UNIT THREE

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS AND STATES

FORMATION IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

 3.1. Emergence of States

 One important factor for the emergence of
states was the beginning of sedentary
agriculture.
 Peoples had to descend from mountainsides
to build houses near cultivated plots fencing
both farming fields and residences, and
harvested crops,
 Families preferred to live together forming
larger communities for better security and
to help each other in hard works.
 Gradually, intermediaries (traders) also
began to buy the products of both to take to
predetermined places or markets for
exchange
 Therefore, states were formed mainly
through the expansion of agriculture that
gave rise to the class differentiation.
 Furthermore, the growth of trade facilitated
the development of states.
 State refers to an autonomous political unit
having population, defined territory,
 State was the outcome of regular cultural
process. In this regard, it should be
emphasized that, states arose
independently in different places and at
different times.
 The first states were theocratic states and

priests
(shaman) maintained the social and religious
affairs of their people.
As production became market oriented, the
priests were gradually replaced by
 Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions
in Africa, where early state formation took
place.
 Such states gradually developed into
powerful kingdoms and even empires with a
well-demarcated social structure.
 Geographical proximity to and control of the
international water bodies like Red Sea, Gulf
of Aden and Indian Ocean along with their
ports as well as rich interior favored some of
them to become stronger than their
neighbors and eventually dominated them.
3.2. Ancient States

 3.2.1. North and Northeast

 A. Punt
 Punt was the earliest recorded state in
Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The evidence on Punt comes from
Egyptian hieroglyphic writings,
accompanied by vivid paintings; tell of a
series of naval expeditions, which the
Egyptian Pharaohs sent to Punt.
 Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.) sent
expedition to collect myrrh, ebony and
 The best known expedition was the one
undertaken by the order of the famous
Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468
B.C.), whose expedition is documented at
her tomb in Dier El Bahri.
 She sent five ships under the leadership
of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi.
 The expedition was warmly welcomed by
the Puntites King Perehu.
 The expedition was able to return
collecting frank incense, cinnamon,
sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices,
ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and
leopard skins, ostrich feathers and egg,
live monkeys, giraffes, people.
 Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals
fur, dying and medicinal plants were also
exported from Punt to Egypt.
 Scholars have not reached agreement as
to the exact location of Punt.
 The varieties of incense and myrrh
mentioned in the writings have suggested
northern or northeastern Somalia to some
scholars while others are inclined more
towards Northern Ethiopia because of the
reference to gold, ebony and monkeys.
 The latter reinforces their guess arguing
that at that early period, Egyptian sailboats
might not have been strong enough to
pass through the Strait of Bab-el Mandeb
into the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean.
 Considering the two suggestions, still
some others argue that it was probably
stretched from Swakim or Massawa to
Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape
Gardafui.
 B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in
Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea

 The state known as Da’amat had a center a little

to the south of Aksum.
 Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively
dated to the fifth century BC shows that he used
politicoreligious title known as Mukarib.
 Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah
(principal god), Astater (Venus god), Na’uran
(light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon
god) were worshipped in the domain of the
Da’amat state and other northern Ethiopian pre-
Aksumite cultural centers.
 There were similar practices in South Arabia at
Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia

 Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast

of Aksum and was the oldest of these
centers.
 It probably emerged around 1, 000 BC as a
small emporium where South Arabian
merchants and their agents bought and stored
ivory, rhinoceros horn and other commodities
coming from the interior.
 Based on historical evidence Yeha reached its
zenith from about 750 to 500 B.C.
 Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast
of Aksum, where stone tablets that are
inscribed in rectangular temple surrounded by
a wall decorated with paintings representing
herds of cattle have been excavated.
 Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms
southwest of Aksum, from where a stone
slab is fetched and the oldest Ethiopian
monumental inscription is discovered.
 There were also other cultural centers like Addi
Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi
Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda
etc.
 C. The Aksumite State

 The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed

around 200-100 B.C.
 At the beginning, its power was limited to a
relatively small area comprising the town of Aksum
and its environs.
 Gradually, however, it expanded to include large
territories in all directions.
 In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended from
the Red Sea coast in the East to the Western edge
of Ethiopian plateau overlooking the vast Nile Valley
in the west and from the northern most corner of
Eritrea and possibly as far south as northern parts
of Shewa.
 According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis on
the western coast of the Red Sea was the major
port of Aksum.
 The long distance trade routes from Adulis and
other posts on the Red Sea coast passed inland
through such centers as Keskesse, Coloe, Matara
and even further west across Tekeze River.
 The document also mentioned ports of Aden
(Eudaemon) Gulf like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao
(Berbera), and Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts like
Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon (Brava) and Merca.
 The major items of export of the Aksumite
state
 ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and
 some spices (like ginger, cassia and cinnamon),
gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides,
 tortoise shells and some curiosity animals like
apes.
 Import items from Egypt, India, Roman
Empire, and Persia;
 Glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places;
metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil
and wine from Roman Empire and Syria were
 Zoscales (c. 76-89), the then king of Aksum, used
to communicate in Greek language, Lingua Franca
of Greco-Roman world.
 Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
and Laodicea (Asia Minor).
 The Adulis inscription written in Greek about an
unknown king, which eventually was published in
Cosmas Indicopleustes’ book, the Christian
Topography, describes commercial activities of
the Red Sea areas.
 It also mentions the internal long distance trade
between Aksum and a distant region called Sasu,
most probably in Beni Shangul and the adjoining
 They used silent trade .
 Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the
outside world notably with the South Arabian
region, leading to exchange of ideas, material and
spiritual culture.
 Sometimes such contacts involved conflicts
between the two regions.
 One of such known recorded conflict between
areas on both sides of the sea took place around
200 A.D.
 Peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula, in present
day Yemen, had difficulties in defending
themselves against the army of the Aksumite king,
 From the third to seventh centuries, Aksumite
kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana,
Ousanas II minted and issued different kinds of
coins in gold, silver and bronze for both overseas
and local transactions.
 Aksum was one of the four great powers of the
world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and
Aksum) at the time.
 It was a major naval and trading power from the
first to the seventh centuries.
 Aksumite ships were the main means of
transporting goods.
 Aksum was the only one with sufficient sources
of timber for shipbuilding and in those days,
the technology for it existed in Adulis.
 Aksum had a large fleet of ships, which was
used not only for trade but also for its wars
across the Red Sea.
 Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories
of Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba.
 Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas
territories of Aksum beyond Himyar and
Saba, but the local prince Dhu-Nuwas
was converted to Judaism, marched to
 Byzantine Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-65) with
sanctification of Patriarch Timit III (518-538)
provided Kaleb with a number of ships
transporting armies led by Julianos and Nonossus
against Dhu Nuwas.
 Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed
 Abraha as governor of Arabia that continued until
570 A. D.
 Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal
(535-48) who built church at Zur Amba in Gayint.
 It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed
Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical songs and
 The Decline of Axum

 The Aksumite state had begun to decline since

the late seventh century because of internal and
external challenges.
 Environmental degradation, decline in
agricultural productivity and possibly plague
infestation started to weaken it.
 With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the
Arabs around 702, the international lifeline of the
state was cut
 The network of Aksumite international trade
came under the control of the rising and
expanding Arab Muslims, and Aksumite state was
isolated from its old commercial and diplomatic
 This naturally led to the decline of its political
and military power not only on the Red Sea
coast but also in its interior provinces, where
Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local
rebellions
 The recurring rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw
and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally
sealed the collapse of the Aksumite state.
 As an advanced center of civilization, Aksum
had a profound impact upon the peoples of the
Horn of Africa and beyond, and on its
successors i. e. the Zagwe State, ‘Solomonic
Dynasty’, and the Gondarine period
Achievements of Axum

 Africa’s only surviving indigenous script

and calendar as well as EOTC hymns and
chants, paintings
 Diversified ceramic and lithic tools, ivory
curving, and urbanization and
sophisticated building traditions
(palaces, stele, rock-hewn churches…)
 Complex administrative and governance
system
 D. Zagwe Dynasty

 After the decline of Aksumite, its centre shifted

southwards to Kubar rural highland in the territory
of the Agaw, one of the ancient inhabitants of the
land between the Eritrean Plateau and Jema River,
and to the west up to the Blue Nile valleys.
 This gradualy gave the Agaw elites the
opportunity to take part in Aksumite state
structure serving as soldiers and functionaries for
at least four centuries.
 After integrating with the Aksumite ruling class,
they successfully took over the state
administration
 The Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married
Mesobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite
king Dil Na'od.
 Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took control
of power.
 Merra-Tekle-Haimanot's successors include
Yemrehanna Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211),
Ne'akuto Le'ab, Yetbarek etc.
 Notwithstanding the debates, the Zagwe Dynasty is
believed to have ruled from C. 1150 to 1270.
 The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna
District within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at Adafa
near Roha (Lalibela).
 The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended
from most of the highland provinces of the
ancient Aksumite kingdom in the north down to
northern Shewa in the south; the Lake Tana
region and the northern part of what is today
Gojjam in the west.
 The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite
traditions almost intact.
 Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact
with the astern Mediterranean region.
 The most important export items included slaves,
ivory and rare spices while cotton, linen, silver
and copper vessels, various types of drags and
 The Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's
paintings and the translation of some of religious
works from Arabic into Ge'ez.
 Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction
of cave, semi-hewn and monolithic churches
 Cave: with some decoration inside, almost
similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
 2. Semi-hewn: with detailed interior
decoration and partial decoration outside.
They are not totally separated from surrounding
rock. eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael,
Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-
 3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration
inside including roof and outside.
 They are completely separated (carved
out) from surrounding rock, eg. Bete
Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam
and Bete Medhanialem.
 They are called monolithic churches
because they are chiseled out of a single
rock.
 Among the eleven churches of Lalibela,
Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all
 The purpose of the construction of the rock hewn
churches in Lalibela is to establish the second
Jerusalem in Lasta , and mitigate or even avoid
difficulties, which Ethiopian Christians
encountered in journey to Holy Lands at least
once in their lifetime.
 This was done by constructing churches based on
the model of Holy Lands in Israel.
 The Zagwe Dynasty came to an end due to
internal problems of royal succession and
oppositions from groups claiming descent from
the ancient rulers of Aksum.
 The latter considered the Zagwe kings
 The legend was in turn based on a book known as
Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings).
 Based on the legend, the power claimants contend
that “Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite
state until its power was “usurped” by the
Zagwes.
 Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent
from the last Aksumite king Dilna’od, organized his
forces being assisted by the ecclesiastical
hierarchy and engaged the last king of Zagwe,
Yetbarek in battle.
 Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak
took the state power contending the “restoration”
 3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and
Western States

 A. Bizamo: This kingdom was located on the

southern bend of Abay River just opposite to
the present districts of Gojjam and around the
current Wambara area.
 It was founded in the eighth century and had
early connections with Damot.
 B. Damot: was strong kingdom that
expanded its territories into most of the
lands to south of Abay and north of Lake
Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of
Didessa.
 Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the
 C. Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe
region in southwestern Ethiopia.
 The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho
(Hinnario Busaso).
 In the 9th c , Aksumite king Digna-Jan had led a
campaign into Enarya, accompanied by
Orthodox Christian priests carrying arks of
covenant (tabots).
 Enarya kingship was a divine one: the king
(Hinnare-Tato) was secluded and considered as
sacred.
 He communicated visitors through an
intermediary, AfeBusho.
 D. Gafat

 Its territory lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River

adjoining Damot on the south western periphery of
the Christian Kingdom.
 It was inhabited by Semitic speaking population
related to Adere and the Gurage.
 It is not clear from available records whether the
Gafat formed a “state” or not, but Gafat mountains
provided a rich source of gold.
 The Gafat were largely practitioners of an indigenous
religion.
 Gafat was paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom
mainly in cattle.

 3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates
 After the spread of Islam since the beginning of 8th
c , many muslim communities and states had been
established along the main trade routes from Zeila
and its many branches penetrating the interior.
 A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who
claimed decent from Meca, set up Makhzumite
Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern
foothill of Shewa.
 B. Fatagar: was founded around Minjar,
Shenkora and Ada’a in the eleventh century.
 It was known for the cultivation of wheat and
barley, fruits and extensive grazing grounds of
cattle, sheep and goats.
 C. Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between
upper waters of Awash and Wabi- Shebelle
extending to Chercher in Northeast and Gindhir in
Southeast.
 Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying
high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle
and Rift valley Lakes.
 It was separated from Dawwaro by the Wabi-
Shebelle River and extended southwards to the
Gennale Dirre River.
 Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging
cattle, sheep, cloth etc.
 It had strong army composed of cavalry and
infantry.
 Ifat: It was located in the adjacent to Shewan
Sultanate.
 Its territory extended from northeast-
southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the
Awash.
 It was established by Umar Walasma, who
claimed decent from Hashamite clan and came
from Arabia between 1271 and 1285.
 The livelihood of ifat was based on the
cultivation of wheat, sorghum, millet and
teff, and animal husbandry.
 Sugar cane, bananas, variety of fruits,
beans, squashes, cucumbers, and cabbage
completed the diet.
 Chat was described for the first time as
being consumed as a stimulant.
 3.3. External Contacts

 Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt

since at least 3,000 B. C.
 These relations may be the region’s earliest
contacts with the Mediterranean world or the
Greco-Roman World.
 It had very close relations with all commercially
active South Arabian Kingdoms starting
sometimes before 1,000 B.C.
 The introduction of Christianity to Aksum
established a new pattern of relation between the
region and Egypt.
 Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt and the
 Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum
had established close relationship with the East
Roman or Byzantine Empire with which it shared
common commercial interest in the Red Sea area
against their rival Persians.
 In the 7th c, this relation became complicated and
began to deteriorate.
 The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs through
the Near and Middle East, North Africa and the Nile
valley led to the decline of Aksumite land routes
and shipping lines.
 Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers began to use
the consecration and sending of a bishop as an
 The coming to power of the Mamluk was followed by the
reciprocal persecution of religious minorities.
 Moreover, the Mamluk presented a barrier to the contacts
between Christian Ethiopia and European states.
 However, the tradition to visit Jerusalem and other Holy
places in the Middle East had begun at the end of the first
millennium AD.
 In order to arrive at Holy places, Ethiopian Christian
pilgrims used the land route to Egypt.
 Christian Communities living in different parts of the world
served as an important link or bridge between Ethiopian
Christian Kingdom and Europe. they transmitted
information about the EOTC and its exceptional liturgical
practices and territorial extent of the Christian Kingdom.
 From the information, the Europeans began to
consider Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very
powerful and wealthy state existing in the Horn of
Africa.
 Consequently, they wanted to use this imaginary
strong Christian power against the Muslim powers
in the Holy land.
 The middle of the 12th century, a myth about a
very rich and powerful Christian ruler known as
Prester John began to circulate in Europe.
 The legend was developed when the balance of
the crusade war fought over Jerusalem between
the Christians of Europe and the Muslims of the
 In 1165 A .D, a letter addressed to European
kings, thought to be sent by the Prester John
appeared in Europe mentioning about the
enormous power of the Prester John.
 The geographical location of the country of
Prester John was not known to Europe for over a
century.
 However, the Europeans began to regard
Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as the land of Prester
John since the only Christian kingdom between
the Red Sea and the Indian sub-continent was the
Ethiopian Christian Kingdom.
 Then, they began to search for the location of the
 3.4. Economic Formations

 A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System

 The main stay of ancient states' economy in
highland areas was plough agriculture.
 Land has always been one of the most precious
possessions of human society throughout history.
 The rules according to which members of the
society hold, share and use land constitute what is
known as the land tenure system.
 The most ancient system of land holding which
survived in many parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is
the communal land tenure system.
 Communal right to land is a group right. Here
group refers to the family, the clan and the
other lineage groups to which the individual
belonged.
 Each of these groups had communal right to
the land they lived in and freely exploited the
resources of the land.
 Peasants in the north had rist rights in their
respective areas.
 Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by
members of the families and clans whose
ancestors had settled and lived in the area
over long periods.
 It is inherited from generation to generation in
accordance to with customary law.
 All the subjects of the state had the rist rights.
 The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
 Tribute was collected through a complex hierarchy
of state functionaries or officials who were given
gult right over the areas and populations they
administered on behalf of the central government.
 Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’
produce.
 The tribute collected by bale-gults, partly
allotted for their own up keep and the rest
were sent to the imperial center.
 Gult right that became hereditary was called
Riste-Gult as famous wellplaced officials used
to transfer their position to their offspring
B. Handicraft

 Indigenous handcraft technology had existed

since the ancient period.
 The social, economic and political conditions of
ancient states had allowed the emergence of
artisans in various fields with diverse forms
and applications including metal work, pottery,
tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving,
jewellery, basketry and others.
 Metal work was also common
C. Trade

 Trade was another important economic activity

of ancient states that obtained considerable
income from both internal and international
trade.
 The major socio-economic and political centers
of earliest states seem to have also been major
trade centers with wide ranging contacts
coming to the area across the international
water bodies.
 A network of roads connected the centers with
the coast and various dependencies in the
interior.
 Local and international merchants frequented
3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements

 A. Architecture
 Architecture also began to flourish and one of
the unique architectural technologies was the
engraving of stele around the third century AD.
 There were totally fifty eight steles in and
around Aksum that can be grouped into well
made and decorated, half completed and
megaliths (not hewn).
 The steles were engraved specifically at
Gobodara from which they were transported
and planted in Aksum.
 The longest one of these stele measures 33
 It also bears pre-Christian symbols,
which are a disc and a crescent (half
moon) at the top.
 The second longest obelisk measures 24
meters height
 The third longest stele measures 21
meters
 Picture 2: The Second Longest Aksumite
 The Zagwe churches are regarded as
some of the finest architecture of artistic
achievements of the Christian world and
that is why they were registered by
UNESCO as part of world cultural
heritage in 1978
Picture 3: One of the Zagwe Churches (Bete Giyorgis)
 B. Writing System

 The Sabean language had an alphabet with

boustrophedon writing type that is paleographical
writing.
 Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the 9th c BC.
 One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions is
absence of vowels as most of the words are written
in consonants.
 For instance, Da’amat was described as D’mt’
 After the seventh and sixth centuries BC, however,
variants of script arose, evolving in the direction of
the Geʽez script (an alpha syllabary).
 This evolution can be seen most clearly in
 By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose,
an abjad (26 consonant letters only) written
left-to-right with letters identical to the first-
order forms of modern vocalized alphabet.
 Though the first completely vocalized texts
known are inscriptions by Ezana (who left
trilingual inscriptions in Greek, Sabean and
Ge'ez)c. 330 AD, vocalized letters predate him
by some years, as vocalized letter exists in
Wazeba’s coin.
 The process was developed under the
influence of Christian scripture by adding
vocalic diacritics for vowels, u, i, a, e, ə, o, to
the consonantal letters in a recognizable but
slightly irregular way, so that the system is laid
out as a syllabary.
 Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system
has immense contribution to the development
of literature, art and the writing of history.
 C. Calendar

 People needed to know and remember the times

when the rains would begin and end as wellas the
rise and fall of the water level.
 The responsibility of understanding these vital
climatic cycles fell on expertise. In due course,
calendars were invented.
 Calendars were developed and adopted among
various peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical
observations of moon in conjunction with
 seven or eight particular stars or group of stars
called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha
(morning star).
 The Sidama calendar rotates following
movements of stars with 13 months a year.
 Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days
plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years) Epagomenal
days, which comprise a thirteenth month.
 The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar
consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or
355 days.
 It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which
Mohammed and his followers made flight from
Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim
community (ummah).
D. Numerals

 Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the

Horn at the beginning of fourth century
AD.
 Geʽez uses numeral system comparable
to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek
numerals