Sensors

•Sensors are devices that convert a physical

parameter such as room temperature, blood
pressure or wind speed into a signal that can
be measured electrically / physically

•Once the physical parameter has been

converted to an electrical equivalent /
measurable quantity, it can be easily input into
a computer or microprocessor for
manipulating, analyzing and displaying
 Sensors (contd…)
• Each year hundreds millions of sensors are
manufactured. They are in domestic
appliances, medical equipment, industrial
control systems, air-conditioning systems,
aircraft, satellites and toys.

• Sensors are becoming smarter, more

accurate and cheaper. They will play an
ever increasing role in just about every field
imaginable.
Sensors - Types

• Chemical sensors

• Magnetic sensors

• Mechanical sensors

• Position sensors

• Pressure sensors

• Temperature
sensors
 Chemical Sensors
Water pH sensor
• pH sensors
– Electronic pH meters consist of
an electrolytic cell in which an
electric current is created due
to the hydrogen cations
completing the circuit

– This system consists of a pH

sensor, pH Cell, whose voltage
varies proportionately to the
hydrogen ion activity of the
solution, and a reference
electrode, Reference Cell,
which provides a stable and
constant reference voltage
– [pH is a measure of the acidity
of a solution. ]
 Chemical Sensors (contd…)
• Automobile Oxygen sensor
– An Oxygen sensor is a chemical
generator

– An oxygen sensor, or lambda

sensor, is an electronic device that
measures the proportion of oxygen
(O2) in the gas or liquid being
analyzed.

– It constantly makes a comparison

between the Oxygen inside the
exhaust manifold and air outside the
engine

– If this comparison shows little or no

Oxygen in the exhaust manifold, a
voltage is generated

– The output of the sensor is usually

between 0 and 1.1 volts
 Magnetic sensors
• Hall effect magnetic sensors

• A Hall effect sensor is a transducer

that varies its output voltage in
response to changes in magnetic field.

• Hall sensors are used for proximity

switching, positioning, speed
detection, and current sensing
applications.

• Dr. Edwin Hall discovered this effect in

1879

• The Hall effect refers to the potential

difference (voltage) on opposite sides
of a thin sheet of conducting or
semiconducting material in the form of
a ‘Hall bar' element through which an
electric current is flowing, created by a
magnetic field applied perpendicular to
the Hall element

• The ratio of the voltage created to the

amount of current is known as the Hall
resistance, and is a characteristic of
the material in the element
 Mechanical sensors

Sensors for measurement of mechanical

parameters:
acceleration, position, pressure, knock,
rotation, etc
 Mechanical sensors (contd…)
• Piezoelectric sensors
– A piezoelectric sensor is a device that
uses the piezoelectric effect to measure
pressure, acceleration, strain or force by
converting them to an electrical signal.

– Piezoelectricity is the ability of certain

crystals to produce a voltage when
subjected to mechanical stress.

– The word is derived from the Greek

Piezein, which means to squeeze or press.

– The effect is reversible; piezoelectric

crystals, subject to an externally applied
voltage, can change shape by a small
amount

– Piezoelectric sensors have proven to be

versatile tools for the measurement of
various processes. They are used for
quality assurance, process control and
process development in many different
industries.
 Position Sensors

Sensors to determine position of

objects in the space
 Position Sensors (contd…)
• Throttle Position sensor
– The TPS is a potentiometer
attached to the throttle shaft.

– A voltage signal is supplied to

the sensor, and a variable
voltage is returned.

– The voltage increases as the

throttle is opened.

– This signal and the MAP

output determines how much
air goes into the engine so the
computer can respond quickly
to changes, increasing or
decreasing the fuel rate as
necessary
 Position Sensors
• Garage Parking sensor
– If you're having trouble gracefully
pulling into your parking space, or want
to protect against costly damage to
your garage or your car, then the red,
yellow, and green lights of the Garage
Parking Sensor could be just what you
need!

– The Garage Parking Sensor is a wall

mounted "parking assistant" that warns
you before you're going to hit the wall.

– Using a high tech "ultrasonic" sensor

the unit determines the distance
between the wall and your car, and
displays this to you on a "traffic light"
display.

– Running off four AA batteries, the kit is

mounted to the garage wall. The sensor
unit is positioned level with the flattest
surface of your car's bumper
 Pressure sensors
• Knock sensor
– The Knock Sensor is a Piezo
Electric device that when you
stress it, a voltage is
produced.

– It senses knock and transmits

information to the electronic
engine management control
unit.

– This influences process

control in the engine, for
example timing and fuel
injection until knock is
eliminated

– Engine knock is characteristic

of an uncontrolled
combustion process and can
cause engine damage.

– That is prevented by a knock

sensor, a noise sensor near
the engine
 Temperature sensors
• Thermistor
– A thermistor is a type of resistor used to
measure temperature changes, relying on the
change in its resistance with changing
temperature

– ΔR = kΔT
where
ΔR = change in resistance
ΔT = change in temperature
k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance

– Thermistors can be classified into two types

depending on the sign of k.

– If k is positive, the resistance increases with

increasing temperature, and the device is
called a positive temperature coefficient
thermistor, or posistor.

– If k is negative, the resistance decreases with

increasing temperature, and the device is
called a negative temperature coefficient
(NTC) thermistor.

– Resistors that are not thermistors are

designed to have the smallest possible k, so
that their resistance remains almost constant
over a wide temperature range.
 Temperature sensors (contd…)

• Thermocouple
– In electronics, thermocouples
are a widely used kind of
temperature sensor.

– They are cheap,

interchangeable, have
standard connectors and can
measure a wide range of
temperatures.

– The main limitation is

accuracy, system errors of
less than 1 °C can be difficult
to achieve
 Temperature sensors (contd…)
• In 1822, an Estonian physician named Thomas
Seebeck discovered (accidentally) that the
junction between two metals generates a voltage
which is a function of temperature.

• Thermocouples rely on this discovery, the so-

called Seebeck effect.

• Although almost any two types of metal can be

used to make a thermocouple, a number of
standard types are used because they possess
predictable output voltages and large
temperature gradients.
 Proximity Sensor
• A proximity sensor is a sensor able to
detect the presence of nearby objects
without any physical contact.

• A proximity sensor often emits an

electromagnetic or electrostatic field,
or a beam of electromagnetic radiation
(infrared, for instance), and looks for
changes in the field or return signal.

• The object being sensed is often

referred to as the proximity sensor's
target.

• Different proximity sensor targets

demand different sensors.
– For example, a capacitive or
photoelectric sensor might be suitable
for a plastic target; an inductive
proximity sensor requires a metal target.
 Inductive Proximity Sensors
• Inductive proximity sensors detect
the presence of metallic objects.

• Their operating principle is based

on a coil and high frequency
oscillator that creates a field in the
close surroundings of the sensing
surface.

• The presence of metal in the

operating area causes a change in
the oscillation amplitude.
– This change is identified by a
threshold circuit, which changes the
output of the sensor.

• The operating distance of the

sensor depends on the coil’s size
as well as the target’s shape, size
and material.
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors
• Capacitive
– Capacitive sensors are used for non-contact
detection of metallic objects & nonmetallic
objects (liquid, plastic, wooden materials and
so on).

– Capacitive proximity sensors use the variation

of capacitance between the sensor and the
object being detected.

– When the object is at a preset distance from

the sensitive side of the sensor, an electronic
circuit inside the sensor begins to oscillate.

– The rise or fall of such oscillation is identified

by a threshold circuit that drives an amplifier
for the operation of an external load.

– A screw placed on the backside of the sensor

allows regulation of the operating distance.

– This sensitivity regulation is useful in

applications, such as detection of full
containers and non-detection of empty
containers.
 Capacitive Proximity Sensors

• Disadvantages
• They typically have a very short range, because the
dielectric influence of objects nearby drops off
sharply with distance.

• Unlike the inductive proximity sensor, the capacitive

sensor can fail if it gets too dirty because it will
detect the dirt.

• Likewise it will have trouble detecting any material

which has a dielectric constant similar to air, as these
substances will be nearly invisible to it.
 Magnetic Proximity Sensors
• Magnetic
– Magnetic sensors are actuated by
the presence of a permanent
magnet.

– Their operating principle is based

on the use of reed contacts, which
consist of two low reluctance ferro-
magnetic reeds enclosed in glass
bulbs containing inert gas.

– The reciprocal attraction of both

reeds in the presence of a magnetic
field, due to magnetic induction,
establishes an electrical contact.
 Photocell sensors
• Photocell (reflective)
– Photoelectric sensors use light
sensitive elements to detect objects
and are made up of an emitter (light
source) and a receiver.

– Direct Reflection (Diffused) -

emitter and receiver are housed
together and use the light reflected
directly off the object for detection.

– Reflection with Reflector (Retro-

reflective) - emitter and receiver are
housed together and require a
reflector.
• An object is detected when it interrupts
the light beam between the sensor and
reflector.

– Thru Beam - emitter and receiver are

housed separately and detect an
object when it interrupts the light
beam between the emitter and
receiver.
 Optical Proximity Sensors
• A device that uses the principle
of triangulation of reflected
infrared or visible light to
measure small distances in a
robotic system.

• Optical proximity sensors

generally cost more than
inductive proximity sensors, and
about the same as capacitive
sensors.

• They are widely used in

automated systems because
they have been available longer
and because some can fit into
small locations.

• These sensors are more

commonly known as light beam
sensors of the thru-beam type or
 Applications

• Car bumpers that sense distance to

nearby cars for parking.

• Ground proximity warning system for

aviation safety.

• Sheet break sensing in paper machine.

• Anti-aircraft artillery.