Computer Architecture and Organization

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 Syllabus

Number Representation and Arithmetic Operations, Character Representation, Memory

locations and addresses, Memory operations, Addressing modes, CISC and RISC.
Hardware for addition and subtraction, Multiplication, Hardware implementation,
Booth's algorithm, Division, Floating point representation, IEEE standard floating-point
representation. Bus organization, comparison of hardwired and micro-programmed
approach, hardwired control design, Booths multiplier design, Micro-programmed
multiplier control unit. Internal organization of memory chips, Structure of Larger
Memories, Cache mapping functions, Replacement algorithms, and Virtual memories.
Accessing I/O devices, Interrupts, Enabling and disabling Interrupts, DMA. Pipeline
Organization, Data dependencies, Handling data dependencies, Hardware
multithreading, SIMD Processing, Graphics processing units, Shared memory
multiprocessors, Interconnection Networks, Cache Coherence, Write-Through Protocol,
Write-Back protocol, Directory-Based Cache Coherence

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 References:

1. Carl Hamacher, Zvonko Vranesic and Safwat Zaky, Computer Organization and
Embedded Systems, (6e), McGraw Hill Publication, 2012.
2. William Stallings, Computer Organization and Architecture – Designing for
Performance, (9e), PHI, 2015.
3. Mohammed Rafiquzzaman and Rajan Chandra, Modern Computer Architecture,
Galgotia Publications Pvt. Ltd., 2010

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Computer Architecture and Organization

Types of Computer General Purpose Computer:

Designed for individual use.

Also called personal computer, workstation

General Embedded
Purpose Computer ( Video, audio, game)
Computer

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 What is
EMBEDDED COMPUTER/ EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

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 Embedded Computer
 It designs for particular task.

Embedded Component
 Performs single function on a
microprocessor
Hardware

 Embedded within a product (e.g. Software

microwave, car, cell phone)
Objective: Low cost. RTOS
 Increasingly written in a hardware
description language, like Verilog or
VHDL.
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How Embedded system processor works?

Input processor output

• Processing • Generates
• Inputs from
very fast (no output in
the sensors
delay units) real time
• Instructions
• Display
• Signals in
• Generate
electrical form
desired o/p
• Data sets
signals

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Actuator and sensor

• Actuators are devices that work opposite to sensors. A sensor converts a physical
event into an electrical signal, whereas an actuator converts electrical signal into a
physical event. When sensors are used at input of a system, actuators are used to
perform output function in a system as they control an external device.

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What is Sensors? Define the types of Sensors?

• Sensors come in many shapes and sizes.

• Some are purpose-built containing, many built-in individual
sensors, allowing you to monitor and measure many sources of
data.
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What are the application of embedded system?

• Consumer electronics

• Washing Machine
• Microwave Oven
• Dishwasher
• Refrigerator
• Smart phone
• Television
• Home appliances

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 What are the application of embedded system?

Car with more Embedded System

• Ignition system
• Airbag system
• ABS breaks
• Navigation
• Rain sensing
• Cruise control
• Automatic A/C
• Automatic Parking
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 What are the application of embedded system?

Home with Embedded System

Smart Home
• Light management
• Heating system
• Air conditioning
• Door control
• Window Control
• Alarm system
• Automatic Camera system
• Security system
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Define the Classification of embedded system?

Small scale Embedded system:

Small Projects

Medium scale Embedded system:

used in CPU

Sophisticated Embedded
system: Super Computer
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 Super computer
 Massive computing resources and memory.

 Hundreds to thousands of processors within single computer Terabytes of

memory.

 Program uses multiple processors simultaneously

 Rare due to extreme expense.

 Applications: Weather forecasting, military simulations, etc.

 Designs for particular task.

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COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM?

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 COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

The control unit controls the The ALU is where

operations of the memory, calculation and
ALU, and the input/output logical operations
subsystem take place

I/P O/P
Device Device

Input: keyboard, mouse, network, disk Output: printer, video screen, network, disk

Memory is the storage area. It is

where programs and data are
stored during processing.

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 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

 It is the hardware within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer
program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical, control and input/output
operations of the system.

 Two typical components of a CPU are the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and control
unit (CU) .

 The arithmetic logic unit (ALU)which performs arithmetic and logical operations,

 The control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and
executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.

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 ALU or DATA PATH UNIT

 It performs the arithmetic operation & logical

operations.

 The entire operation can be done with the help

of registers.

 Registers are faster than memory.

 Registers can hold variables and intermediate

results.

 Memory traffic is reduced, so program runs

faster.
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 CONTROL UNIT
 It fetches and analyses the instructions one-by-
one and issue control signals to all other units to
perform various operations.

 For a given instruction, the exact set of

operations required is indicated by the control
signals. The results of instructions are stored in
memory.

 The component of the processor that commands

the data path, memory, and I/O devices
according to the instructions of the program.

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 MEMORY UNIT/MEMORY OPERATION

It is divided into ‘n’ number of cells. Each cell can store one bit information at a time.

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 Primary Memory

 It is made up of semiconductor material. So it is

called Semiconductor memory.(data is stored
electronically in electronic devices)

 Data storage capacity is less than secondary memory.

 Cost is too expensive than secondary memory.

 CPU can access data directly. Because it is an internal

memory.

 Data accessing speed is very fast than secondary

memory.

 Ex. RAM & ROM

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 RAM & ROM

RAM ROM
The CPU can access the data CPU Interaction The CPU cannot access the
stored on it. data stored unless the data is
stored in RAM.
Expensive Cost Cheap
The Stored information is Accessibility Stored data is not as readily
easily accessible. available as in RAM
Large size with high power. Size and Capacity Small size with low power.
RAM is a flexible memory that can Data retention ROM is a stable memory that can
store data as long as power is store data even when power is
provided. turned off.

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 RAM & ROM

RAM ROM

Data stored in RAM can be restored Working type Data stored on ROMs can only be
and modified. read in easy way.

Used to store data to be processed Use Maintains required commands

by the CPU temporarily. during computer bootstrap.

Has High Speed memory Speed Much slower than the RAM.

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 Random Access Memory (RAM)
Static RAM Dynamic RAM

Information is stored in 1 bit cell called Flip Flop. Information is represented as charge across a
capacitor.

Information will be available as long as power It retains data for few ms based on the charge of
capacitor even in the absence of a power
is available
No refreshing is needed Refreshing is needed

More complex Hardware Less complex hardware

More expensive Less expensive

Access time 10 ns Access time 50 ns

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 PROM & EPROM

Parameter PROM EPROM

Full Form PROM stands for Programmable Read EPROM stands for Erasable
Only Memory. Programmable Read Only Memory.
Reuse PROM is not reusable. It can be written EPROM is a reusable ROM as it can be
only at once. erased and written many times.
Cost PROM is a relatively less expensive type EPROM is expensive in comparison to
of ROM. PROM.
Main Electronic Component PROM is constructed by using bipolar EPROM is made up of MOSFET (Metal
junction transistors. Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor).
Flexibility & Scalability PROM is better than EPROM in terms It is less flexible and scalable in
of flexibility and scalability. comparison to PROM.
Nature PROM is a WORM type memory, which EPROM is a type of ROM that is read
means it is a write once read many type and write many times.
of memory device.

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 Secondary memory
 Secondary memory (Non-volatile storage) is a form of storage that retains data even in the
absence of a power source and that is used to store the programs between runs.

 It is made up of magnetic material. So, it is called magnetic memory.

 Data storage capacity is high than primary memory.

 Cost is too low than primary memory.

 CPU cannot access data directly. Because it is an external memory.

 Data accessing speed is very slow than primary memory.

 Ex. Magnetic disk, Hard Disk, CD, DVD, Floppy Disk

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 Magnetic Disk
Advantages:-

 These are economical memory

 Easy and direct access to data

is possible.

 It can store large amounts of

data.
Disadvantages:-
 These are less expensive than RAM but more expensive than
 It has a better data transfer rate
magnetic tape memories.
than magnetic tapes.
 It needs a clean and dust-free environment to store.
 It has less prone to corruption
of data as compared to tapes.  These are not suitable for sequential access.

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 Optical Disk
Optical Disk: Include both Compact Disk (CD) and Digital Video Disk(DVD).

Read-Only CD/DVD:
Data is recorded in a spiral fashion, with individual bits being recorded by burning small pit. The disk
is read by shining a laser at the CD surface and determining by examining the reflected light whether
there is a pit or flat surface.

Rewritable CD/DVD
Use different recording surface that as a crystal line, reflective materials, pits are formed that are not
reflective.

Erase CD/DVD
The surface is heated and cooled slowly, allowing an annealing process to restore the surface
recording layer to its crystalline structure.

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 Cache Memory
 Cache memory is a chip-based computer component that
makes retrieving data from the computer's memory more
efficient.

 It acts as a temporary storage area that the computer's

processor can retrieve data from easily.

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main

memory.

 It stores the program that can be executed within a short

period of time.

 It stores data for temporary use.

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 Registers
 Register is a group of flip-flops which can be used to store a word.

 It is a high-speed temporary storage space for holding data, addresses and instructions during processing the
instruction.

 There are 2 types of registers store in a CPU.

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 General Register organization

CPU has seven general registers.

A decoder is used to select a

particular register.

The selection lines in each

multiplexer select the input data for
the bus.

The operation select lines decide the

micro-operation to be performed by
ALU.

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Multiplexer

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Problem-

Design 8 X 1 MUX using

2X1 MUX

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8 X 1 MUX using 2X1 MUX

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Problem-

Design 8 X 1 MUX using 4X 1 MUX and2X1 MUX

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8 X 1 MUX using 4X 1 MUX and2X1 MUX

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Problem-

Design 16 X 1 MUX using 8 X 1 MUX and2X1 MUX

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Problem-

Design 16 X 1 MUX using 4 X 1 MUX

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Problem-

Design 32 X 1 MUX using 8 X 1 MUX and 4X!

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Problem-

How many 2x1 mux is required to design 32 X 1 MUX

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 General Register organization

CPU has seven general registers.

A decoder is used to select a

particular register.

The selection lines in each

multiplexer select the input data for
the bus.

The operation select lines decide the

micro-operation to be performed by
ALU.

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General Register organization
Binary code SELA SELB SELD
000 Input Input ---
EXAMPLE:
• To perform the operation R3 = R1+R2
001 R1 R1 R1
010 R2 R2 R2
1. SEL A: 001 -To place the contents of R1
into bus A.
011 R3 R3 R3
2. SEL B: 010 - to place the contents of R2 into
bus B 010 R4 R4 R4

3. SEL OPR: 10010 – to perform the 011 R5 R5 R5

arithmetic addition A+B
110 R6 R6 R6
4. SEL D: 011 – to place the result available
on output bus in R3 111 R7 R7 R7

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 Operation with symbol
Operation selection code Operation symbol
0000 Transfer A TSFA
0001 Increment A INC A
0010 A+B ADD
0011 A-B SUB
0100 Decrement A DEC
0101 A AND B AND
0110 A OR B OR
0111 A XOR B XOR
1000 Complement A COMA
1001 Shift right A SHR
1010 Shift left A SHL

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 Special Purpose Register
They are used for the specific purpose by the control hardware

Special
Purpose
Register
PC is used to
store the address
of next PC AC
instruction to be AC holds the result
executed generated by ALU

The MAR holds the MAR MDR IR

address of the main IR is used to hold the
memory to or from instruction that is currently
which data is being executed
to be transferred. MDR contains the data to be written into or read
from the addressed word of the main memory
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Representations and Arithmetic
operation with signed numbers

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Binary Number Representation

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Signed and Unsigned Binary

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Finding 1’s complement

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Inverters used to obtain 1’s complement of a binary
numbers

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Finding 2’s complement

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Finding 2’s complement

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Representation of the signed integers in Binary Three forms

Signed integers in Binary

Signed
1’s 2’s
Magnitude
Complement Complement
form

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Representation of the signed integers in Binary Three forms

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Representation of the signed integers in Binary Three forms

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Representation of the signed integers in Binary Three forms

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Representation of the signed integers

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Range on 2’s complement representation

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• Arithmetic operation with
numbers Addition

Subtraction

Multiplication

Division
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Addition with Unsigned number

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Subtraction with Unsigned number

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Rules for Addition and Subtraction using Signed –
Magnitude Data

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Overflow?

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Examples of Overflow

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Multiplication with Unsigned number

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Division

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Thank You

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