the same
frequency, the FM receiver will capture the stronger signal and
eliminate the weaker signal. However in AM if there are two more
signals received at the same frequency, then both will be
demodulated which can lead to interference.

6.FM broadcast operates in the upper VHF and UHF range, where
noise effects are minimal. While on the other hand AM broadcast
operates in the medium frequency (MF) and high frequency (HF)
which are easily affected due to noise.
Disadvantages of Angle Modulation
over AM-
1. FM has infinite number of sidebands, while there are only
two sidebands in AM.
2. The channel bandwidth in FM is much higher, up to 10
times as that of AM, whereas AM has narrow channel
bandwidth which is 2𝑓𝑚.
3. The design of FM transmitter and receiver is relatively
complex for the modulation and demodulation purpose as
compared to AM transmitter and receiver
4. FM transmission and reception equipment is expensive as
the circuitry is complex as compared to AM equipments
which are inexpensive and relatively simple.
5. In FM since the reception is limited to line of sight, the
area of
reception for FM is much smaller than for AM.
Dr. Payal Verma, DSU
Radio Transmitter
Radio Frequency (RF) transmitter is an electronic system that
converts the information signal into RF signal capable of
propagation over long distances.
Classification of Transmitter
The radio transmitters may be classified according to the
type of
modulation used.
The analog transmitters include amplitude modulation
transmitters, frequency modulation transmitters, and pulse
modulation transmitters.

The pulse modulation transmitters include those based on

pulse amplitude modulation, pulse width modulation, and
pulse position modulation.
AM Transmitter

70
 AM Transmitter
The carrier signal from the frequency synthesizer is first raised to a high
power level before being modulated. This is achieved by operating the RF
power amplifiers (Driver) in class C mode for maximum efficiency.
The role of the buffer amplifier is to isolate the frequency synthesizer from the
power amplifier stages.
In case the desired carrier frequency is more than what the frequency
synthesizer can produce, frequency multipliers can be inserted between the
buffer amplifier and driver amplifiers.
In a high-level AM transmitter, the modulating signal varies the amplitude of
the carrier by supplying to the final power amplifier, a time-varying signal
that is in series with the power supply voltage.

This is in contrast to low-level modulation where the carrier is modulated at a

lower power level and then raised to the desired level by using linear (but
less efficient) class A amplifiers or class B push-pull amplifiers. The low-level
has the advantage that the carrier can be fully modulated using a relatively
small amount of the modulating signal.

71
Dr. Payal Verma, DSU
 AM Transmitter
However, the disadvantages are that once the carrier is modulated, linear
chain of amplifiers has to be used.

The term baseband signal processing refers to operations like filtering and
amplitude control which can be performed on the modulating signal in order
to minimize the signal bandwidth and also to avoid over modulation.
FM Transmitter
 An FM signal can be generated either by the direct method or the
indirect (Armstrong) method. As we know direct FM may be
generated using varactor diode, a reactance modulator, or an
integrated circuit voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO).

 In the direct FM generation method, a narrowband FM signal is first

obtained using the integrator and a phase modulator. The NBFM
signal is then converted to WBFM using a chain of frequency
multipliers.

 The generated FM signal is then routed through power amplifiers

and an antenna impedance matching network for broadcasting. For
commercial FM radio broadcasting, the assigned carrier frequency
is within the range 88-108 MHz, with a transmission bandwidth of
200 kHz.
 Figure 1 shows the configuration of an FM transmitter using the
indirect method where the baseband signal is low-pass filtered
(integrated) and then applied to a phase modulator.
FM Transmitter
 FM Transmitter
 The carrier signal is obtained from a crystal oscillator that is isolated from
the rest of the system by a buffer amplifier. It constitutes one of the inputs
to a phase modulator.
 The other input is an amplified and pre-emphasized message signal. Since
the available crystal oscillators cannot generate frequencies in the
VHF/UHF range, the carrier frequency of the phase-modulated output is
only a fraction of the desired carrier frequency.
 The desired carrier frequency and the desired frequency deviation of 75
kHz are achieved by using one or more stages of frequency multipliers.
After frequency multiplication, the desired power level to drive the
antenna is achieved by using a driver amplifier and a power amplifier, both
operating in the class C mode for maximum efficiency.

75
Dr. Payal Verma, DSU
Tuned radio frequency
receiver

Simple logical receiver - Almost obsolete

• High sensitivity
• Used as fixed frequency receiver in special applications
• 2 or 3 RF amplifier stages – To select the desired frequency
– tuned
together – To amplify the desired signal
• Demodulated
• Audio amplifying stages
Tuned radio frequency
receiver

The definition of the tuned radio frequency, TRF receiver is a receiver where the tuning,
i.e. selectivity is provided by the radio frequency stages.In essence the simplest tuned
radio frequency receiver is a simple crystal set. Tuning is provided by a tuned coil /
capacitor combination, and then the signal is presented to a simple crystal or diode
detector where the amplitude modulated signal, in this case, is recovered. This is then
passed straight to the headphones.

As vacuum tube / thermionic vale technology developed, these devices were added

to provide more gain. Typically a TRF receiver would consist of three main sections:
 Tuned radio frequency stages: This consisted of one of more amplifying and tuning
stages. Early sets often had several stages, each proving some gain and selectivity.
 Signal detector: The detector enabled the audio from the amplitude modulation signal
to be extracted. It used a form of detection called envelope detection and used a
diode to rectify the signal.

 Audio amplifier: Audio stages to provide audio amplification were normally, but not
always included.
The tuned radio frequency receiver was popular in the 1920s as it provided sufficient
Disadvantages of TRF receiver

• Poor selectivity and low sensitivity in proportion to the

number of tuned amplifiers used.
• Selectivity requires narrow bandwidth, and narrow
bandwidth at a
high radio frequency implies high Q or many filter
sections.
• An additional problem for the TRF receiver is tuning
different frequencies. All the tuned circuits need to tune
together to the same frequency or track very closely.
Another problem to keep the narrow bandwidth tuning.
Keeping several tuned circuits aligned is difficult.
• The bandwidth of a tuned circuit doesn’t remain
constant and increases with the frequency increase.
Tuned radio frequency
receiver
 Tuned radio frequency
receiver

1. Poor selectivity at high frequencies – because of single tuned circuits –

difficult to use
several double tuned amplifiers in unison
Superheterodyne
receiver
A block diagram of a super heterodyne AM receiver
consists of antenna, an RF (radio frequency)
amplifier. A mixer, a local oscillator (LO), an IF
(intermediate frequency) amplifier, a detector, an
audio amplifier, a power amplifier, and a speaker.

Block diagram of a super

heterodyne
Superheterodyne
receiver
Antenna
The antenna picks up all radiated signals and feeds them into The RF
amplifier. These signals are very small (usually only a few
microvolts).

RF Amplifier
This circuit can be adjusted (tuned) to select and amplify any
carrier frequency within the AM broadcast band. Only the selected
frequency and its two side bands pass through the amplifier.
Superheterodyne
receiver
Local Oscillator
This circuit generates a steady sine wave at a frequency 455 kHz
above the selected RF frequency.

Mixer
This circuit accepts two inputs, the amplitude modulated RF signal
from the output of he RF amplifier (or the antenna when there is no
RF amplifier) and the sinusoidal output of local oscillator (LO). These
two signals are then “mixed” by a nonlinear process called
heterodyning to produce sum and difference frequencies.

For example, if the RF carrier has a frequency of 1000 kHz, the LO

frequency is 1455 kHz and the sum and difference frequencies out
of the mixer are 2455kHz and 455 kHz. The difference frequency is
always 455 kHZ no matter what the RF carrier frequency.
Superheterodyne
receiver
IF Amplifier
The input to the IF amplifier is the 455 kHz AM signal. The IF
amplifier significantly increases the level of this signal.

Detector
The circuit recovers the modulating signal (audio signal) from the
455 kHz IF. At this point the IF is no longer needed, so the output
of the detector consist of only audio signal.

Audio and power amplifier

This circuit amplifies the detected audio signal and drives the
speaker to
produce sound.
Superheterodyne
receiver
Superheterodyne
receiver
Superheterodyne
receiver
 Tuned radio frequency
receiver
Advantage
• Simple to design and align at AM broadcast frequencies (540KHz - 1650KHz)

Drawbacks

1. Instability – associated with high gain being achieved at one frequency by

multistage amplifier • Example – with a gain of 40000, a small fraction say
1/40000 of the output of the last stage may fed back to the input of the
first stage and produce oscillations at the frequency at which the polarity
of this spurious feedback is positive • Unavoidable
2. Poor selectivity at high frequencies – because of single tuned circuits –
difficult to
use several double tuned amplifiers in unison
3. Bandwidth variation over the tuning range
4. Insufficient adjacent frequency rejection - For a BW of 10KHz – At the lower
end of the band: Q=f/BW = 535/10 = 53.5. At the other end of the band:
Q = 1640/10 = 164.
– not possible to achieve. Practical value of Q=120; Now BW =
1640/120 = 13.7
 AM and FM differences

(1) One difference between the two radio functions are the frequencies received and
the
detection systems.

Specificatio
ns AM FM

Frequency
Range 540 to 1600 KHz 88 to 108 MHz

IF
Frequency 455 KHz 10.7 MHz
 Introduction
Noise is unwanted signal that affects wanted signal
Noise is random signal that exists in communication
system Noise
 Internal
 External
Internal:
 It is due to random movement of electrons in
electronic circuits
 Major sources are resistors, diodes, transistors
etc.
 Thermal noise or Johnson noise and shot noise
are examples.
External
 Man-made and natural resources. 9
3
 Introduction
Noise level in system is proportional to
 Temperature and bandwidth
 Amount of current
 Gain of circuit
 Resistance of circuit
Effect of noise
 Degrades system performance (Analog and digital)
 Receiver cannot distinguish signal from noise
 Efficiency of communication system reduces.
Types of noise
 Thermal noise/ white noise/ Johnson noise or
fluctuation noise
 Shot noise
9
4
 Introduction
Thermal Noise: This noise is generated due to thermal motion
(Brownian motion) of electrons inside resistor. This noise is zero at
absolute zero degree Kelvin and generated when temperature
rises, also called thermal noise. Also called Johnson noise who
invented it.
Thermal noise also referred as “White noise” since it has uniform
spectral
density across the EM spectrum
PSD of thermal noise 𝑆𝑛(𝑓) is
𝑆𝑛 𝑓 =𝑘𝑇
2
4kTBR {Volts},
by 𝑁0
kT is denoted Vn,thermal 
(where k is Boltzman’s constant and T is temperature)
Then 𝑆
where k  Boltzmann’s constant,1.38(10-23 )
𝑛 = 2
𝑓
J/K, T  temperature (K),
𝑁0 B  bandwidth of system (Hz),
and9 R  resistance (Ohms).
5
Introduction

9
6
 Receiver Model
Figure 1 shows the receiver model
𝑠(𝑡) is the modulated signal and 𝜔(𝑡) is the noise signal. Signal 𝜔(𝑡)
is known as front end receiver noise.
The band pass filter in the model represents the combined filtering
action of the tuned amplifier used in the actual receiver for the
purpose of signal amplification prior to demodulation. {B.W of band
pass filter is kept wide enough to pass the modulated signal s(t)
without distortion}

Figure 1: Receiver
9
model 7
 Receiver Model
is the power spectraldensityof the noise 𝜔(𝑡) for both +ve and –
𝑁
02
ve
frequencies.
𝑁0 is the average noise power per unit B.W measured at the front
end of the receiver.
𝑓𝑐 ≫ 𝐵𝑇 ; {𝐵𝑇 transmission bandwidth of the modulated signal

𝑛 𝑡 =band
𝑛𝐼 (𝑡)noise
cos and
2𝜋𝑓it
𝑐 𝑡is defined
−
s(t) }. So the filter

𝑛𝑄 (𝑡) sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

noise n(t) as a narrow in the canonical
𝑥(𝑡) available
form by Filter
demodulation
signal is
for

𝑥 𝑡 noise = 𝑠 𝑡 averag
defined by

noise power per+

 Average

𝑛(𝑡)
power= e

×
transmission
unit B.W

= 𝑁0 𝐵𝑇
bandwidth

9
8
 Receiver Model
 Input signal to noise ratio is

𝑺𝑵
given by
�= 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝑨𝒗𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅
𝑹 �𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍
𝒏(𝒕) 𝒔(𝒕)
Receiver
Output
 Output signal to noise ratio is

𝑺𝑵
given by
� = 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝑨𝒗𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝑹 � 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍
𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆
 The channel signal to noise ratio is

𝑺𝑵𝑹�
given by
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝑨𝒗𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒈𝒆
= 𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒕𝒉
Receiver
�
Output

𝑺𝑵𝑹
 Figure of representing the

=
performance or
𝑺𝑵𝑹
merit
efficiency of a
𝑶
given device,
𝑪9
9
Noise in AM Receiver using envelope Detection

AM wave is expressed as 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝐾𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 is the carrier wave
𝑚(𝑡) is the modulating signal and 𝐾𝑎 is a constant that determines the
Average power in the modulated message signal 𝑠 𝑡𝑐 as 𝐴2 1 + 𝐾 2 𝑃 /2, where 𝑃 is the average power of the
𝑎
modulation index.
signa
original modulating
Noise in AM Receiver using envelope
Detection
Noise in AM Receiver using envelope
Detection
Noise in AM Receiver using envelope
Detection
Assume Message
signal
is sinusoidal signal
Noise in FM Receiver
Noise in FM Receiver
Noise in FM Receiver
Noise in FM Receiver

NBFM