Computer Networks

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 Data Link Layer
 The two main functions of the data link layer are data link
control and media access control.

 The first, data link control, deals with the design and
procedures for communication between two adjacent nodes:
node to node communication.

 The second function of the data link layer is media access

control, or how to share link.

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 2

McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer
 Framing
 The data link layer needs to pack bits into frames, so that
each frame is distinguishable from another.

 Our postal system practices a type of framing. The simple

act of inserting a letter into an envelope separates one piece
of information from another; the envelope serves as the
delimiter.
 Types:
 Fixed Size Faming
 Variable-Size Framing
Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 3
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Faming
 Variable-Size Framing
 Character-oriented Protocols
 Bit-oriented Protocols

Character-oriented Protocols:

Figure 1 A frame in a character-oriented protocol

Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition, 4

McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Faming
 Variable-Size Framing: Character-oriented Protocols

Figure 2 Byte stuffing and unstuffing

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Faming
 Variable-Size Framing: Character-oriented Protocols

Byte stuffing is the process of adding 1 extra byte whenever

there is a flag or escape character in the text.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Faming
 Variable-Size Framing: Bit-oriented Protocols

Figure 3 A frame in a bit-oriented protocol

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Faming
 Variable-Size Framing: Bit-oriented Protocols

Bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0 whenever

five consecutive 1s follow a 0 in the data, so that the receiver
does not mistake the pattern 0111110 for a flag.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Faming
 Variable-Size Framing: Bit-oriented Protocols

Figure 4 Bit stuffing and unstuffing

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer
 Flow and Error Control:
 The most important responsibilities of the data link layer
are flow control and error control. Collectively, these
functions are known as data link control.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer
 Flow and Error Control: Flow Control

Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the

amount of data that the sender can send before waiting for
acknowledgment.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer
 Flow and Error Control: Error Control

Error control in the data link layer is based on automatic

repeat request (ARQ), which is the retransmission of data.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer
 Protocols:
 Now let us see how the data link layer can combine
framing, flow control, and error control to achieve the
delivery of data from one node to another.

 The protocols are normally implemented in software by

using one of the common programming languages.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer
 Protocols:

Figure 5 Taxonomy of protocols for flow and error control

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer
 Protocols: Noiseless Channels
 Let us first assume we have an ideal channel in which no
frames are lost, duplicated, or corrupted.
 We introduce two protocols for this type of channel.
 Simplest Protocol

 Stop-and-Wait Protocol

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Protocols
 Simplest Protocol:

Figure 6 The design of the simplest protocol with no flow or error control
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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Protocols
 Simplest Protocol:

Algorithm 1 Sender-site algorithm for the simplest protocol

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Protocols
 Simplest Protocol:

Algorithm 2 Receiver-site algorithm for the simplest protocol

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Protocols
 Simplest Protocol: Example

Figure 7 Flow diagram

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Protocols
 Stop-and-wait Protocol:

Figure 8 Design of Stop-and-Wait Protocol

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Protocols
 Stop-and-wait Protocol:

Algorithm 3 Sender-site algorithm for Stop-and-Wait Protocol

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Protocols
 Stop-and-wait Protocol:

Algorithm 4 Receiver-site algorithm for Stop-and-Wait Protocol

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
Data Link Layer: Stop-and-wait Protocol
Figure 9 shows an example of communication using this protocol. It is still
very simple. The sender sends one frame and waits for feedback from the
receiver. When the ACK arrives, the sender sends the next frame. Note that
sending two frames in the protocol involves the sender in four events and the
receiver in two events.

Figure 9 Flow diagram

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer
 Protocols: Noisy Channels
 Although the Stop-and-Wait Protocol gives us an idea of
how to add flow control to its predecessor, noiseless
channels are nonexistent.
 We discuss three protocols in this section that use error
control.
 Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request

Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request

Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer
 Protocols: Noisy Channels

Error correction in Stop-and-Wait ARQ is done by keeping a copy of the sent frame and

retransmitting of the frame when the timer expires.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer
 Protocols: Noisy Channels

In Stop-and-Wait ARQ, we use sequence numbers to number the frames. The sequence

numbers are based on modulo-2 arithmetic.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer
 Protocols: Noisy Channels

In Stop-and-Wait ARQ, the acknowledgment number always announces in modulo-2

arithmetic the sequence number of the next frame expected.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Noisy Channels

Figure 10 Design of the Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Noisy Channels

 Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol: Example 3

 Figure 11 shows an example of Stop-and-Wait ARQ.
 Frame 0 is sent and acknowledged. Frame 1 is lost and
resent after the time-out.
 The resent frame 1 is acknowledged and the timer stops.
 Frame 0 is sent and acknowledged, but the
acknowledgment is lost.
 The sender has no idea if the frame or the acknowledgment
is lost, so after the time-out, it resends frame 0, which is
acknowledged.
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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Data Link Layer: Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol

 : Example

Figure 11 Flow diagram of example 3

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol: Example 4
 Assume that, in a Stop-and-Wait ARQ system, the
bandwidth of the line is 1 Mbps, and 1 bit takes 20 ms to
make a round trip. What is the bandwidth-delay product? If
the system data frames are 1000 bits in length, what is the
utilization percentage of the link?

Solution:
 The bandwidth-delay product is

(1×)× (20×) = 20, 000 bits

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol: Example 4
 The system can send 20,000 bits during the time it takes for
the data to go from the sender to the receiver and then back
again.

 However, the system sends only 1000 bits.

 We can say that the link utilization is only 1000/20,000, or

5 percent. For this reason, for a link with a high bandwidth
or long delay, the use of Stop-and-Wait ARQ wastes the
capacity of the link.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol: Example 5

 What is the utilization percentage of the link in Example 4 if we have a protocol that can send up to 15
frames before stopping and worrying about the acknowledgments?

Solution:
 The bandwidth-delay product is still 20,000 bits. The system can send up to 15 frames or 15,000 bits
during a round trip.

 This means the utilization is 15,000/20,000, or 75 percent. Of course, if there are damaged frames, the
utilization percentage is much less because frames have to be resent.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request protocol

Figure 12 Send window for Go-Back-N ARQ

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
protocol

m
The send window is an abstract concept defining an imaginary box of size 2 − 1 with

three variables: Sf, Sn, and Ssize.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
protocol

The send window can slide one

or more slots when a valid acknowledgment arrives.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
protocol

Figure 13: Receive window for Go-Back-N ARQ

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request
protocol

The receive window is an abstract concept defining an imaginary box of size 1 with one

single variable Rn. The window slides when a correct frame has arrived; sliding occurs

one slot at a time.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request protocol

Figure 14: Design of Go-Back-N ARQ

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request protocol

Figure 15: Window size for Go-Back-N ARQ

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request protocol

m
In Go-Back-N ARQ, the size of the send window must be less than 2 ; the size of the

receiver window is always 1.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request protocol: Example 6

Figure 16 Flow diagram for Example 6

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request protocol: Example 6

 Figure 16 shows an example of Go-Back-N. This is an example of a case

where the forward channel is reliable, but the reverse is not.

 No data frames are lost, but some ACKs are delayed and one is lost. The
example also shows how cumulative acknowledgments can help if
acknowledgments are delayed or lost.

 After initialization, there are seven sender events. Request events are
triggered by data from the network layer; arrival events are triggered by
acknowledgments from the physical layer.

 There is no time-out event here because all outstanding frames are

acknowledged before the timer expires. Note that although ACK 2 is lost,
ACK 3 serves as both ACK 2 and ACK 3.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request protocol: Example 7

Figure 17 Flow diagram for Example 7

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request protocol: Example 7
 Figure 17 shows what happens when a frame is lost. Frames 0, 1, 2, and 3 are sent.
 However, frame 1 is lost. The receiver receives frames 2 and 3, but they are discarded because they are received out of order.

 The sender receives no acknowledgment about frames 1, 2, or 3. Its timer finally expires.

 The sender sends all outstanding frames (1, 2, and 3) because it does not know what is wrong. Note that the resending of frames 1, 2, and

3 is the response to one single event.

 When the sender is responding to this event, it cannot accept the triggering of other events. This means that when ACK 2 arrives, the

sender is still busy with sending frame 3.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request protocol: Example 7
 The physical layer must wait until this event is completed and the data link layer goes back to its sleeping state.

 We have shown a vertical line to indicate the delay. It is the same story with ACK 3; but when ACK 3 arrives, the sender is busy

responding to ACK 2.

 It happens again when ACK 4 arrives.

 Note that before the second timer expires, all outstanding frames have been sent and the timer is stopped.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request protocol

Stop-and-Wait ARQ is a special case of Go-Back-N ARQ in which the size of the send

window is 1.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Selective Repeat ARQ

Figure 18: Send window for Selective Repeat ARQ

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Selective Repeat ARQ

Figure 19: Receive window for Selective Repeat ARQ

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Selective Repeat ARQ

Figure 20: Design of Selective Repeat ARQ

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Selective Repeat ARQ

Figure 21 Selective Repeat ARQ, window size

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Selective Repeat ARQ

In Selective Repeat ARQ, the size of the sender and receiver window must be at most one-
m
half of 2 .

52
Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Selective Repeat ARQ

Figure 22: Delivery of data in Selective Repeat ARQ

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Selective Repeat ARQ: Example 8

Figure 23 Flow diagram for Example 8

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Selective Repeat ARQ: Example 8
 This example is similar to Example 3 in which frame 1 is lost. We show
how Selective Repeat behaves in this case. Figure 23 shows the situation.

 One main difference is the number of timers. Here, each frame sent or
resent needs a timer, which means that the timers need to be numbered (0,
1, 2, and 3).

 The timer for frame 0 starts at the first request, but stops when the ACK for
this frame arrives.

 The timer for frame 1 starts at the second request, restarts when a NAK
arrives, and finally stops when the last ACK arrives. The other two timers
start when the corresponding frames are sent and stop at the last arrival
event.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Selective Repeat ARQ: Example 8
 At the receiver site we need to distinguish between the acceptance of a
frame and its delivery to the network layer.

 At the second arrival, frame 2 arrives and is stored and marked, but it
cannot be delivered because frame 1 is missing.

 At the next arrival, frame 3 arrives and is marked and stored, but still none
of the frames can be delivered. Only at the last arrival, when finally a copy
of frame 1 arrives, can frames 1, 2, and 3 be delivered to the network layer.

 There are two conditions for the delivery of frames to the network layer:
First, a set of consecutive frames must have arrived. Second, the set starts
from the beginning of the window.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Selective Repeat ARQ: Example 8
 Another important point is that a NAK is sent after the second arrival, but
not after the third, although both situations look the same.

 The reason is that the protocol does not want to crowd the network with
unnecessary NAKs and unnecessary resent frames.

 The second NAK would still be NAK1 to inform the sender to resend
frame 1 again; this has already been done. The first NAK sent is
remembered (using the nakSent variable) and is not sent again until the
frame slides.

 A NAK is sent once for each window position and defines the first slot in
the window.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Selective Repeat ARQ: Example 8
 The next point is about the ACKs. Notice that only two ACKs are sent
here.

 The first one acknowledges only the first frame; the second one
acknowledges three frames.

 In Selective Repeat, ACKs are sent when data are delivered to the network
layer. If the data belonging to n frames are delivered in one shot, only one
ACK is sent for all of them.

58
Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 Piggybacking in Go-Back-N ARQ

Figure 24 Design of piggybacking in Go-Back-N ARQ

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 HDLS
 High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-
oriented protocol for communication over point-to-
point and multipoint links. It implements the ARQ
mechanisms.

 Configurations and Transfer Modes

 Frames
 Control Field

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 HDLS: High-level Data Link Control
 Configurations and Transfer Modes

Figure 25 Normal response mode

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 HDLS: High-level Data Link Control
 Configurations and Transfer Modes

Figure 26 Asynchronous balanced mode

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 HDLS Frames
 HDLS Frames: Information Frames, Supervisory Frames, and
Unnumbered frames

Figure 27 HDLC frames

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 HDLS Frames

Figure 28 Control field format for the different frame types,

Where P/F are Pall or final, N(S)- sequence no, N(R)-ACK no.

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL
 Although HDLC is a general protocol that can be used for
both point-to-point and multipoint configurations, one of
the most common protocols for point-to-point access is
the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP).

 PPP is a byte-oriented protocol.

 Framing
 Transition Phases
 Multiplexing
 Multilink PPP

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL: Framing

Figure 29: PPP frame format

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL

PPP is a byte-oriented protocol using byte stuffing with the escape byte 01111101.

67
Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL

Figure 30 Transition phases

68
Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL

Figure 31 Multiplexing in PPP

69
Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL

Figure 32: LCP packet encapsulated in a frame

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 POINT-TO-POINT PROTOCOL

Figure 33: Multilink PPP

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Source: Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking” Fourth Edition,
McGraw Hill Education(India).
 References
 Behrouz A Forouzan, “Data Communications and
Networking” Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill Education(India).

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