Module 4

Chapter 1:Introduction to Project Management

Chapter 2: Project Evaluation

 Chapter 1:Introduction to Project Management

Introduction, Project and Importance of Project Management, Contract Management,

Activities Covered by Software Project Management, Plans, Methods and Methodologies,

Some ways of categorizing Software Projects, Stakeholders, Setting Objectives, Business

Case, Project Success and Failure, Management and Management Control, Project

Management life cycle, Traditional versus Modern Project Management Practices.

 Introduction to software project management

• What is s/w project management? – Planning, monitoring and control of s/w

projects

• A s/w project  satisfy real needs.

• To do this, we must: identify project stakeholders and their objectives

• Ensuring that their objectives are met is the aim of project management.

• Project Management is the discipline of defining and achieving targets while

optimizing the use of resources (time, money, people, materials, energy, space,
etc) over the course of a project (a set of activities of finite duration).
 Why is Project Management Important?

• Cost Management: Efficient project management controls expenditures, crucial

for high-cost ICT projects.

• Failure Prevention: Poor management contributes to project failures; effective

management mitigates risks.

• Success Assurance: Ensures projects meet objectives on time, within budget,

and with quality standards met.

• Resource Optimization: Proper planning and scheduling maximize resource

efficiency and minimize waste.
 What is a Project?
Definition of a Project:

• A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service,

or result. It is distinct from operations which are ongoing and repetitive.
 What is Project
Characteristics of Projects:

• Temporary: Every project has a specific start and end date. Once the project's
objectives are met, it concludes.

• Unique Deliverables: Projects result in outputs that are one-of-a-kind. Even if

similar projects have been executed before, each project has unique factors
and challenges.

• Progressive Elaboration: As a project progresses, the details become more

defined. This is a process of continual refinement and improvement.
What is Project
 What is Project

•Jobs: These involve repetitive tasks with clear instructions and minimal
uncertainty. For example, routine administrative tasks or assembly line work
where the process is well-defined.
•Exploration: This refers to highly uncertain endeavors, such as finding a cure
for cancer. The outcome is unpredictable, and there's a lot of unknowns involved
in the process.
•Projects: Fall between jobs and exploration. They have well-defined goals, but
there's uncertainty and risks in achieving those goals.
 What is Project
• Software Projects: Specifically, these are planned activities aimed at
developing software.
They involve:

• Planning: Detailed planning occurs before actual development starts.

• Defined Goals: Clear objectives are set, such as creating a specific software

application or system.

• Uncertainties: There are risks involved, like technical challenges or changes

in requirements during development

 What is Project
Characteristics that distinguish the project :

•Non-routine: Projects involve tasks that are unique and not part of daily

operations or regular activities.

•Planned: They require careful planning to outline objectives, resources,

timelines, and strategies for achieving goals.

•Aiming at a specific target: Projects have clear, defined outcomes or

deliverables that they aim to achieve.

 What is Project
Characteristics that distinguish the project:

•Carried out for a customer: Projects are often undertaken to fulfill a client's or

stakeholder's specific requirements or needs.

•Carried out by a temporary work group: They involve assembling a temporary

team with specific skills and expertise for the project's duration.

•Involving several specialisms: Projects typically require contributions from

various disciplines or specialized areas of expertise.

 What is Project
Characteristics that distinguish the project:

•Made up of several different phases: They progress through stages such as planning,

execution, monitoring, and closure, each with its own set of activities and objectives.

•Constrained by time and resources: Projects operate within defined constraints like

deadlines, budget limits, and available resources.

•Large and/or complex: They can be extensive in scope or involve intricate systems,

requiring systematic management and coordination.

 Contract Management & Technical Project Management

Projects can be:

• In-house: clients and developers are employed by the same organization
• Out-sourced: clients and developers employed by different organizations

• Project manager could be:

-a contract manager‘ in the client organization
-a technical project manager in the supplier/services organization
 Contract Management & Technical Project Management

What is management?
This involves the following activities:
• Planning – deciding what is to be done
• Organizing – making arrangements
• Staffing – selecting the right people for the job
• Directing – giving instructions
 Contract Management & Technical Project Management

What is management?
This involves the following activities:
• Monitoring – checking on progress
• Controlling – taking action to remedy hold-ups
•Innovating – coming up with solutions when problems emerge
•Representing – liaising with clients, users, developers and other stakeholders.
 Activities Covered by Project Management
A software project is not only concerned with the actual writing of software.
Usually there are three successive processes that bring a new system into being.
• Feasibility study Is project technically feasible and worthwhile from a
business point of view?(recommendation of the feasibility study might be not
to carry out the proposed project)
• Planning Only done if project is feasible - evolving plan allows us to control
the project.
• Execution Implement plan, but plan may be changed as we go along.
Activities Covered by Project Management
 The software development life-cycle (ISO 12207)
The software development life cycle is a technical model. It identifies the technical
constraints on the order activities are done.
The technical model could be implemented as increments or in an evolutionary manner, not
as water fall model.

ISO 12207 life-cycles are:

1. Requirements analysis
2. Architecture Design
3. Code and test
4. Installation \ Acceptance support
The software development life-cycle (ISO 12207)
 The software development life-cycle (ISO 12207)
1. Requirements analysis
– Requirements eli-ci-tation: what does the client need?
– Analysis: converting customer-facing requirements into equivalents that developers can
understand
– Requirements will cover: • Functions • Quality • Resource constraints

Costs Requirement analysis has to face in (at least) two different directions.
• It needs to communicate and elicit the requirements of the users, speaking in their language.
• It needs to organize and translate those requirements into a form that developers can
understand and relate to.
 The software development life-cycle (ISO 12207)
2. Architecture Design

– Based on system requirements

– Defines components of system: hardware, software, organizational
– Software requirements will map with software components

3. Code and test – Of individual components (separately coded and tested)

• Integration – Putting the components together
• Qualification testing(the whole system)
– Testing the system (not just the software)
 The software development life-cycle (ISO 12207)

4. Installation(meaning most like implementation)

Install –Complete System
– The process of making the system operational
– Includes setting up standing data, setting system parameters, installing
on operational hardware platforms, user training etc..
• Acceptance support – Including maintenance and enhancement.
Resolving the problem with newly installed systems along with correction
of errors.
 Plans, methods and methodologies

• A plan of an activity must be based on some idea of a method of work.

While a method relates to a type of activity in general, a plan takes one or
more methods and converts them into real activities by identifying:
1. Start and end dates
2. Who will carry it out
3. What tools and materials would be needed.
• A methodology is a set of related methods. Strictly speaking ‗methodology‘
ought to mean the study of methods!
Plans, methods and methodologies
 Stakeholders
• These are people who have a stake or interest in the project. In general, they could
be users/clients or developers/implementers.
• They could be:
• Within the project team
• Outside the project team, but within the same organization
• Outside both the project team and the organization.

Different stakeholders may have different objectives – need to define common project
objectives. Project Leader is to recognize these different interests (good
Communicator/Negotiator)
 Stakeholders
Setting objectives in project management involves:

1.Purpose: Clarifying what needs to be achieved for the project to succeed.

2.Authority: Designating a person or group to set scope and approve resources.
3.Success Definition: Stating what success looks like, focusing on outcomes rather than tasks.
4.SMART Objectives: Making objectives Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and
Time-bound.
5.Goals: Setting steps towards objectives, like accurate requirements or reliable software.
6.Measures of Effectiveness: Determining practical tests to objectively assess achievement,
such as user satisfaction metrics or reliability measures.
 Ways of Categorizing Software Projects

Software projects can be categorized in various ways to help in planning, management, and
execution. Here are some common ways of categorizing software projects:

1. Based on Project Size

•Small Projects: Typically involve a few developers, have a shorter duration, and limited
scope. They often focus on minor enhancements or bug fixes.
•Medium Projects: Involve more team members and have a moderate scope and duration.
These projects might include developing a single application or module.
•Large Projects: Involve large teams, extended duration, and complex scope. These projects
often include developing entire systems or multiple integrated applications.
 Ways of Categorizing Software Projects

2. By Complexity:
•Simple Projects: Well-defined requirements, straightforward solutions, minimal risk.
•Moderately Complex Projects: Some uncertainties, integration with existing systems.
•Highly Complex Projects: High uncertainty, risk, advanced technologies required.

3. By Application Type:
•Transaction Processing Systems (TPS): Manage large volumes of transactions (e.g., banking
systems).
•Management Information Systems (MIS): Manage operations and decision-making (e.g.,
inventory control).
•Decision Support Systems (DSS): Assist in decision-making (e.g., financial planning systems).
 Ways of Categorizing Software Projects

4. By Development Approach:
•Waterfall Model: Linear and sequential, suitable for well-defined requirements.
•Iterative Model: Repeating phases for refinement.
•Agile Methodology: Iterative, collaborative, adaptable to evolving requirements.

5. By Business Domain:
•Healthcare: EHR, telemedicine, hospital management.
•Finance: Online banking, trading platforms, financial analytics.
•Retail: E-commerce platforms, inventory management, POS systems.
 Ways of Categorizing Software Projects

6. By Technology:
•Web-Based Applications: Run on web browsers using HTML, CSS, JavaScript.
•Mobile Applications: Developed for mobile devices using platforms like iOS, Android.
•Desktop Applications: Created for desktop operating systems like Windows, macOS.
 Software Products vs. Software Services
Software Products:
•Definition: Pre-packaged solutions developed for a broad market.
• Designed for general use with common features applicable to many users.
• Distributed widely and often sold through commercial channels.
• Examples include office suites, graphic design tools, and operating systems.
Software Services:
•Definition: Custom solutions tailored to meet the specific needs of individual clients.
• Developed based on unique client requirements.
• Involves ongoing interaction with clients for customization and support.
• Examples include custom-built enterprise applications and bespoke software for specific
business processes.
 Software Products vs. Software Services

Key Differences:
•Target Audience: Products are designed for a broad audience, while services are aimed at
individual clients.
•Development and Delivery: Products follow a standardized development process, whereas
services are developed through a more flexible, client-driven approach.
•Customization: Products offer limited customization, whereas services are highly tailored to
client needs.
•Support and Maintenance: Products typically have standard support, while services include
ongoing, customized support.
Software Products vs. Software Services

General Market
usage
 Outsourced Project
An outsourced project refers to a software project where the development tasks are
contracted out to an external organization rather than being handled in-house.

Key Characteristics:
•External Collaboration: Involves working with a third-party vendor or service provider.
•Contractual Agreement: Detailed contracts outline the scope, timeline, deliverables, and
payment terms.
•Focus on Core Activities: Allows the client organization to concentrate on its core activities
while leveraging the expertise of the external vendor.
•Cost Management: Often chosen for cost-effectiveness, especially if the external vendor is
located in a region with lower labor costs.
 Outsourced Project
Advantages:
1.Access to Expertise: Gain access to specialized skills and technologies not available in-house.
2.Cost Savings: Reduce development costs by leveraging lower labor rates and avoiding full-time
hires.
3.Flexibility: Easily scale project teams according to changing project needs.
4.Time Savings: Accelerate project completion using vendor's resources and expertise.

Challenges:
5.Communication Barriers: Issues with communication due to different time zones or languages.
6.Quality Control: Ensuring the delivered product meets quality standards can be challenging.
7.Security Risks: Exposing sensitive data to external parties poses security risks.
 Objective Driven Development
Objective-driven development focuses on setting clear, specific goals and objectives before
beginning a project. This approach ensures that every phase of development is purposeful and
aligned with achieving those objectives.

It emphasizes:
•Clarity: Clearly defining what needs to be achieved.
•Focus: Directing efforts towards accomplishing predefined goals.
•Alignment: Ensuring that all activities and decisions support the overall objectives.
•Measurement: Using metrics to track progress and determine success. This method enhances
efficiency and effectiveness by keeping the project on track and prioritizing actions that
contribute directly to desired outcomes.
 Project Charter
A project charter is a foundational document that formally authorizes the existence of a
project and provides the project manager with the authority to use organizational
resources to carry out the project activities.

Key Components of a Project Charter

•Authorizes the Project: It formally approves the project's initiation, securing support from
key stakeholders.
•Defines Scope and Objectives: Clearly outlines what the project aims to achieve and its
boundaries, preventing scope creep.
 Project Charter
Key Components of a Project Charter

•Establishes Authority: Grants the project manager the necessary authority to manage
resources, make decisions, and ensure project success.
•Manages Expectations: Documents constraints, assumptions, timelines, milestones, and
resource requirements, setting clear expectations for all stakeholders.
•Guides Decision-Making: Provides a structured framework for decision-making and risk
management throughout the project lifecycle.
•Promotes Accountability: Clarifies roles and responsibilities, fostering accountability among
team members and stakeholders.
 Setting Objectives

The process of establishing specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound

goals that an organization or individual aims to achieve. This process is crucial in guiding
efforts and resources towards desired outcomes.
SMART Objectives
•Specific: Objectives should be clear and specific, leaving no room for ambiguity. This helps
in focusing efforts and understanding exactly what needs to be accomplished.

•Measurable: Objectives should be quantifiable, allowing for tracking progress and

measuring success. This involves setting criteria or indicators that can be used to assess
performance.
 Setting Objectives

•Achievable: Objectives need to be realistic and attainable, considering the available resources
and constraints. Setting achievable goals ensures that they are within reach and motivates
those involved to work towards them.

•Relevant: Objectives should align with broader organizational or personal goals and be
relevant to the overall mission and vision. This ensures that efforts are directed towards
meaningful and impactful outcomes.

•Time-bound: Objectives should have a defined timeline or deadline. This creates a sense of
urgency and helps in planning and prioritizing tasks.
 Setting Objectives
The process of setting objectives often involves several steps:

•Identifying Goals: Determining what the organization or individual wants to achieve in the
short-term and long-term.
•Prioritizing Objectives: Deciding which objectives are most critical and should be addressed
first.
•Developing Action Plans: Outlining the steps and actions needed to achieve the objectives.
•Allocating Resources: Ensuring that the necessary resources (time, money, personnel) are
available to achieve the objectives.
•Monitoring and Evaluating: Regularly reviewing progress and making adjustments as
needed to stay on track towards achieving the objectives.
 Measures of effectiveness
•MOEs are metrics used to evaluate how well objectives are achieved, helping identify
performance levels and areas needing improvement.

Characteristics:
•They should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).

Types metrics
•Efficiency Measures: Resource utilization (e.g., cost per unit).
•Effectiveness Measures: Outcome achievement (e.g., percentage of objectives met).
•Quality Measures: Output quality (e.g., defect rates).
•Timeliness Measures: Speed of processes (e.g., response times).
Measures of effectiveness

Implementation:
•Identify objectives.
•Select metrics.
•Collect and analyze data.
•Report findings.
•Review and adjust measures.
 The Business Case
The business case is a document that justifies the start of a project. It outlines the problem
or opportunity, the benefits, costs, and risks associated with the project.

The key elements typically include:

•Executive Summary: A brief overview of the project and its objectives.
•Background: Context and reasons for the project.
•Benefits: Expected advantages and value from the project.
•Costs: Financial and resource requirements.
•Risks: Potential challenges and mitigation strategies.
•Timeline: Project schedule and key milestones.
•Conclusion: Final recommendation based on the analysis.
 Project Success and Failure

Success Factors:

•Clear Objectives: Well-defined and understood goals.

•Stakeholder Engagement: Involving all relevant parties and ensuring their support.
•Effective Planning: Comprehensive and realistic project plans.
•Resource Allocation: Adequate and appropriate resources.
•Communication: Open and frequent communication among team members.
•Monitoring and Control: Regular tracking of progress and making adjustments as needed
 Project Success and Failure
Failure Factors:

•Poorly Defined Goals: Ambiguous or shifting objectives.

•Lack of Stakeholder Support: Insufficient involvement or resistance from key
stakeholders.
•Inadequate Planning: Incomplete or unrealistic project plans.
•Insufficient Resources: Lack of necessary personnel, budget, or materials.
•Communication Breakdowns: Infrequent or unclear communication.
•Lack of Monitoring: Failure to track progress and address issues promptly.
 What is Management?
Management as the process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling resources,
including people, finances, and information, to achieve organizational goals efficiently
and effectively.

Key points from the textbook on management include:

• Planning: Setting objectives and determining the best course of action to achieve them.

• Organizing: Arranging resources and tasks in a structured manner to implement plans.

• Leading: Guiding and motivating employees to work towards organizational goals.

 What is Management?
• Controlling: Monitoring progress and making adjustments to ensure goals are met.
• Staffing: Ensuring the organization has the right people in the right positions. This
involves recruiting, selecting, training, and developing employees.
• Innovating: Implementing new ideas, processes, or products to improve efficiency and
effectiveness. Innovation is crucial for staying competitive and meeting changing market
demands.
• Representing: Acting as a liaison(link) between the organization and external
stakeholders. This includes managing relationships with customers, suppliers, investors,
and the community.
 What is Management?

Principal Project Management Process

Initiating:
•Define the project at a high level.
•Establish objectives, scope, purpose, and deliverables.
•Identify stakeholders and secure project approval.
Planning:
•Develop a detailed project plan.
•Outline tasks, timelines, resources, and budget.
•Set performance measures and identify potential risks.
 What is Management?

Principal Project Management Process

Executing:
•Implement the project plan.
•Coordinate people and resources.
•Execute tasks to produce deliverables.
•Ensure quality assurance procedures are followed.
Monitoring and Controlling:
•Track, review, and regulate progress and performance.
•Identify any areas where changes to the plan are required.
•Implement changes as necessary to keep the project on track.
 What is Management?

Principal Project Management Process

Closing:
•Finalize all project activities.
•Obtain acceptance of deliverables.
•Release project resources.
•Conduct a post-project evaluation to capture lessons learned.
Management Control

• Management control is the process by which an organization ensures that its

resources are used effectively and efficiently to achieve its objectives.

• It involves setting performance standards, measuring actual performance, and

taking corrective actions to align operations with strategic goals.

• This process is continuous, adaptive, and essential for maintaining organizational

alignment and achieving long-term success.
 Management Control
The management control process, depicting the sequence of activities from data collection to
implementation
 Management Control
The Real World:
•This represents the external and internal environment where the organization operates. It
is the source of raw data and the context within which all activities occur.

Data Collection:
•Actions: Activities and occurrences in the real world generate data.
•Data: This is the raw information collected from various sources such as operations, market
research, financial transactions, customer feedback, and more.
•The process involves gathering relevant data to provide the foundation for analysis and
decision-making.
 Management Control
Define Objectives:
•Data Objectives: Determine the goals for data collection and what the organization aims to
achieve with the collected data.
•These objectives guide what data is collected and ensure that it is aligned with the
organization’s strategic goals.

Data Processing:
•Information: Raw data is processed to convert it into meaningful information.
•This step involves organizing, cleaning, and analyzing data to extract valuable insights.
•Processed data provides a clearer picture of the current situation and trends.
 Management Control
Modelling:
•Analysis: Using analytical techniques and models to simulate different scenarios and predict
outcomes.
•This helps in understanding potential impacts and evaluating different options.
•Modelling aids in exploring the consequences of various decisions before implementation.

Making Decisions/Plans:
•Decisions: Based on the processed information and modelling results, decisions are made.
•This involves selecting the best course of action to achieve the defined objectives.
•Plans are formulated detailing how the decisions will be implemented.
 Management Control
Implementation:
•Actions: The decisions are put into action through the implementation of plans.
•This step involves executing the planned activities, managing resources, and ensuring that
the objectives are met.
•The outcomes of implementation feed back into the real world, completing the cycle.
Software development and Project management lifecycle

The Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC) is a structured approach used in the

development of software products. It involves a series of stages that provide a framework
for planning and controlling the creation of an information system.

The Project Management Lifecycle is a series of phases that a project goes through
from initiation to closure. It provides a structured approach to managing projects,
ensuring that they are completed on time, within budget, and to the required quality
standards.
 Software development and Project management lifecycle
This diagram differentiates between the roles of developers and managers and the
processes:
Developers carry out:
• Software development process: This
includes the actual creation of software,
which involves coding, testing, and deploying
the software.

Manager carries out:

• Project management processes: This
includes planning, executing, and overseeing
the project to ensure it meets its objectives
and is completed on time and within budget.
 Software development and Project management lifecycle

The diagram also shows the hierarchical relationship between these processes:

•Software development life cycle (SDLC): This encompasses all phases of

software development, from requirements gathering to maintenance.

•Project management life cycle: This includes initiating, planning, executing,

monitoring, controlling, and closing the project.

•Project life cycle: This is the overall period from the start to the end of the
project, covering all project management and development activities.
Software development and Project management lifecycle

This diagram integrates the phases of the project management lifecycle with the
software development lifecycle
 Software development and Project management lifecycle
Project Management Life Cycle:
• Initiating phase: The project is defined at a high level.
• Planning phase: Detailed planning occurs, including defining objectives, scope, and schedule.
• Executing phase: The project plan is put into action.
• Closing phase: The project is formally closed and handed over.

Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC):

• Requirements analysis: Gathering and analyzing user requirements.
• Design: Designing the system architecture and components.
• Develop: Actual coding and development of the software.
• Test: Testing the software to ensure it meets requirements and is bug-free.
• Delivery: Deploying the software to the production environment.
 Project Management Lifecycle
Initiating Phase:
• Develop project charter: Create a document that formally authorizes the project.
• Identify stakeholders: Determine who will be affected by the project and their
influence.
• Set project objectives: Define what the project aims to achieve.
• Conduct feasibility studies: Assess the practicality and benefits of the project.
Project Management Lifecycle
Planning Phase:
• Develop project management plan: Create a comprehensive plan outlining how the
project will be executed.
• Define scope: Establish the boundaries and deliverables of the project.
• Schedule planning: Develop a timeline for project activities.
• Cost planning: Estimate the financial resources required.
• Quality planning: Determine quality criteria and standards.
• Resource planning: Identify the necessary human and material resources.
• Communication planning: Plan how information will be shared among stakeholders.
• Risk management planning: Identify potential risks and develop mitigation strategies.
• Procurement planning: Plan how external resources will be acquired.
Project Management Lifecycle

Executing Phase:

• Direct and manage project work: Lead the team to carry out the project plan.

• Perform quality assurance: Ensure the project meets quality standards.

• Acquire resources: Obtain the necessary resources for project activities.

• Manage team: Oversee and support the project team.

• Implement risk responses: Execute plans to address identified risks.

• Communicate with stakeholders: Share project information with stakeholders.

 Project Management Lifecycle
Monitoring and Controlling Phase:

• Monitor project performance: Track the progress of project activities.

• Perform integrated change control: Manage changes to the project scope, schedule, and

costs.

• Verify and control scope: Ensure the project stays within its defined boundaries.

• Control schedule: Ensure the project remains on track.

• Control costs: Manage the project budget and expenses.

• Conduct risk management: Monitor and address project risks as they arise.
 Project Management Lifecycle
Closing Phase:
• Conduct project or phase closure: Complete all project work and administrative activities.
• Confirm that all work is complete: Ensure all project deliverables are finished.
• Obtain formal acceptance of deliverables: Get approval from stakeholders for the final
product.
• Release project resources: Free up resources for other projects or activities.
• Document lessons learned: Capture insights and experiences for future reference.
 Tradition versus Modern Project Management Practices
1. Planning
•Traditional: Planning is extensive and done at the beginning of the project, with detailed
schedules and task assignments that are followed throughout the project.
•Modern: Planning is iterative and adaptive, with continuous updates based on ongoing
feedback and changing requirements.

2. Incremental Delivery
•Traditional: Delivery is done in a single, final phase at the end of the project after all
development work is completed.
•Modern: Delivery is incremental and iterative, with smaller, usable segments of the product
delivered regularly throughout the project lifecycle.
 Tradition versus Modern Project Management Practices
3. Quality Management
•Traditional: Quality assurance is typically conducted at the end of the development cycle,
focusing on final testing and validation.
•Modern: Quality is built into the process with continuous testing, integration, and feedback
loops throughout the development cycle.

4. Change Management
•Traditional: Changes are managed through a formal change control process, often making it
difficult to incorporate changes once the project plan is set.
•Modern: Changes are expected and welcomed, with flexible processes that allow for easy
adaptation to new requirements or unforeseen issues.
 Tradition versus Modern Project Management Practices
5. Requirement Management
•Traditional: Requirements are gathered and documented comprehensively at the beginning
of the project and are assumed to be stable and unchanging.
•Modern: Requirements are continuously gathered and refined throughout the project, with
ongoing stakeholder engagement to ensure alignment with business needs.

6. Release Management
•Traditional: There is typically one major release at the end of the project after all features
have been developed and tested.
•Modern: Frequent, smaller releases deliver value incrementally, allowing for faster feedback
and continuous improvement.
 Tradition versus Modern Project Management Practices
7. Risk Management
•Traditional: Risks are identified and planned for early in the project, with a static risk
management plan.
•Modern: Risk management is an ongoing activity, with continuous assessment and adjustment
of risk strategies as the project progresses.

8. Scope Management
•Traditional: The project scope is defined early and changes are discouraged; any changes
require formal change requests and approvals.
•Modern: Scope is flexible and can be adjusted based on feedback and changing requirements,
emphasizing delivering maximum value within time and budget constraints.
 Conclusion

1. Projects are non-routine: Projects are inherently uncertain and differ from routine tasks.
2. Clear objectives are crucial: Successful projects require clear objectives, but different
stakeholders may have varying objectives, highlighting the need for an overall project
authority.
3. Testing objectives: Practical methods are necessary to test whether the objectives have
been met.
4. Effective communication: Projects involving multiple people need effective
communication channels. Objective measures of success facilitate clear communication
among various parties.