What are Semiconductors?

• Semiconductors are the materials which

have a conductivity between conductors
and non-conductors or insulators .
• Resistivity: 10-5 to 106 Ωm
• Conductivity: 105 to 10-6 mho/m
• Temperature coefficient of
resistance: Negative
• Eg: Elemental form- Silicon and germanium
• Compound form-GaAs, CdS, InP etc.
Why are semiconductors?
• Semiconductors can conduct electricity
under preferable conditions or
circumstances. This unique property
makes it an excellent material to conduct
electricity in a controlled manner as
required.
• They consume low power, are small in
size, operate at low voltages and have a
long life and high reliability.
ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS
• The electrons in an atom are present in
different energy level. When we try to
assemble a lattice of a solid with N atoms,
then each level of an atom must split up
into N levels in the solid. This splitting up
of sharp and tightly packed energy levels
forms Energy Bands.
ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS
 In a free atom the energies of electrons can have only
some definite (quantized) values.
 If an atom belongs to a crystal, then the energy levels
are modified.
 This modification is not appreciable in the case of
energy levels of electrons in the inner shells (completely
filled).
 But in the outermost shells, modification is appreciable
because the electrons are shared by many neighbouring
atoms.
 Due to influence of high electric field between the core
of the atoms and the shared electrons, energy levels are
split-up or spread out forming energy bands.
Formation of Energy Bands in Solids:
Energy

Conduction
Band
•• 3p2
Forbidden Energy •• 3s2
Gap
Valence Band

•• •• •• 2p6 Ion
•• 2s2 core
state
•• 1s2

O a b c d Inter atomic spacing

(r)
 Formation of Energy Bands in
Solids:
(i) r = Od (>> Oa):
Each of N atoms has its own energy levels. The
energy levels are identical, sharp, discrete and
distinct.
(ii) Oc < r < Od:

There is no visible splitting of energy levels but

there develops a tendency for the splitting of
energy levels.
(iii) r = Oc:
The interaction between the outermost shell
electrons of neighbouring silicon atoms becomes
appreciable and the splitting of the energy levels
commences.
(iv) Ob < r < Oc:
The energy corresponding to the s and p levels of
each atom gets slightly changed. Corresponding to a
single s level of an isolated atom, we get 2N levels.
Similarly, there are 6N levels for a single p level of an
Formation of Energy Bands in Solids:

The collection of very closely spaced energy levels is

called an energy band.
(v) r = Ob:

The energy gap disappears completely. 8N levels

are distributed continuously. We can only say that
4N levels are filled and 4N levels are empty.
(vi) r = Oa:

The band of 4N filled energy levels is separated

from the band of 4N unfilled energy levels by an
energy gap called forbidden gap or energy gap or
band gap.
The lower completely filled band (with valence
electrons) is called the valence band and the upper
unfilled band is called the conduction band.
Valance Band & Conduction Band

• Valence and Conduction band are the two

different energy levels separated by a
certain amount of energy.
• The main difference between the valence
band and conduction band is that valence
band specifies the energy level of
electrons present in the valence shell of an
atomic structure.
• A conduction band holds those electrons
that are responsible for conduction.
Forbidden Energy Gap
• Forbidden energy gap, also known as
band gap refers to the energy
difference (eV) between the top energy
level of valence band and the bottom
energy level of the conduction band in
materials.

• Band gap in silicon and germanium is

1.11eV and 0.67eV respectively.
ENERGY BANDS OF METALS,
SEMICONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Charge carriers in Semiconductors:

• Holes and electrons are the types of

charge carriers accountable for the flow of
current in semiconductors.
• Holes are the positively charged electric
charge carrier whereas electrons are the
negatively charged particles. Both
electrons and holes are equal in magnitude
but opposite in polarity.
Types of Semiconductors

• Semiconductors can be classified as:

• Intrinsic Semiconductor is made to be
very pure chemically. It is made up of only
a single type of element.
• Eg: Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si).
• Extrinsic Semiconductor-A
semiconductor to which an impurity at
controlled rate is added to make it
conductive .
Intrinsic semiconductors

• The pure form of the semiconductor is known

as the intrinsic semiconductor.
• Electronic Configuration of Silicon and
Germanium
• Silicon --- 1s2 2s22p6 3s2 3p2
• Germanium ---
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p2
• Silicon and germanium are tetravalent.
Intrinsic semiconductors
• In its crystalline structure, Si and Ge tends
to share one of its valence electrons and
also take share of one electron from its
neighbour atoms.
Concept of hole:
• As temperature is increased, some of the
electrons break free and behave as
conduction electrons. This creates a
vacancy in the bond and creates a positive
charge also known as a hole.
Electrons and Holes:

• On receiving an additional energy, one of

the electrons from a covalent bond breaks
and is free to move in the crystal lattice.
• While coming out of the covalent bond, it
leaves behind a vacancy named ‘hole’.
• An electron from the neighbouring atom can
break away from the bond and can come to
the place of the missing electron (or hole)
completing the covalent bond and creating
a hole at another place.
• The holes move randomly in a crystal
lattice.
Concept of hole:
• Semiconductors possess the unique
property that apart from electrons the
holes also move.
• These free electrons and holes contribute
to the conduction of electricity in the
semiconductor.
• The negative and positive charge carriers
are equal in number.
Concept of hole:
• A hole behaves as an apparent free charge similar
to an electron and contributes to conduction.
• Holes act as charge carriers in the sense that
electrons from nearby sites can move into the hole.
Intrinsic or Pure Semiconductor:
Valence
electrons
Covalent Bond
Ge Ge Ge Ge
Broken Covalent Bond

Free electron ( - )
Ge Ge Ge Ge Hole ( + )

Ge Ge Ge Ge C.
+ B

Eg 0.74 eV
Ge Ge Ge Ge V.B
+ +

Heat
Energy
Carrier concentration in intrinsic
semiconductors:
• In intrinsic semiconductors, current flows due to
the motion of free electrons as well as holes.
The total current is the sum of the electron
current Ie due to thermally generated electrons
and the hole current Ih
• Total Current (I) = Ie + Ih
• If ne and nh are the concentration of electrons
and holes respectively, then ne = nh.
• The quantity ne or nh is referred to as the
‘intrinsic carrier concentration’.
Crystal structure of intrinsic
semiconductor at T=0K.
Energy Band Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor

(a)Intrinsic Semiconductor at T = 0 Kelvin, behaves like

an insulator
(b) At T>0, four thermally generated electrons
Doping a Semiconductor:

• The process by which an impurity is added to

a semiconductor is known as Doping.
• The purpose of adding impurity in the
semiconductor crystal is to increase the
number of free electrons or holes to make it
conductive.
• The impurity atoms are called ‘dopants’.
• Depending upon the type of impurity added
the extrinsic semiconductor may be classified
as
n type semiconductor and p type
Extrinsic N – Type
semiconductor: semiconductorstors:

Ge Ge Ge
C.
B
- 0.045
Eg = 0.74 eV
Ge As Ge
eV
+ V.B

Ge Ge Ge Donor
+ level

When a semiconductor of Group IV (tetra valent) such as Si or

Ge is doped with a penta valent impurity (Group V elements
such as P, As or Sb), N – type semiconductor is formed.
When germanium (Ge) is doped with arsenic (As), the four
valence electrons of As form covalent bonds with four Ge atoms
and the fifth electron of As atom is loosely bound.
Energy band diagram of n type semiconductor
The energy state corresponding to the fifth electron
is in the forbidden gap and slightly below the lower
level of the conduction band. This energy level is
called ‘donor level’.
Carrier Concentration in N - Type
Semiconductors:

• If n and p represent the electron and

hole concentrations respectively in
N-type semiconductor, then
n p = ne nh =
ni2
When the concentration of electrons is
increased above the intrinsic value by
the addition of donor impurities, the
concentration of holes falls below its
intrinsic value, making the product np a
constant, equal to ni2.
 P - Type Semiconductors:
Si Si Si
C.
B

Si In Si
Eg = 0.74
0.05
+ eV
eV
V.B

Si Si Si Acceptor
+ level

When a semiconductor of Group IV (tetravalent) such as

Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent impurity (Group III
elements such as In, B or Ga), P – type semiconductor is
When silicon (Si) is doped with indium (In), the three
formed.
valence electrons of In form three covalent bonds with
three Si atoms. The vacancy that exists with the fourth
covalent bond with fourth Si atom constitutes a hole.
Energy band diagram of p type
semiconductor
• The acceptor impurity produces an energy
level just above the valence band.
• This energy level is called ‘acceptor level’.
Charge carriers in extrinsic
semiconductors
Charge carriers in extrinsic
semiconductors
• In p type semiconductor, holes are
majority charge carriers whereas electrons
are minority charge carriers. i.e nh>>ne
• In n type semiconductor, electrons are
majority charge carriers whereas holes are
minority charge carriers. . i.e nh<<ne
• But p type or n type semiconductors
are electrically neutral.
Distinction between Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Semiconductor:
S. No. Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
1 Pure Group IV elements. Group III or Group V elements
are introduced in Group IV
elements.

2 Conductivity is only slight. Conductivity is greatly

increased.

3 Conductivity increases with rise Conductivity depends on the

in temperature. amount of impurity added.

4 The number of holes is always In N-type, the no. of electrons is

equal to the number of free greater than that of the holes
electrons. and in P-type, the no. holes is
greater than that of the
electrons.
PN Junction Diode:

When a P-type semiconductor is joined to a N-type

semiconductor such that the crystal structure remains
continuous at the boundary, the resulting arrangement is called
a PN junction diode or a semiconductor diode or a crystal diode.

P N

- - - - - + + + + +
- - - - - + + + + +
- - - - - + + + + +

Mobile Hole (Majority Mobile Electron (Majority

Carrier) Carrier)
- Immobile Negative + Immobile Positive
Impurity Ion Impurity Ion
Formation of pn junction
diode:
• Two important processes take place during
the formation of a p-n Junction:
• Diffusion
• Drift
Formation of pn junction diode:
• Diffusion is the process of movement of charge
carriers due to concentration gradient along the
semiconductor. In a p-n junction, n-side has
excess of electrons and hence electrons diffuse
from n-side to p-side. Similarly, holes diffuse
from p-side to n-side.
• Drift is the process of movement of charge
carriers due to the net electric field. In a pn-
junction with no external source, electric field is
from n-side to p-side and hence electrons drift
from p-side to n-side.
Depletion Region & Potential Barrier

• The region containing the immobile acceptor and

donor ions is called ‘depletion region’ because this
region is devoid of mobile charges.
• Since the region is having only immobile charges,
therefore, this region is also called ‘space charge
region’.
• The difference in potential between P and N
regions across the junction makes it difficult for
the holes and electrons to move across the
junction. This acts as a barrier and hence called
‘potential barrier’ or ‘height of the barrier’.
Forward bias
• When the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to P-region and negative terminal is
connected to N-region, then the PN junction
diode is said to be forward-biased.

•Here the
applied voltage
is opposite to
the barrier
potential.
Forward bias
• Due to the applied voltage, holes from p
side and free electrons from n side enter
into the depletion region- minority carrier
injection.
• The potential barrier and the width of the
depletion region decrease.
• Therefore, a large number of majority
carriers diffuse across the junction.
• Hole current and electronic current are in
the same direction and add up.
 Forward bias

• If the applied potential is increased, the

potential barrier further decreases. As a
result, a large number of majority carriers
diffuse through the junction and a larger
current flows.
• In forward biasing, the resistance of pn
junction reduces considerably.
• Here diode act as a conductor and there is
current. flow through the circuit
Forward characteristics of pn junction
diode.

The minimum forward bias voltage required for a

diode to conduct is called threshold voltage.
Threshold voltage is the voltage above which current
increases very rapidly with applied voltage.
Reverse Bias
• When the negative terminal of the battery
is connected to P-region and positive
terminal is connected to N-region, then the
PN junction diode is said to be reverse-
biased.
• Here the
applied
voltage is
in the same
direction as
the barrier
potential.
Reverse Bias

• The majority carriers are pulled away from

the junction.
• The potential barrier and the width of the
depletion region increase.
• Therefore, it becomes more difficult for
majority carriers to diffuse across the
junction
Reverse Bias
• In reverse biasing, the resistance of the
junction increases due to the applied
voltage, hence no diffusion current.
• Thus pn junction diode act as an insulator in
reverse bias mode.
• But the minority carriers from both the
regions drift towards the junction and reach
the majority zone giving rise to drift current.
• This drift current is of the order of a few
microamperes.
Reverse characteristics of pn junction
diode.

The breakdown voltage is the minimum

reverse voltage that makes the diode conduct
appreciably in reverse bias mode.
JUNCTION DIODE AS A
RECTIFIER
• Rectifier is a device which is used for
converting alternating current or voltage
into direct current or voltage.
• The resistance of a p-n junction diode
becomes low when forward biased and
becomes high when reverse biased. This is
the principle of the working of rectifier.
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
• In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input
cycle is rectified. When the p-n junction diode is
forward biased, it gives little resistance and when
it is reversing biased it provides high resistance.
INPUT OUTPUT WAVEFORM FOR A
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

• The rectified output of the circuit is only for half

of the input ac wave, hence it is called half-
wave rectifier.
• Here the frequency of input and output
waveforms are the same.
FULL WAVE RECIFIER
• Here the circuit uses two diodes giving
output rectified voltage corresponding to
both the positive and negative half of ac
cycle. Hence it is known as full wave
rectifier.
INPUT OUTPUT WAVEFORMS FOR FULL
WAVE RECTIFIER

• Here the frequency of output wave form is

twice that of input waveform.
ROLE OF CAPACITOR FILTER
• The main function of this filter is to allow the ac
components and blocks the dc components of the load.
The filter circuit output will be a stable dc voltage.
ROLE OF CAPACITOR FILTER
• By controlling the charging and discharging rate of
the capacitor the pure DC can be obtained from the
pulsating DC. In simple the capacitor allows AC and
blocks DC, so the capacitor can connect parallel to the
power supply so that the AC is filtered out and DC will
reach the load.
THANK
YOU