Chapter 1:

Introduction to
Research
OBJECTIVES
Defining research
State the characteristics of research
Understand the competence and skill
need in research
Understand the stages in research
CONTENT
Introduction
Meaning of research
Definition of research
Limitation of research
Characteristics of research
Competency and skill needed in research
Stages in research
 INTRODUCTION
 Human beings are different from other animals
due to their inquisitive nature – curious to know
and understand.
 A human being need for acquisition of knowledge

begins with series of questions that children ask

their parents as soon as they start talking.
 Because of this inquisitive nature, human beings

have long been concerned with getting a grip

on their environment and to understand the
nature of the phenomena that their
environment presents to their senses.
 To this end, man has been using three
approaches as a means to know (sources of
knowledge):
 experience/common sense/authorities,
INTRODUCTION (CONT.)
 Experience/common sense and authorities
 Experience:A common sense knowledge developed
from a day to day experiences
 Authorities:parents, elders, etc
 Logical Reasoning: Understanding
phenomena/event through inductive and
deductive reasoning.
 Inductive Reasoning: Developing
generalization from a limited number of
particular/specific observation/experiences
of events
 Deductive Reasoning: Arriving at specific
conclusion based on general
principles/facts
 Scientific method (Research): is a scientific

and disciplined approach to inquiry that

MEANING OF RESEARCH
 Research in common parlance refers to a
search for knowledge.
 Research is an intellectual activity
responsible for bringing to light new
knowledge, or solve problems.
 Research involves the application of

scientific method.
 It is a systematic, formal and intensive

process that employs the scientific

method of analysis.
 MEANING OF RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Science develops through some systematic
observation, measurementation and
experimentation, and interpretation
 And this procedure is called “research”.

Thus, research is the most important,

if not the only tool for development
of science.
 No single universal definition of
research; it has been defined by different
scholars (both in natural science and
social science) in different ways.
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
 Dictionary definitions
 the systematic investigation into and study of
materials and sources in order to establish
facts and reach new conclusions.
 The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English
lays down the meaning of research as “a careful
investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.”
 Academic Press Dictionary of Science &
Technology define research as
“Scientific investigation that is
performed in order to discover
new information or to develop
or improve products and
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
 There are various definitions depending on
the approach
 Scientific or scholarly inquiry or investigation
and the proper communication of the findings.
 The process of searching for, in a broader sense,
general answers in any field of study or, in a limited
fashion, a solution to just one particular
problem.
 A systematic, controlled, empirical, rigorous, and
precise method used to obtain solutions or to
discover and interpret new information.
A careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken
to establish facts or principles.
 A structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable
scientific methodology to solve problems, and creates
new knowledge that is generally acceptable.
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
 Kerlinger (1970) define research as
“the systematic, controlled,
empirical, and critical investigation
of hypothetical proposition about the
presumed relationships among natural
phenomena”
 Best and Kahn (1993) define it as
“the systematic and objective
analysis and recording of controlled
observation that may lead to the
development of generalizations,
principles, theories, resulting in
prediction and possibly ultimate
 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Inhis book, Education Research, J.W.
Creswell defined research
as a process of steps used to collect
and analyze information to increase
our understanding of a topic or issue
The process consists of three steps:
Pose a question.

Collect data to answer the question.

Present an answer to the question.

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH (CONT.)
 “Research is an academic activity and
as such the term should be used in a
technical sense.
 According to Clifford Woody research

comprises
defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions;
collecting, organizing and evaluating
data;
making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last
carefully testing the conclusions to
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH (CONT.)
 The common elements in the various
definitions of research are:
formal
systematic
objective
empirical
scientific and
controlled process of establishing
facts/truth; or solving problems.
LIMITATIONS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
 The steps in scientific method guide
researchers in planning, conducting,
and interpreting research studies.
 However, although it is a formal,

systematic method to know and

understand the nature of a phenomenon
of interest, it is not without some
limitations:
 Cannot answer all the questions of
interest.
 Cannot capture the full richness of
realities, people behavior and the
contexts.
 Measuring instruments always have some
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESEARCH
It gathers new knowledge or data from
primary or first-hand sources.
It places emphasis upon the discovery of
general principles.
It is an exact systematic and accurate
investigation.
It uses certain valid data gathering
devices/tools.
It is logical and objective.
 Objective means
 The researcher resists the temptation to
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH (CONT.)
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESEARCH (cont.)
It endeavors to organize data in
quantitative terms.
Research is patient and unhurried
activity.
The researcher is willing to follow his
procedures to the conclusions that may be
unpopular and bring social
disapproval.
Research is carefully recorded and
reported.
Conclusions and generalizations are
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH (CONT.)
 To qualify as research, the research
process must have certain
characteristics.
Research is controlled
Research is rigorous (strictly accurate).
Research is systematic
Research outcomes are valid and
verifiable.
Research is empirical
Research is “critical”
Research is innovative
Research is usually expensive
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH (CONT.)

 Research is controlled
 There may be several interacting factors/parameters
that effect a particular scientific event.
 For example the size (volume, V) of a balloon directly

depends on temperature (T) and the amount of gas (n)

in it.
 It also depends on the pressure (P) in an inverse manner.
 So in science we say that the volume, V, of a gas is a function of n,
P and T.
 Most scientific events are more complicated, i.e., they have more
interacting parameters.
 It is usually very difficult to measure/observe the effect of
all parameters at the same time.
 Therefore, researchers usually observe the
effect of one variable while keeping the other
parameters constant.
 Then they do the same thing to the other

variables one‐by‐one.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH (CONT.)

 Research is controlled (cont.)

 This may require some assumptions (like assuming the
slightly varying room temperature as a “constant
temperature”) or using some external control
mechanisms (like using constant temperature baths).
 This may require rigorous laboratory conditions, or
expensive equipment in physical sciences.
 Life is very complicated, and it has thousands of
variables.
 Attempting to control all of these variables is
merely impossible.
 However, that does not mean that we can’t do

“controlled variable research” in social

sciences.
 This problem is mainly overcome by a careful

and systematic “sampling” and

“classification”.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Research is rigorous (strictly accurate).

A researcher must ensure that the

procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate, and
justified.
 Again the degree of strictness varies markedly
between the physical and the social sciences,
and even within the social sciences.
 Research is systematic.
The procedures adopted to undertake an
investigation follow a certain logical
sequence.
Carefully designed research plans and
procedures are a must in research.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Research outcomes are valid and
verifiable.
What you find, or what you conclude after
research should be correct, and
repeatable, or reproducible (by you or
by others).
 Research is empirical.

Any conclusions drawn are based upon

solid evidence gathered from real
measurements or, real experiences, or
observations.
This is a must in scientific research.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH (CONT.)

 Research is “critical”.
 Procedures and methods used in research
have critical importance in research.
 Therefore, they should be well‐devised and
leave no possible margin for error, and free
from any drawbacks.
 Research is innovative.

 Research does not develop from randomly

generated ideas but all involve “innovation”
(plus some “luck”)
 Research is usually expensive.

 Researchers have high salaries by themselves.

 The equipment and the tools they use are also
expensive.
 COMPETENCE AND SKILL NEEDED
IN RESEARCH
 What are research skills?
Ability to find an answer to a question
or a solution to a problem.
They include ability to
gather information about a topic,

review information and analyze and

interpret the details in a way to

support a solution.
Having research skills is necessary to
advance your career as they directly
relate to your ability to gain insight and
inspire action in both yourself and others.
COMPETENCE & SKILL NEEDED IN
RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Research skills refer to a collection of
several separate skills that help you find
and review the information and arrive at a
decision.
 Research skills in the workplace include:

Searching for information

Analysis of information from different
sources.
Data collection
Attention to detail
Taking notes
Time management
Communicating results
COMPETENCE & SKILL NEEDED IN
RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Searching for information
 All research involves the search for credible information
that you can analyze and use to arrive at an answer or
solution.
 While it can be beneficial to consulate alternative sources,
strong internet research skills drive modern-day
research.
 One of the great things about the internet is how much
information it contains, however, this comes with digging
through a lot of garbage to get to the facts you need.
 The ability to efficiently use the vast database of knowledge that

is on the internet without getting lost in the junk is very

valuable to researchers.
 Internet research skills include:
 Source checking
 Searching relevant questions

 Exploring deeper than the first options

 Avoiding distraction

 Giving credit
COMPETENCE & SKILL NEEDED IN
RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Analysis of information from different sources
 Putting all your eggs in one source basket usually results in
error and disappointment.
 One of the skills that good researchers always incorporate into

their process is an abundance of sources.

 It’s also best practice to consider the reliability of these
sources.
 Are you reading about Ethiopian history on a conspiracy

theorist’s Facebook post? Taking facts for a presentation

from an anonymous Twitter account?
 If you can’t determine the validity of the sources you’re using,
it can compromise all of your research.
 That doesn’t mean just disregard anything on the internet but

double-check your findings. In fact, quadruple-check.

 You can make your research even stronger by turning to

references outside of the internet.

 Examples of reliable information sources include:
 Published books, Encyclopedias, Magazines, Databases,
Scholarly journals, Newspapers, Library catalogs.
COMPETENCE & SKILL NEEDED IN
RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Data collection
 When thinking about the research process, data collection
is often the first thing that comes to mind.
 It is the nuts and bolts of research.

 How data is collected can be flexible.

 For some purposes, simply gathering facts and information

on the internet can fulfill your need.
 Others may require more direct and crowd-sourced

research.
 Having experience in various methods of data
collection is imperative in research.
 Data collection methods include:
 Observation

 Interviews

 Questionnaires

 Experimentation

 Conducting focus groups discussion

COMPETENCE & SKILL NEEDED IN
RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Attention to detail
 Research is inherently precise.
 I.e. you need to be attentive to the details, both in terms of
the information you’re gathering, but also in where you got it
from.
 Making errors in statistics can have a major impact on the

interpretation of the data, not to mention that it’ll reflect poorly

on you.
 There are proper procedures for citing sources that you
should follow.
 That means that your sources will be properly credited,
preventing accusations of plagiarism.
 In addition, it means that others can make use of your research

by returning to the original sources.

 Attention to detail includes:
 Double checking statistics
 Taking notes

 Keeping track of your sources

 Staying organized
COMPETENCE & SKILL NEEDED IN
RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Taking notes
 Research involves to go through and taking in lots of
information.
 Taking exhaustive notes ensures that you will not
neglect any findings later and allows you to
communicate these results to your co-workers.
 Being able to take good notes helps summarize

research.
 Examples of note-taking skills include:
 Focus
 Organization

 Using short-hand

 Keeping your objective in mind

 Neatness

 Highlighting important points

 Reviewing notes afterward.

COMPETENCE & SKILL NEEDED IN
RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Time management
 Time management skills refer to the ability to break
down projects into manageable parts, make a
deadline-oriented plan and complete each
section of your plan by your scheduled deadline.
 Plan Ahead: Effective time management begins
with planning.
 Researchers should create a research plan that

includes their goals, deadlines, and milestones.

 Planning helps researchers stay organized and

avoid last-minute rushes.

 Prioritize Tasks: Not all tasks in research are
equally important.
 Researchers should prioritize tasks based on their

importance and urgency.

 Tasks that are urgent and important should be given

priority over tasks that are less critical.

COMPETENCE & SKILL NEEDED IN
RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Communicating results
 Effective research requires being able to understand and
process the information you receive, either written or
spoken.
 That means that you need strong reading
comprehension and writing skills — two major aspects
of communication — as well as excellent listening skills.
 Most research also involves showcasing your findings.
 This can be via a presentation., report, chart, or Q&A.

 be able to communicate your findings in a way that

educates your audience.

 Communication skills include:
 Reading comprehension

 Writing

 Listening skills

 Presenting to an audience

 Creating graphs or charts

 Explaining in layman’s terms

COMPETENCE & SKILL NEEDED IN
RESEARCH (CONT.)
 More skills
Planning and scheduling
Critical thinking
Problem solving
Interviewing
Using your network
Data analysis
Report writing
 THE STAGES IN RESEARCH
 Here are a few steps in the research process to make it easier
for you:
THE STAGES IN RESEARCH
 Here are a few steps in the research
process to make it easier for you:
Step 1: Identify the Problem
Step 2: Evaluate the Literature
Step 3: Create Hypotheses
Step 4: The Research Design
Step 5: Describe Population
Step 6: Data Collection
Step 7: Data Analysis
Step 8: The Report-writing
THE STAGES IN RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Step 1: Identify the Problem
 Finding an issue or formulating a research
question is the first step.
 A well-defined research problem will guide the
researcher through all stages of the research
process, from setting objectives to choosing
a technique.
 There are a number of approaches to get
insight into a topic and gain a better
understanding of it. Such as:
 A preliminary survey

 Case studies

 Interviews with a small group of people

 Observational survey
 THE STAGES IN RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Step 2: Evaluate the Literature
 A thorough examination of the relevant
studies is essential to the research process.
 It enables the researcher to identify the
precise aspects of the problem.
 This stage gives problem-zone background.
 It teaches the investigator about previous

research, how they were conducted, and its

conclusions.
 The researcher can build consistency between

his work and others through a literature review.

 Such a review exposes the researcher to a

more significant body of knowledge and

helps him follow the research process
efficiently.
THE STAGES IN RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Step 3: Create Hypotheses
 Formulating an original hypothesis is the next
logical step after narrowing down the
research topic and defining it.
 It is a propositional statement or
relationships between variables.
 In order to establish a hypothesis, a
researcher must have a certain amount of
expertise in the field.
 It is important for researchers to keep in mind
while formulating a hypothesis that it must be
based on the research topic.
 Researchers are able to concentrate their
efforts and stay committed to their
objectives when they develop theories to
 THE STAGES IN RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Step 4: The Research Design
Research design is the plan for
achieving objectives and answering
research questions.
It outlines how to get the relevant
information.
Its goal is to design research to test

hypotheses, address the research

questions, and provide decision-
making insights.
The research design aims to minimize
the time, money, and effort required
to acquire meaningful evidence.
THE STAGES IN RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Step 5: Describe Population
 Research projects usually look at a specific
group of people, facilities, or how
technology is used in the business.
 In research, the term population refers to

this study group.

 The research topic and purpose help
determine the study group.
 Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a
certain group of people in the community.
 In that case, the research could target a

specific age group, males or females, a

geographic location.
 And then need to specify its sample or

population so that the results may be

THE STAGES IN RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Step 6: Data Collection
 Data collection is important in obtaining the
knowledge or information required to answer
the research issue.
 Every research collect data, either from the
literature or the people being studied.
 Data must be collected from the two categories of
researchers.
 These sources may provide primary data.
 Experiment
 Questionnaire

 Observation

 Interview

 Secondary data categories are:

 Literature survey
 Official, unofficial reports

 An approach based on library resources

THE STAGES IN RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Step 7: Data Analysis
 During research design, the researcher plans
data analysis.
 After collecting data, the researcher
analyzes it.
 The research findings are reviewed and
reported.
 Data analysis involves a number of closely
related stages, such as setting up
categories, applying these categories to raw
data through coding and tabulation, and then
drawing statistical conclusions.
 The researcher can examine the acquired data

using a variety of statistical methods.

 THE STAGES IN RESEARCH (CONT.)
 Step 8: The Report-writing
 After completing these steps, the researcher must prepare
a report detailing his findings.
 The report must be carefully composed with the following
in mind:
 The Layout: On the first pages, the title, date,

acknowledgments, and preface should be on the

report.
 A table of contents should be followed by a list of

tables, graphs, and charts if any.

 Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose

and methods.
 This section should include the study’s scope and

limits.
 Summary of relevant studies-

 Methodology-

 Analysis and Results-

 Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings