1 Functions

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Topics for the second week
1. Part I: Definitions
i. Definition of function, domain, co-domain, range
ii. Representation of a function
2. Part II: Properties
i. Even ii. Odd iii. Periodic iv. One-to-one v. Onto
3. Part III: Some essential functions
Linear functions, polynomials, rational function, power function,
algebraic function, trigonometric function, exponential function,
inverse function, logarithmic function, inverse trig function
4. Part IV: Operations on functions
i. Unary operations: shift, scale, reflection
ii. Binary operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
composition
5. Part V: Inverse functions
i. Definition of inverse functions ii. One-to-one and inverse functions
iii. Finding inverse iv. Inverse trig functions and logarithm

2
Topics for Part I
1. Definition: Function, domain, co-domain, range
2. Representation of a function

3
Definition of Function

•The set D is called the domain of the function.

•The set E is called the codomain of the function.
•The set of all possible values of f (x) as x varies throughout
the domain is called the range.
•The number f (x) is the value of f at x and is read “f of x”
•A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the
domain of a function f is called an independent variable.
•A symbol that represents a number in the range of f is
called a dependent variable

4
Visualization of a Function
One way to picture a function is by an arrow
diagram as in Figure 3.

Arrow diagram for f

Figure 3

Each arrow connects an element of D to an element

of E. The arrow indicates that f (x) is associated with
x, f (a) is associated with a, and so on. 5
Visualization of a Function
Another common method for visualizing a function is its
graph. If f is a function with domain D, then its graph is the
set of ordered pairs

{(x, f (x)) | x  D}

In other words, the graph of f consists of all points (x, y)

in the coordinate plane such that y = f (x) and x is in the
domain of f.

6
 Example
1 f A It is a function
One to one
2 B Onto

3 C

4 D

Domain: {1,2,3,4} f(1) =C

Codomain: {A,B,C,D} f(2) =D
f(3) =B
Range: {A,B,C,D}
f(4) =A
7
 Example
1 f A It is a function
Not One to one
2 B Not Onto

3 C

4 D

Domain: {1,2,3,4} f(1) =C

Codomain: {A,B,C,D} f(2) =C
f(3) =B
Range: {A,B,C}
f(4) =A
8
 Example
1 f A It is a function
Not One to one
2 B Onto

3 C

Domain: {1,2,3,4} f(1) =C

Codomain: {A,B,C} f(2) =C
f(3) =B
Range: {A,B,C}
f(4) =A
9
 Example
It is NOT a function
1 f A
Not One to one
Onto
2 B

3 C

Domain: {1,2,3,4} f(1) =C

Codomain: {A,B,C} f(2) =A
f(3) =B
Range: {A,B,C}
f(3) =C
f(4) =A 10
Visualization of a Function
The graph of a function f gives us a useful picture of the
behavior or “life history” of a function. Since the
y-coordinate of any point (x, y) on the graph is y = f (x), we
can read the value of f (x) from the graph as being the
height of the graph above the point x (see Figure 4).

Figure 4

11
Visualization of a Function
The graph of f also allows us to picture the domain of f on
the x-axis and its range on the y-axis as in Figure 5.
f: [1,3] [2,5] Domain is [1,3]
5 Codomain is [2,5]
It is a function
Not one to one Range is [2,5]
Onto 2

1 3
Figure 5

12
Visualization of Functions
The reason for the truth of the Vertical Line Test can be seen
in Figure 13.

function Not function

Not one to Not one to
one one

Figure 13

If each vertical line x = a intersects a curve only once, at (a,

b), then exactly one functional value is defined by f (a)
= b. But if a line x = a intersects the curve twice, at
(a, b) and (a, c), then the curve can’t represent a function
because a function can’t assign two different values to a.
13
Example
The graph of a function f is shown in Figure 6.

The notation for intervals is given in Appendix A.

Figure 6

(a) Find the values of f (1) and f (5).

(b) What are the domain and range of f ?
14
Example – Solution
(a) We see from Figure 6 that the point (1, 3) lies on the
graph of f, so the value of f at 1 is f(1) = 3. (In other
words, the point on the graph that lies above x = 1 is 3
units above the x-axis.)

When x = 5, the graph lies about 0.7 unit below the

x-axis, so we estimate that f(5)  –0.7.

(b) We see that f (x) is defined when 0  x  7, so the

domain of f is the closed interval [0, 7]. Notice that f
takes on all values from –2 to 4, so the range of f is

{y | –2  y  4} = [–2, 4]
15
Example
For example, the parabola x = y2 – 2 shown in Figure 14(a)
is not the graph of a function of x because, as you can see,
there are vertical lines that intersect the parabola twice.
The parabola, however, does contain the graphs of two
functions of x.

Not function
one to one

x = y2 – 2
Figure 14(a)

16
Example
Notice that the equation x = y2 – 2 implies y2 = x + 2, so
. Thus the upper and lower halves of the
parabola are the graphs of the functions
and . [See Figures 14(b) and (c).]

function
function
one to one
one to one

Figure 14(b) Figure 14(c)

17
Topics for Part II
1. Properties of a function:
Even, Odd, One-to-one(or injective), Periodic, Onto(or
surjective)

18
One to One

19
One to one (or 1-1) Function

Definition: A function f is one to one if no two elements in the

domain of f correspond to the same element in the range of f

Algebraically: A function f is said to be one to one if

f(x) = f(y) implies x =y

Graphically: if no horizontal line intersects the graph of

the function f in more than one point then the function f is
one to one (1-1)

20
Example
Show that f (x) = x3 is an 1-1 function but g(x) = x4 is not
one to one
Algebraically:
f (x) = f(y)
x3 = y3
x=y (cube root of both sides)
Since g(-1) = g(1) but -1 ≠ 1 therefore by the algebraic
definition of one to one function we can say that g(x) is not
a one to one function

21
 Example
Graphically:

f (x) = x3 passes the horizontal line test but f (x) = x4 does not
pass the horizontal line test

22
Symmetry

23
Symmetry
Algebraically:
If a function f satisfies f (–x) = f (x) for every number x in its
domain, then f is called an even function. For instance,
the function f (x) = x2 is even because

f (–x) = (–x)2 = x2 = f (x)

Graphically:
The geometric significance of an
even function is that its graph is
symmetric with respect to the y-axis
(see Figure 19).
An even function
Figure 19

24
Symmetry
Algebraically:
If a function f satisfies f (–x) = –f (x) for every number x in its
domain, then f is called an odd function. For instance, the
function f (x) = x3 is an odd function because

f (–x) = (–x)3 = -x3 = -f (x)

Graphically
The geometric significance of an
even function is that its graph is An odd function
Figure 19
symmetric with respect to the origin
This means that if we have plotted the graph of f for x  0,
we obtain the entire graph simply by reflecting this portion
about the y-axis. 25
Periodic

26
Symmetry

27
Example
Determine whether each of the following functions is even,
odd, or neither even nor odd.
(a) f (x) = x5 + x (b) g (x) = 1 – x4 (c) h (x) = 2x – x2

Solution:
(a) f (–x) = (–x)5 + (–x)
= (–1)5 x5 + (–x)
= –x5 – x
= –(x5 + x)
= –f (x)

Therefore f is an odd function.

28
Example – Solution cont’d

(b) g(–x) = 1 – (–x4)

= 1 – x4
= g (x)

So g is even.

(c) h(–x) = 2(–x) – (–x2)

= –2x – x2

Since h(–x)  h (x) and h(–x)  –h (x), we conclude that

h
is neither even nor odd. 29
Symmetry
The graphs of the functions in Example 11 are shown in
Figure 21. Notice that the graph of h is symmetric neither
about the y-axis nor about the origin.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 21

30
Topics for Part III
1. Some essential functions: linear functions, polynomials, rational
function, power function, algebraic function, trigonometric function,
exponential function, inverse function, logarithmic function, inverse
trig function

31
 Mathematical Models:
1.2 A Catalog of Essential Functions

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

32
Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions

A mathematical model is a mathematical description

(often by means of a function or an equation) of a
real-world phenomenon such as the size of a population,
the demand for a product, the speed of a falling object, the
concentration of a product in a chemical reaction, the life
expectancy of a person at birth, or the cost of emission
reductions.

The purpose of the model is to understand the

phenomenon and perhaps to make predictions about future
behavior.

33
Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions

Figure 1 illustrates the process of mathematical modeling.

Figure 1

The modeling process

34
Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions

A mathematical model is never a completely accurate

representation of a physical situation—it is an idealization. A
good model simplifies reality enough to permit mathematical
calculations but is accurate enough to provide valuable
conclusions.

It is important to realize the limitations of the model. In the

end, Mother Nature has the final say.

There are many different types of functions that can be used

to model relationships observed in the real world. In what
follows, we discuss the behavior and graphs of these
functions and give examples of situations appropriately
modeled by such functions. 35
Linear Models

36
Linear Models
When we say that y is a linear function of x, we mean that
the graph of the function is a line, so we can use the
slope-intercept form of the equation of a line to write a
formula for the function as

y = f (x) = mx + b

where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept.

37
Linear Models
A characteristic feature of linear functions is that they grow
at a constant rate.

For instance, Figure 2 shows a graph of the linear function

f (x) = 3x – 2 and a table of sample values.

Figure 2
38
Linear Models
Notice that whenever x increases by 0.1, the value of f (x)
increases by 0.3.

So f (x) increases three times as fast as x. Thus the slope of

the graph y = 3x – 2, namely 3, can be interpreted as the
rate of change of y with respect to x.

39
Example 1
(a) As dry air moves upward, it expands and cools. If the
ground temperature is 20C and the temperature at a
height of 1 km is 10C, express the temperature T
(in °C) as a function of the height h (in kilometers),
assuming that a linear model is appropriate.

(b) Draw the graph of the function in part (a). What does
the slope represent?

(c) What is the temperature at a height of 2.5 km?

40
Example 1(a) – Solution
Because we are assuming that T is a linear function of h,
we can write
T = mh + b
We are given that T = 20 when h = 0, so
20 = m • 0 + b = b
In other words, the y-intercept is b = 20.
We are also given that T = 10 when h = 1, so
10 = m • 1 + 20
The slope of the line is therefore m = 10 – 20 = –10 and the
required linear function is
T = –10h + 20 41
Example 1(b) – Solution cont’d

The graph is sketched in Figure 3.

The slope is m = –10C/km, and this represents the rate of
change of temperature with respect to height.

Figure 3
42
Example 1(c) – Solution cont’d

At a height of h = 2.5 km, the temperature is

T = –10(2.5) + 20 = –5C

43
Linear Models
If there is no physical law or principle to help us
formulate a model, we construct an empirical
model, which is based entirely on collected data.

We seek a curve that “fits” the data in the sense

that it captures the basic trend of the data points.

44
Polynomials

45
Polynomials
A function P is called a polynomial if
P (x) = anxn + an–1xn–1 + . . . + a2x2 + a1x + a0
where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers
a0, a1, a2, . . ., an are constants called the coefficients of
the polynomial.

The domain of any polynomial is If the

leading coefficient an  0, then the degree of the
polynomial is n. For example, the function

is a polynomial of degree 6.
46
Polynomials
A polynomial of degree 1 is of the form P (x) = mx + b and
so it is a linear function.

A polynomial of degree 2 is of the form P (x) = ax2 + bx + c

and is called a quadratic function.

47
Polynomials
Its graph is always a parabola obtained by shifting the
parabola y = ax2. The parabola opens upward if a > 0 and
downward if a < 0. (See Figure 7.)

The graphs of quadratic functions are parabolas.

Figure 7
48
Polynomials
A polynomial of degree 3 is of the form
P (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d a0

and is called a cubic function. Figure 8 shows the graph

of a cubic function in part (a) and graphs of polynomials of
degrees 4 and 5 in parts (b) and (c).

Figure 8 49
Example 4
A ball is dropped from the upper observation deck of the
CN Tower, 450 m above the ground, and its height h above
the ground is recorded at 1-second intervals in Table 2.

Find a model to fit the data

and use the model to predict
the time at which the ball hits
the ground.

50
Example 4 – Solution
We draw a scatter plot of the data in Figure 9 and observe
that a linear model is inappropriate.

Scatter plot for a falling ball

Figure 9

51
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

But it looks as if the data points might lie on a parabola, so

we try a quadratic model instead.

Using a graphing calculator or computer algebra system

(which uses the least squares method), we obtain the
following quadratic model:

h = 449.36 + 0.96ts – 4.90t2

52
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

In Figure 10 we plot the graph of Equation 3 together with

the data points and see that the quadratic model gives a
very good fit.

Quadratic model for a falling ball

Figure 10

The ball hits the ground when h = 0, so we solve the

quadratic equation
–4.90t2 + 0.96t + 449.36 = 0
53
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

The quadratic formula gives

The positive root is t  9.67, so we predict that the ball will

hit the ground after about 9.7 seconds.

54
Power Functions

55
Power Functions
A function of the form f(x) = xa, where a is a constant, is
called a power function. We consider several cases.

(i) a = n, where n is a positive integer

The graphs of f(x) = xn for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are shown in
Figure 11. (These are polynomials with only one term.)

We already know the shape of the graphs of y = x (a line

through the origin with slope 1) and y = x2 (a parabola).

56
Power Functions

Graphs of f (x) = xn for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Figure 11 57
Power Functions
The general shape of the graph of f (x) = xn depends on
whether n is even or odd.

If n is even, then f (x) = xn is an even function and its graph

is similar to the parabola y = x2.

If n is odd, then f (x) = xn is an odd function and its graph is

similar to that of y = x3.

58
Power Functions
Notice from Figure 12, however, that as n increases, the
graph of y = xn becomes flatter near 0 and steeper when
| x |  1. (If x is small, then x2 is smaller, x3 is even smaller,
x4 is smaller still, and so on.)

Families of power functions

Figure 12 59
Power Functions
(ii) a = 1/n, where n is a positive integer
The function is a root function. For n =
2 it is the square root function whose domain is
[0, ) and whose graph is the upper half of the
parabola x = y2. [See Figure 13(a).]

Graph of root function

Figure 13(a) 60
Power Functions
For other even values of n, the graph of is similar
to that of
For n = 3 we have the cube root function whose
domain is (recall that every real number has a cube root)
and whose graph is shown in Figure 13(b). The graph of

for n odd (n > 3) is similar to that of

Graph of root function

Figure 13(b) 61
Power Functions
(iii) a = –1
The graph of the reciprocal function f (x) = x –1 = 1/x is
shown in Figure 14. Its graph has the equation y = 1/x, or
xy = 1, and is a hyperbola with the coordinate axes as its
asymptotes.

The reciprocal function

Figure 14
62
Power Functions
This function arises in physics and chemistry in connection
with Boyle’s Law, which says that, when the temperature is
constant, the volume V of a gas is inversely proportional to
the pressure P:

where C is a constant.

Thus the graph of V as a

function of P (see Figure 15)
has the same general shape
as the right half of Figure 14. Volume as a function of pressure
at constant temperature
Figure 15 63
Rational Functions

64
Rational Functions
A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomials:

where P and Q are polynomials. The domain consists of all

values of x such that Q(x)  0.

A simple example of a rational

function is the function f (x) = 1/x,
whose domain is {x | x  0}; this
is the reciprocal function graphed
in Figure 14.

The reciprocal function

Figure 14
65
Rational Functions
The function

is a rational function with domain {x | x  2}. Its graph is

shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16 66
Algebraic Functions

67
Algebraic Functions
A function f is called an algebraic function if it can be
constructed using algebraic operations (such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots)
starting with polynomials. Any rational function is
automatically an algebraic function.

Here are two more examples:

68
Algebraic Functions
The graphs of algebraic functions can assume a variety of
shapes. Figure 17 illustrates some of the possibilities.

Figure 17

69
Algebraic Functions
An example of an algebraic function occurs in the theory of
relativity. The mass of a particle with velocity v is

where m0 is the rest mass of the particle and

c = 3.0 x 105 km/s is the speed of light in a vacuum.

70
Trigonometric Functions

71
Trigonometric Functions
In calculus the convention is that radian measure is always
used (except when otherwise indicated).

For example, when we use the function f (x) = sin x, it is

understood that sin x means the sine of the angle whose
radian measure is x.

72
Trigonometric Functions
Thus the graphs of the sine and cosine functions are as
shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18 73
Trigonometric Functions
Notice that for both the sine and cosine functions the domain
is ( , ) and the range is the closed interval [–1, 1].

Thus, for all values of x, we have

or, in terms of absolute values,

| sin x |  1 | cos x |  1

74
Trigonometric Functions
Also, the zeros of the sine function occur at the integer
multiples of  ; that is,

sin x = 0 when x = n n an integer

An important property of the sine and cosine functions is

that they are periodic functions and have period 2.

This means that, for all values of x,

75
Trigonometric Functions
The tangent function is related to the sine and cosine
functions by the equation

and its graph is shown in

Figure 19. It is undefined
whenever cos x = 0, that is,
when x =  /2, 3 /2, . . . .
y = tan x
Figure 19
Its range is ( , ).
76
Trigonometric Functions
Notice that the tangent function has period  :

tan (x + ) = tan x for all x

The remaining three trigonometric functions (cosecant,

secant, and cotangent) are the reciprocals of the sine,
cosine, and tangent functions.

77
Exponential Functions

78
Exponential Functions
The exponential functions are the functions of the form
f (x) = ax, where the base a is a positive constant.

The graphs of y = 2x and y = (0.5)x are shown in Figure 20.

In both cases the domain is ( , ) and the range is
(0, ).

Figure 20

79
Exponential Functions
Exponential functions are useful for modeling many natu
phenomena, such as population growth (if a > 1) and
radioactive decay (if a < 1).

80
Logarithmic Functions

81
Logarithmic Functions
The logarithmic functions f (x) = logax, where the base
positive constant, are the inverse functions of the expon
functions. Figure 21 shows the graphs of four logarithmic
functions with various bases.

In each case the domain is

(0, ), the range is ( , ),
and the function increases
slowly when x > 1.

Figure 21
82
Example 5
Classify the following functions as one of the types of
functions that we have discussed.

(a) f(x) = 5x

(b) g (x) = x5

(c)

(d) u (t) = 1 – t + 5t 4

83
Example 5 – Solution
(a) f(x) = 5x is an exponential function.
(The x is the exponent.)

(b) g (x) = x5 is a power function. (The x is the base.)

We could also consider it to be a polynomial of degre

(c) is an algebraic function.

(d) u (t) = 1 – t + 5t 4 is a polynomial of degree 4.

84
Topics for Part IV
1. New functions from old functions:
I. Transformation of functions: shifting, scaling, reflecting
II. Combination of functions: addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, composition

85
 New Functions from Old
1.3 Functions

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

86
Transformations of Functions

87
Transformations of Functions
By applying certain transformations to the graph of a given
function we can obtain the graphs of certain related
functions.

This will give us the ability to sketch the graphs of many

functions quickly by hand. It will also enable us to write
equations for given graphs.

Let’s first consider translations. If c is a positive number,

then the graph of y = f (x) + c is just the graph of y = f (x)
shifted upward a distance of c units (because each
y-coordinate is increased by the same number c).
88
Transformations of Functions
Likewise, if g(x) = f (x – c), where c > 0, then the value of
g at x is the same as the value of f at x – c (c units to the left
of x).

Therefore the graph of

y = f (x – c), is just the
graph of y = f (x) shifted
c units to the right
(see Figure 1).

Translating the graph of ƒ

Figure 1 89
Transformations of Functions

Now let’s consider the stretching and reflecting

transformations. If c > 1, then the graph of y = cf (x) is the
graph of y = f (x) stretched by a factor of c in the vertical
direction (because each y-coordinate is multiplied by the
same number c).

90
Transformations of Functions
The graph of y = –f (x) is the graph of y = f (x) reflected about
the x-axis because the point (x, y) is replaced by the
point (x, –y).

(See Figure 2 and the

following chart, where the
results of other stretching,
shrinking, and reflecting
transformations are also
given.)
Stretching and reflecting the graph of f
Figure 2 91
Transformations of Functions

92
Transformations of Functions
Figure 3 illustrates these stretching transformations when
applied to the cosine function with c = 2.

Figure 3

93
Transformations of Functions
For instance, in order to get the graph of y = 2 cos x we
multiply the y-coordinate of each point on the graph of
y = cos x by 2.

This means that the graph of y = cos x gets stretched

vertically by a factor of 2.

94
Example 1
Given the graph of use transformations to graph
and

Solution:
The graph of the square root function , is shown in
Figure 4(a).

Figure 4 95
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Figure 4

In the other parts of the figure we sketch by

shifting 2 units downward, by shifting 2 units to
the right, by reflecting about the x-axis,
by stretching vertically by a factor of 2, and by
reflecting about the y-axis. 96
Transformations of Functions
Another transformation of some interest is taking the
absolute value of a function. If y = | f (x) |, then according to
the definition of absolute value, y = f (x) when f (x) ≥ 0 and
y = –f (x) when f (x) < 0.

This tells us how to get the graph of y = | f (x) | from the graph
of y = f (x) : The part of the graph that lies above the x-axis
remains the same; the part that lies below the x-axis is
reflected about the x-axis.

97
Combinations of Functions

98
Combinations of Functions
Two functions f and g can be combined to form new
functions f + g, f – g, fg, and f/g in a manner similar to the
way we add, subtract, multiply, and divide real numbers.
The sum and difference functions are defined by
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g (x) (f – g)(x) = f (x) – g (x)
If the domain of f is A and the domain of g is B, then the
domain of f + g is the intersection A ∩ B because both
f (x) and g(x) have to be defined.
For example, the domain of is A = [0, ) and the
domain of is B = ( , 2], so the domain of
is A ∩ B = [0, 2].
99
Combinations of Functions
Similarly, the product and quotient functions are defined by

The domain of fg is A ∩ B, but we can’t divide by 0 and so

the domain of f/g is {x  A ∩ B | g(x)  0}.

For instance, if f (x) = x2 and g (x) = x – 1, then the domain of

the rational function (f/g)(x) = x2/(x – 1) is {x | x  1},
or ( , 1) U (1, ).

100
Combinations of Functions
There is another way of combining two functions to obtain a
new function. For example, suppose that y = f (u) =
and u = g (x) = x2 + 1.

Since y is a function of u and u is, in turn, a function of x, it

follows that y is ultimately a function of x. We compute
this by substitution:

y = f (u) = f (g (x)) = f (x2 + 1) =

The procedure is called composition because the new

function is composed of the two given functions f and g.
101
Combinations of Functions
In general, given any two functions f and g, we start with a
number x in the domain of g and find its image g (x). If this
number g (x) is in the domain of f, then we can calculate the
value of f (g (x)).

The result is a new function h (x) = f (g (x)) obtained by

substituting g into f. It is called the composition (or composite)
of f and g and is denoted by f  g (“f circle g ”).

102
Combinations of Functions
The domain of f  g is the set of all x in the domain of g such
that g (x) is in the domain of f.

In other words, (f  g)(x) is

defined whenever both
g (x) and f (g (x)) are defined.

Figure 11 shows how to

picture f  g in terms of machines.
The f  g machine is composed of
the g machine (first) and then
the f machine.
Figure 11
103
Example 6
If f (x) = x2 and g (x) = x – 3, find the composite functions
f  g and g  f.

Solution:
We have
= f (x – 3) = (x – 3)2
(f  g)(x) = f (g (x))
= g (x2) = x2 – 3

(g  f)(x) = g (f (x))

104
Combinations of Functions
Remember, the notation f  g means that the function g is
applied first and then f is applied second. In Example 6,
f  g is the function that first subtracts 3 and then squares;
g  f is the function that first squares and then subtracts 3.

It is possible to take the composition of three or more

functions. For instance, the composite function f  g  h is
found by first applying h, then g, and then f as follows:

(f  g  h)(x) = f (g (h (x)))

105
Topics for Part V
1. Inverse functions:
I. Definition of inverse functions, finding inverse of a
general function
II. logarithmic function, inverse trigonometric function

106
One-to-One Functions and Their
Inverses

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107
Objectives

• One-to-One Functions
• The Inverse of a Function
• Finding the Inverse of a Function
• Graphing the Inverse of a Function
• Applications of Inverse Functions

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One-to-One Functions and Their
Inverses
The inverse of a function is a rule that acts on the output of the function
and produces the corresponding input.
So the inverse “undoes” or reverses what the function has done. Not all
functions have inverses; those that do are called one-to-one.

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 One-to-One Functions

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One-to-One Functions (1 of 6)
Let’s compare the functions f and g whose arrow diagrams are shown in Figure 1.

f is one-to-one g is not one-to-one

Figure 1

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One-to-One Functions (2 of 6)
Note that f never takes on the same value twice (any two numbers in A have
different images), whereas g does take on the same value twice (both 2 and 3
have the same image, 4).
In symbols, g (2) = g (3) but f (x1) ≠ f (x2) whenever x1 ≠ x2. Functions that have
this latter property are called one-to-one.

112
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One-to-One Functions (3 of 6)

DEFINITION OF A ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTION

A function with domain A is called a one-to-one function if no two elements of A have
the same image, that is,

f  x1  f  x2 , whenever x1  x2

An equivalent way of writing the condition for a one-to-one function is this:

If f (x1) = f (x2), then x1 = x2.

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One-to-One Functions (4 of 6)

If a horizontal line intersects the graph of f at more than one point, then we see from
Figure 2 that there are numbers x1 ≠ x2 such that f (x1) = f (x2).

This function is not one-to-one because f (x1) = f (x2).

Figure 2

This means that f is not one-to-one.

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One-to-One Functions (5 of 6)

Therefore we have the following geometric method for determining whether a

function is one-to-one.
HORIZONTAL LINE TEST
A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects its graph
more than once.

115
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 Example 1 – Deciding Whether a Function Is One-to-One
Is the function f x   x 3 one-to-one?

Solution 1:

I
f x1  x2 , then x13  x23 (two different numbers cannot have the same cube).

Therefore, f x   x 3 is one-to-one.

Solution 2:
From Figure 3 we see that no horizontal
line intersects the graph of f x   x 3
more than once. Therefore by the
Horizontal Line Test, f is one-to-one.
f  x   x 3 is one-to-one

Figure 3

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One-to-One Functions (6 of 6)

Notice that the function f of Example 1 is increasing and is also one-to-one. In

fact, it can be proved that every increasing function and every decreasing
function is one-to-one.

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 The Inverse of a Function

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The Inverse of a Function (1 of 5)
One-to-one functions are important because they are precisely the functions that possess inverse
functions according to the following definition.

DEFINITION OF THE INVERSE OF A FUNCTION

Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B. Then its inverse
function f  1 has domain B and range A and is defined by

f  1 y   x  f  x   y

for any y in B.

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The Inverse of a Function (2 of 5)

This definition says that if f takes x to y, then f 1 takes y back to x. (If f were not

one-to-one, then f 1 would not be defined uniquely.) The arrow diagram in

Figure 6 indicates that f 1 reverses the effect of f. From the definition we have

domain of f  1 range of f
range of f  1 domain of f

Figure 6

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Example 4 – Finding f inverse for Specific Values

If f (1) = 5, f (3) = 7, and f (8) = −10, find f  1 5 , f  7 , and f  1  10 .

Solution:
From the definition of f 1 we have

f  1 5  1 because f 1 5
f  1 7  3 because f 3  7
f  1  10  8 because f 8   10

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Example 4 – Solution
Figure 7 shows how f 1 reverses the effect of f in this case.

Figure 7

Don’t mistake the −1 in f 1 for an exponent.

1
f  1  x  does not mean
f x 
1
is written as f  x  .
1
The reciprocal

f x 

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The Inverse of a Function
By definition the inverse
f 1
undoes what f does: If we start with x, apply

function f, and then apply

f  1, we arrive back at x, where we started. Similarly,

f undoes what f 1 does. In general, any function that reverses the effect of f

in this way must be the inverse of f. These observations are expressed

precisely as follows.

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The Inverse of a Function (4 of 5)

INVERSE FUNCTION PROPERTY

Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B. The inverse function
f  1 satisfies the following cancellation properties:

f  1 f  x   x for every x in A


f f  1 x   x  for every x in B

Conversely, any function f 1 satisfying these equations is the inverse of f.

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The Inverse of a Function (5 of 5)
These properties indicate that f is the inverse function of
f  1, so we say that f and

f 1 are inverses of each other.

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Finding the Inverse of a Function

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Finding the Inverse of a Function (1 of
3)

Now let’s examine how we compute inverse functions. We first observe from

the definition of f  1 that

y f  x   f  1 y   x

So if y = f (x) and if we are able to solve this equation for x in terms of y, then

we must have
x f  1 y . If we then interchange x and y, we have
y f  1  x ,
which is the desired equation.

127
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Finding the Inverse of a Function (2 of
3)

HOW TO FIND THE INVERSE OF A ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTION

1.Write y = f(x).
2.Solve this equation for x in terms of y (if possible).
3. Interchange x and y. The resulting equation is y f  1  x .

Note that Steps 2 and 3 can be reversed. In other words, we can interchange x
and y first and then solve for y in terms of x.

128
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Example 7 – Finding the Inverse of a Function

Find the inverse of the function f (x) = 3x − 2.

Solution:
First we write y = f (x).

y = 3x − 2

Then we solve this equation for x.

3x = y + 2 Add 2

y 2
x Divide by 3
3

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Example 7 – Solution

Finally, we interchange x and y:

x 2
y
3

x 2
Therefore, the inverse function is f  1 x   .
3

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Finding the Inverse of a Function (3 of 3)
A rational function is a function defined by a rational expression. In the next
example we find the inverse of a rational function.

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Example 9 – Finding the Inverse of a Rational Function

2x  3
Find the inverse of the function f x   .
x1
Solution:

We first write
y
2 x  3  and solve for x.

x  1
2x  3
y Equation defining function

x1
y (x − 1) = 2x + 3 Multiply by x − 1

yx − y = 2x + 3 Expand

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Example 9 – Solution
Bring x-terms to LHS
yx − 2x = y + 3

Factor x
x (y − 2) = y + 3

y 3
x Divide by y − 2
y 2

x 3
Therefore the inverse function is f  1 x   .
x 2

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Graphing the Inverse of a Function

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Graphing the Inverse of a Function (1 of 2)

The principle of interchanging x and y to find the inverse function also gives us

a method for obtaining the graph of

f 1 from the graph of f.

If f (a) = b, then f  1 b  a. Thus the point (a, b) is on the graph of f if and only if the
1
point (b, a) is on the graph of
f .

135
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Graphing the Inverse of a Function
(2 of 2)

But we get the point (b, a) from the point (a, b) by reflecting in the line y = x (see Figure 9).
Therefore, as Figure 10 illustrates, the following is true.

is obtained by reflecting the graph of f in the line y = x.

The graph of
f 1

Figure 9 Figure 10

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Example 10 – Graphing the Inverse of a Function

(a) Sketch the graph of f  x   x  2.

(b) Use the graph of f to sketch the graph of f  1.
(c) Find an equation for f  1.
Solution:

(a) We sketch the graph of y  x 2 by plotting the graph of the function

y x and shifting it to the right 2 units.

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Example 10 – Solution (1 of 3)
(b) The graph of
f  1 is obtained from the graph of f in part (a) by reflecting it in
the line y = x, as shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11

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Example 10 – Solution (2 of 3)
(c) Solve y  x 2 for x, noting that y  0.

x  2 y
x  2 y 2 Square each side

x  y 2  2 y 0 Add 2

Interchange x and y, as follows:

y  x 2  2 x 0

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Example 10 – Solution (3 of 3)

Thus
f  1  x   x 2  2 x 0

This expression shows that the graph of f 1

is the right half of the parabola y  x 2  2,
and from the graph shown in Figure 11 this
seems reasonable.

Figure 11

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Applications of Inverse Functions

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Applications of Inverse Functions

When working with functions that model real-world situations, we name the variables
using letters that suggest the quantity being modeled. For instance we may use t for
time, d for distance, V for volume, and so on.

When using inverse functions, we follow this convention. For example, suppose that the variable R is
a function of the variable N, say, R = f (N). Then

f  1 R  N.
So the function
f  1 defines N as a function of R.

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Example 11 – An Inverse Function

At a local pizza parlor the daily special is $12 for a plain cheese pizza plus $2 for
each additional topping.
(a) Find a function f that models the price of a pizza with n toppings.
(b) Find the inverse of the function f. What does f  1 represent ?
(c) If a pizza costs $22, how many toppings does it have?
Solution:
Note that the price p of a pizza is a function of the number n of toppings.

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Example 11 – Solution (1 of 2)

(a) The price of a pizza with n toppings is given by the function

f (n) = 12 + 2n

(b) To find the inverse function, we first write p = f (n), where we use the letter p instead of our usual y
because f (n) is the price of the pizza. We have

p = 12 + 2n

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Example 11 – Solution (2 of 2)

Next we solve for n:

p = 12 + 2n
p − 12 = 2n
p  12
n
2
p  12
So n f  1  p   . The function f  1 gives the number n of toppings for a
2
pizza with price p.

(c) We have n f  1 22  

22  12  5. So the pizza has five toppings.
2

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 Exponential and Logarithmic
Functions

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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

146
 Logarithmic Functions

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147
Objectives

• Logarithmic Functions
• Graphs of Logarithmic Functions
• Common Logarithms
• Natural Logarithms
• Laws of Logarithms
• Expanding and Combining Logarithmic Expressions
• Change of Base Formula
• Exponential Equations
• Logarithmic Equations
• Compound Interest

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 Logarithmic Functions

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Logarithmic Functions (1 of 5)
Every exponential function
f ( x ) a x , with a > 0 and a ≠ 1, is a one-to-one function

by the Horizontal Line Test (see Figure 1 for the case a > 1) and therefore has an inverse function.

f ( x ) a x , is one-to-one
Figure 1

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151
Logarithmic Functions (2 of 5)
The inverse function is called the logarithmic function with base a and is
f 1
denoted by log a. We know that f  1 is defined by
f  1( x )  y  f (y ) x
This leads to the following definition of the logarithmic function.

DEFINITION OF THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

Let a be a positive number with a ≠ 1. The logarithmic function with base a,
denoted by loga, is defined by

loga x  y  ay x

So loga x is the exponent to which the base a must be raised to give x.

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153
154
155
Logarithmic Functions (3 of 5)
When we use the definition of logarithms to switch back and forth between the

logarithmic form loga x = y and the exponential form

a y  x, it is helpful to
notice that, in both forms, the base is the same.

Logarithmic form Exponential form

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Example 1 – Logarithmic and Exponential Forms

The logarithmic and exponential forms are equivalent equations: If one is true, then so
is the other.
So we can switch from one form to the other as in the following illustrations.

Logarithmic Exponential
form form
log10 100,000 = 5 105 100,000

log2 8 = 3 23 8
 1 1
log2    3 2 3 
8 8
log5 s = r 5r s

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Logarithmic Functions (4 of 5)

It is important to understand that log a x is an x log10 x

exponent. 104 4
For example, the numbers in the right-hand 10 3
3
column of the table in the margin are the 10 2
2
logarithms (base 10) of the numbers in the 10 1
left-hand column. 1 0
10  1 −1
2
10 −2
10  3 −3
4
10 −4

This is the case for all bases, as the next example illustrates.

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Example 2 – Evaluating Logarithms
(a) log10 1000 = 3 because 103 1000
(b) log2 32 = 5 because 25 32
(c) log10 0.1 = −1 because 10  1 0.1
(d)
log16 4  21 because 161/2 4

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Logarithmic Functions (5 of 5)
When we apply the Inverse Function Property to
f ( x ) a x and f  1( x ) loga x,
we get
loga (a x )  x x
aloga x  x x 0

We list these and other properties of logarithms discussed in this section.

PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS
Property Reason
1. loga1 = 0 We must raise a to the power 0 to get 1.
2. loga a = 1 We must raise a to the power 1 to get a.
x x
We must raise a to the power x to geta .
loga a  x
3.
aloga x  x
4. loga x is the power to which a must be raised to get x.

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Example 3 – Applying Properties of Logarithms

We illustrate the properties of logarithms when the base is 5.

log5 1 = 0 Property 1 log5 5 = 1 Property 2

log5 58 8 Property 3 5log5 12 12 Property 4

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Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

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Graphs of Logarithmic Functions (1 of 5)

We know that if a one-to-one function f has domain A and range B, then its

inverse function f  1 has domain B and range A.

Since the exponential function f ( x ) a x

with a ≠ 1 has domain
 and range (0,∞),

we conclude that its inverse function,

f  1( x ) loga x,

The graph of f  1( x ) loga x f ( x ) a x

is obtained by reflecting the graph of

in the line y = x.
f 1 has domain (0,∞) and range

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Graphs of Logarithmic Functions (2 of 5)

Figure 2 shows the case a > 1.

Graph of the logarithmic function f(x) = loga x

Figure 2

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Graphs of Logarithmic Functions (3 of
5)

The fact that y a x (for a > 1) is a very rapidly increasing function for x > 0

implies that y = loga x is a very slowly increasing function for x > 1.

Since loga 1 = 0, the x-intercept of the function y = loga x is 1. The y-axis is a

vertical asymptote of y = loga x because loga x    x  0 .

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 Example 4 – Graphing a Logarithmic Function by
Plotting Points

Sketch the graph of f (x) = log2 x.

Solution:
To make a table of values, we choose the x-values to be powers of 2 so that we can easily
find their logarithms. We plot these points and connect them with a smooth curve as in
Figure 3.
x log2x
23 3
22 2
2 1
1 0
2 1 −1
2 2 −2
2 3 −3
2 4 Figure 3
−4

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Graphs of Logarithmic Functions (4 of 5)

Figure 4 shows the graphs of the family of logarithmic functions with bases 2,
3, 5, and 10.

A family of logarithmic functions

Figure 4

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Graphs of Logarithmic Functions (5 of
5)

These graphs are drawn by reflecting the graphs of y 2 x , y 3 x , y 5 x and y 10 x

in the line y = x.

We can also plot points as an aid to sketching these graphs, as illustrated in

Example 4.

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Example 5 – Reflecting Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

Sketch the graph of each function. State the domain,

range, and asymptote.
(a) g(x) = −log2 x
(b) h (x) = log2(−x)
Solution:
(a) We start with the graph of f (x) = log2 x and reflect
in the x-axis to get the graph of g(x) = −log2 x in
Figure 5(a).
Figure 5(a)

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Example 5 – Solution (1 of 2)
From the graph we see that the domain of g is (0,∞), the range is the set 
of all real numbers, and the line x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.

(b) We start with the graph of f (x) = log2 x and reflect in the y-axis to get the graph of h(x) =
log2(−x) in Figure 5(b).

Figure 5(b)

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Example 5 – Solution (2 of 2)
From the graph we see that the domain of h is (−∞, 0), the range is the set 
of all real numbers, and the line x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.

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 Common Logarithms

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Common Logarithms (1 of 3)

We now study logarithms with base 10.

COMMON LOGARITHM
The logarithm with base 10 is called the common logarithm and is denoted by
omitting the base:
log x = log10 x

From the definition of logarithms we can easily find that

log 10 = 1 and log 100 = 2

But how do we find log 50? We need to find the exponent y such that 10 y 50.

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Common Logarithms (2 of 3)

Clearly, 1 is too small and 2 is too large. So

1 < log 50 < 2

To get a better approximation, we can experiment to find a power of 10 closer to 50.

Fortunately, scientific calculators are equipped with a LOG key that directly

gives values of common logarithms.

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Example 7 – Evaluating Common Logarithms

Use a calculator to find appropriate values of f (x) = log x, and use the values to sketch the graph.

Solution:
We make a table of values, using a calculator to evaluate the function at those values of x
that are not powers of 10. We plot those points and connect them by a smooth curve as in
Figure 8.
x log x
0.01 −2
0.1 −1
0.5 −0.301
1 0
4 0.602
5 0.699
10 1 Figure 8

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Common Logarithms (3 of 3)

Scientists model human response to stimuli (such as sound, light, or pressure)

using logarithmic functions.
For example, the intensity of a sound must be increased manyfold before we “feel”
that the loudness has simply doubled. The psychologist Gustav Fechner
formulated the law as

I 
S k log  
 I0 

where S is the subjective intensity of the stimulus, I is the physical intensity of the stimulus,
I0 stands for the threshold physical intensity, and k is a constant that is different for each
sensory stimulus.

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Example 8 – Common Logarithms and Sound

The perception of the loudness B (in decibels, dB) of a sound with physical
 W 
intensity I  in m 2  is given by
 
I 
B 10log  
 I0 
where I0 is the physical intensity of a barely audible sound. Find the decibel level (loudness) of a
sound whose physical intensity I is 100 times that of I0.

Solution:
We find the decibel level B by using the fact that I = 100I0.
I 
B 10log   Definition of B

 I0 

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Example 8 – Solution
 100I0 
10log   I = 100I0
 I0 
Cancel I0
= 10 log 100

= 10 · 2 = 20 Definition of log

The loudness of the sound is 20 dB.

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 Natural Logarithms

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Natural Logarithms (1 of 3)

Of all possible bases a for logarithms, it turns out that the most convenient choice for
the purposes of calculus is the number e,
NATURAL LOGARITHM
The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm and is denoted by ln:

ln x = loge x

The natural logarithmic function y = ln x is the inverse function of the natural

exponential function y e x .

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Natural Logarithms (2 of 3)

Both functions are graphed in Figure 9.

Graph of the natural logarithmic function

Figure 9

By the definition of inverse functions we have

ln x  y  ey x

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Natural Logarithms (3 of 3)

If we substitute a = e and write “ln” for “loge” in the properties of logarithms mentioned earlier, we obtain the
following properties of natural logarithms.

PROPERTIES OF NATURAL LOGARITHMS

Property Reason
1. ln 1 = 0 We must raise e to the power 0 to get 1.
2. ln e = 0 We must raise e to the power 1 to get e.
x x
3. lne  x We must raise e to the power x to gete .
ln x
4. lne  x ln x is the power to which e must be raised to get x.

Calculators are equipped with an LN key that directly gives the values of

natural logarithms.

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 Example 9 – Evaluating the Natural Logarithm Function
(a) ln e 8 8 Definition of natural logarithm

 1
(b) ln  2  ln e  2  2 Definition of natural logarithm
e 
Use key on calculator
(c) ln 5 ≈ 1.609 LN

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 Example 10 – Finding the Domain of a Logarithmic Function

Find the domain of the function f ( x ) ln(4  x 2 ).

Solution:
As with any logarithmic function, ln x is defined when x > 0. Thus the domain of f is

{ x 4  x 2  0}  { x x 2  4}

 { x x  2}

 { x  2  x  2}

 (  2, 2)

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 Laws of Logarithms

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Laws of Logarithms

Since logarithms are exponents, the Laws of Exponents give rise to the Laws of Logarithms.

LAWS OF LOGARITHMS
Let a be a positive number, with a ≠ 1. Let A, B, and C be any real numbers with
A > 0 and B > 0.

Law Description
The logarithm of a product of numbers is the sum of the logarithms
1. loga  AB  loga A  loga B
of the numbers.
 A The logarithm of a quotient of numbers is the difference of the
2. loga  B  loga A  loga B
  logarithms of the numbers.

 
C
3. loga A C loga A
The logarithm of a power of a number is the exponent times the
logarithm of the number.

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187
 Example 1 – Using the Laws of Logarithms to Evaluate
Expressions

Evaluate each expression.

(a) log4 2 + log4 32
(b) log2 80 − log2 5
1
(c)  log 8
3
Solution:

(a) log4 2 + log4 32 = log4(2 · 32) Law 1

= log4 64 = 3 Because 64 43

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Example 1 – Solution

(b) log2 80  log2 5 log2  805  Law 2

= log216 = 4
Because 16 24

(c)
 31 log8 log8  1 3 Law 3

log  21  Property of negative exponents

 −0.301 Calculator

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Expanding and Combining Logarithmic
Expressions

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Expanding and Combining Logarithmic
Expressions

The Laws of Logarithms allow us to write the logarithm of a product or a

quotient as the sum or difference of logarithms.
This process, called expanding a logarithmic expression, is illustrated in the
next example.

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Example 2 – Expanding Logarithmic Expressions

Use the Laws of Logarithms to expand each expression.

 ab 
(a) log2(6x) (b)

log5 x 3 y 6  (c) ln  3 
 c
Solution:

(a) log2 (6 x ) log2 6  log2 x Law 1

(b) log5 ( x 3 y 6 ) log5 x 3  log5 y 6 Law 1

3log5 x  6log5 y Law 3

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Example 2 – Solution

 ab  3 Law 2
(c) ln 
3  ln( ab )  ln c
 c
ln a  ln b  ln c 1 3 Law 1

ln a  ln b  31 ln c Law 3

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Expanding and Combining Logarithmic
Expressions (1 of 2)

The Laws of Logarithms also allow us to reverse the process of expanding that
was done in Example 2.
That is, we can write sums and differences of logarithms as a single logarithm.
This process, called combining logarithmic expressions, is illustrated in the
next example.

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Example 3 – Combining Logarithmic Expressions

Use the Laws of Logarithms to combine each expression into a single logarithm.

(a) 3log x  21 log( x  1)

(b)
3ln s  21 ln t  4ln(t 2  1)
Solution:

(a) 3log x  21 log( x  1) log x 3  log( x  1)1 2 Law 3

log( x 3 ( x  1)1 2 ) Law 1

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Example 3 – Solution

(b) 3ln s  21 ln t  4ln(t 2  1)

ln s 3  ln t 1 2  ln(t 2  1)4 Law 3

ln(s 3t 1 2 )  ln(t 2  1)4 Law 1

 3 
s t
ln  
  Law 2
4
 t2 1 
 

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Expanding and Combining Logarithmic
Expressions (2 of 2)

Logarithmic functions are used to model a variety of situations involving

human behavior.
One such behavior is how quickly we forget things we have learned.
For example, if you learn algebra at a certain performance level (say, 90% on
a test) and then don’t use algebra for a while, how much will you retain after a
week, a month, or a year?
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850 –1909) studied this phenomenon and formulated
the law described in the next example.

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Example 4 – The Law of Forgetting

If a task is learned at a performance level P0, then after a time interval t the
performance level P satisfies
log P = log P0 − c log(t + 1)
where c is a constant that depends on the type of task and t is measured in
months.
(a) Solve for P.
(b) If your score on a history test is 90, what score would you expect to get on a
similar test after two months? After a year? (Assume that c = 0.2.)

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Example 4(a) – Solution

We first combine the right-hand side.

log P = log P0 − c log(t + 1) Given equation

log P log P0  log(t  1)c Law 3

P0
log P log Law 2
(t  1)c
P0
P Because log is one-to-one
(t  1)c

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 Example 4(b) – Solution
Here P0 = 90, c = 0.2, and t is measured in months.

90
In 2 months: t 2 and P 0.2
72
(2  1)
90
In 1 year: t 12 and P 0.2
54
(12  1)

Your expected scores after 2 months and after 1 year are 72 and 54, respectively.

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 Change of Base Formula

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Change of Base Formula (1 of 3)

For some purposes we find it useful to change from logarithms in one base to
logarithms in another base.
Suppose we are given loga x and want to find logb x.
Let
y = logb x

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Change of Base Formula (2 of 3)

We write this in exponential form and take the logarithm, with base a, of each side.

by x Exponential form

loga (b y ) loga x Take loga of each side

y loga b loga x Law 3

loga x
y Divide by loga b
loga b

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Change of Base Formula (3 of 3)

This proves the following formula.

CHANGE OF BASE FORMULA

loga x
logb x 
loga b

In particular, if we put x = a, then loga a = 1, and this formula becomes

1
logb a 
loga b

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Example 5 – Evaluating Logarithms with the Change of
Base Formula
Use the Change of Base Formula and common or natural logarithms to
evaluate each logarithm, rounded to five decimal places.
(a) log8 5
(b) log9 20
Solution:
(a) We use the Change of Base Formula with b = 8 and a = 10:

log10 5
log8 5  0.77398
log10 8

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Example 5 – Solution

(b) We use the Change of Base Formula with b = 9 and a = e:

ln20
log9 20  1.36342
ln9

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 Exponential Equations

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Exponential Equations (1 of 2)

An exponential equation is one in which the variable occurs in the exponent.

Some exponential equations can be solved by using the fact that exponential
functions are one-to-one.
This means that
a x a y  x y

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Exponential Equations (2 of 2)

The following guidelines describe the process for solving exponential

equations.
GUIDELINES FOR SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS
1.Isolate the exponential expression on one side of the equation.
2.Take the logarithm of each side, then use the Laws of Logarithms to “bring
down the exponent.”
3.Solve for the variable.

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Example 2 – Solving an Exponential Equation

Consider the exponential equation

3 x 2 7.
(a) Find the exact solution of the equation expressed in terms of logarithms.
(b) Use a calculator to find an approximation to the solution rounded to six decimal
places.

Solution:
(a) We take the common logarithm of each side and use Law 3.

3 x 2 7 Given Equation

log(3 x 2 ) log7
Take log of each side

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Example 2 – Solution (1 of 2)

(x + 2)log 3 = log 7 Law 3 (bring down exponent)

log7
x 2  Divide by log 3
log3
log7
x  2 Subtract 2

log3

log7
The exact solution is
x  2.
log3

(b) Using a calculator, we find the decimal approximation x  −0.228756.

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Example 2 – Solution (2 of 2)

Check Your Answer

Substituting x = −0.228756 into the original equation and using a calculator,
we get

3(  0.228756)2 7

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213
Example 5 – An Exponential Equation of Quadratic Type

Solve the equation

e 2 x  e x  6 0.
Solution:
To isolate the exponential term, we factor.

e 2 x  e x  6 0 Given Equation

(e x )2  e x  6 0 Law of Exponents

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Example 5 – Solution

(e x  3)(e x  2) 0 Factor (a quadratic in e x )

e x  3 0 or e x  2 0 Zero-Product Property

e x 3 e x  2
The equation
e x 3 leads to x = ln 3.

e x  2 ex  0
But the equation has no solution because for all x.

Thus x ln3 1.0986 is the only solution.

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 Logarithmic Equations

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Logarithmic Equations (1 of 3)

A logarithmic equation is one in which a logarithm of the variable occurs.

Some logarithmic equations can be solved by using the fact that logarithmic
functions are one-to-one.
This means that
loga x loga y  x y

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Logarithmic Equations (2 of 3)
The following guidelines describe the process for solving logarithmic
equations.
GUIDELINES FOR SOLVING LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS
1.Isolate the logarithmic term on one side of the equation; you might first
need to combine the logarithmic terms.
2.Write the equation in exponential form (or raise the base to each side of the
equation).
3.Solve for the variable.

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Example 8 – Solving Logarithmic Equations

Solve each equation for x.

(a) ln x = 8
(b) log2(25 − x) = 3

Solution:

(a) ln x = 8 Given equation

x e 8 Exponential form

Therefore,
x e 8 2981.

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Example 8 – Solution (1 of 3)
We can also solve this problem another way.

Given equation
ln x = 8

eln x e8 Raise e to each side

x e 8 Property of ln

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Example 8 – Solution (2 of 3)

(b) The first step is to rewrite the equation in exponential form.

Given equation

log2(25 − x) = 3

25  x 23 Exponential form (or raise 2 to each side)

25 − x = 8
x = 25 − 8 = 17

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Example 8 – Solution (3 of 3)

Check Your Answer

If x = 17, we get
log2(25 − 17) = log2 8 = 3

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223
224
Logarithmic Equations (3 of 3)

Logarithmic equations are used in determining the amount of light that

reaches various depths in a lake. (This information helps biologists to
determine the types of life a lake can support.)
As light passes through water (or other transparent materials such as glass or
plastic), some of the light is absorbed.
It’s easy to see that the murkier the water, the more light is absorbed. The
exact relationship between light absorption and the distance light travels in a
material is described in the next example.

225
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Example 12 – Transparency of a Lake (1 of 2)

If I0 and I denote the intensity of light before and after going through a material and
x is the distance (in feet) the light travels in the material, then according to the
Beer-Lambert Law,

1 I 
 ln    x
k  I0 

where k is a constant depending on the type of material.

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Example 12 – Transparency of a Lake (2 of 2)

(a) Solve the equation for I.

(b) For a certain lake k = 0.025, and the light intensity is I0 = 14 lumens (lm).
Find the light intensity at a depth of 20 ft.

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Example 12(a) – Solution

We first isolate the logarithmic term.

1 I 
 ln    x Given equation
k  I0 
I 
ln    kx Multiply by −k

 I0 
I
e  kx Exponential form
I0

I I0e  kx Multiply by I0

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Example 12(b) – Solution

We find I using the formula from part (a).

I I0e  kx From part (a)

14e(  0.025)(20) I0 = 14, k = 0.025, x = 20

≈ 8.49 Calculator

The light intensity at a depth of 20 ft is about 8.5 lm.

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 Compound Interest

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Compound Interest

If a principal P is invested at an interest rate r for a period of t years, then the amount A of the investment is
given by

A = P(1 + r) Simple interest (for one year)

nt
 r
A(t ) P  1   Interest compounded n times per year
 n

A(t ) Pe rt Interest compounded continuously

We can use logarithms to determine the time it takes for the principal to increase to a given
amount.

231
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Example 13 – Finding the Term for an Investment to
Double

A sum of $5000 is invested at an interest rate of 5% per year.

Find the time required for the money to double if the interest is compounded
according to the following methods.

(a) Semiannually
(b) Continuously

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Example 13(a) – Solution (1 of 2)

We use the formula for compound interest with P = $5000, A(t) = $10,000, r = 0.05, and
n = 2, and solve the resulting exponential equation for t.
2t nt
 0.05   r
5000  1   10,000 P  1  A
 2   n
(1.025)2t 2
Divide by 5000

log 1.0252t log2 Take log of each side

2t log1.025 log2 Law 3 (bring down the exponent)

233
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Example 13(a) – Solution (2 of 2)

log2
t Divide by 2 log 1.025

2log1.025

t  14.04 Calculator

The money will double in 14.04 years.

234
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Example 13(b) – Solution (1 of 2)

We use the formula for continuously compounded interest with P = $5000, A(t) =
$10,000, and r = 0.05 and solve the resulting exponential equation for t.

5000e0.05 t 10,000 Pe rt  A

e0.05 t 2
Divide by 5000

ln e0.05 t ln 2 Take ln of each side

0.05t = ln 2 Property of ln

235
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Example 13(b) – Solution (2 of 2)

ln2
t Divide by 0.05
0.05

t  13.86 Calculator

The money will double in 13.86 years.

236
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237
238
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

239
Objectives

• The Inverse Sine Function

• The Inverse Cosine Function
• The Inverse Tangent Function
• The Inverse Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent Functions

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Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Their Graphs

The inverse of a function f is a function

f  1 that reverses the rule of f.
For a function to have an inverse, it must be one-to-one. Since the trigonometric
functions are not one-to-one, they do not have inverses.
It is possible, however, to restrict the domains of the trigonometric functions in such
a way that the resulting functions are one-to-one.

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 The Inverse Sine Function

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The Inverse Sine Function (1 of 5)

Let's first consider the sine function. There are many ways to restrict the domain of sine so that the
new function is one-to-one.
  
A natural way to do this is to restrict the domain to the interval  2 , 2  .

The reason for this choice is that sine is one-to-one on this interval and moreover attains each
of the values in its range on this interval.

243
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The Inverse Sine Function (2 of 5)

From Figure 1 we see that sine is one-to-one on this restricted domain (by the Horizontal Line
Test) and so has an inverse.

y = sin x  
y sin x,  x 
2 2

Graphs of the sine function and the restricted sine function

Figure 1

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The Inverse Sine Function (3 of 5)

We can now define an inverse sine function on this restricted domain. The

graph of y sin 1 x is shown in Figure 2; it is obtained by reflecting the graph

 
of y = sin x,  2  x  2 , in the line y = x.

Graphs of y  sin –1x

Figure 2

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The Inverse Sine Function (4 of 5)
DEFINITION OF THE INVERSE TANGENT FUNCTION

The inverse sine function is the function sin 1 with domain [−1, 1] and range
  
 2, 2 defined by
 
sin 1 x  y  sin y  x
The inverse sine function is also called arcsine, denoted by arcsin.

  
Thus
y sin 1 x is the number in the interval
 2, 2
whose sine is x.
 
In other words, sin(sin 1 x )  x.

246
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The Inverse Sine Function (5 of 5)

In fact, from the general properties of inverse functions, we have the following cancellation properties.

sin(sin 1 x )  x for  1  x 1
 
sin 1(sin x )  x for  x 
2 2

When evaluating expressions involving sin 1, we need to remember that the

  
range of
sin 1 is the interval  2, 2.
 

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Example 3 – Evaluating Expressions with Inverse Sine

Find each value.

   2 
1
(a) sin  sin  (b) sin 1  sin
 3  3 
Solution:

   
 2, 2,
(a) Since is in the interval we can use the above cancellation
3  
properties of inverse functions:

     
sin 1  sin   Cancellation property:   
 3 3 2 3 2

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Example 3 – Solution

(b) We first evaluate the expression in the parentheses:

 2   3
sin 1  sin  sin 1
  Evaluate

 3   2 
  3
 Because sin 
3 3 2

Another way to solve this problem:

249
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 The Inverse Cosine Function

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The Inverse Cosine Function (1 of 3)

If the domain of the cosine function is restricted to the interval [0,  ], the resulting
function is one-to-one and so has an inverse.
We choose this interval because on it, cosine attains each of its values exactly once
(see Figure 3).

y = cos x y cos x, 0  x 

Graphs of the cosine function and the restricted cosine function

Figure 3

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The Inverse Cosine Function (2 of 3)
DEFINITION OF THE INVERSE COSINE FUNCTION

The inverse cosine function is the function

cos 1 with domain [−1, 1] and

range [0, π] defined by

cos 1 x  y  cos y  x
The inverse cosine function is also called arccosine, denoted by arccos.

Thus
y cos 1 x is the number in the interval [0, π ] whose cosine is x. The

following cancellation properties follow from the inverse function properties.

cos(cos 1 x )  x for  1  x 1
cos 1(cos x )  x for 0  x 

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The Inverse Cosine Function (3 of 3)

The graph of
y cos 1 x is shown in Figure 4; it is obtained by reflecting the graph
of
y cos x, 0  x  , in the line y = x.

Graph of y cos –1x

Figure 4

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Example 5 – Evaluating Expressions with
Inverse Cosine

Find each value.

 2   5 
(a) cos 1  cos (b) cos 1  cos
 3   3 
Solution:

2
(a) Since is in the interval [0,  ], we can use the above cancellation
3
properties:

 2  2 2
cos 1  cos 3 Cancellation property:0  
 3  3

254
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Example 5 – Solution

(b) We first evaluate the expression in the parentheses:

 5 
cos 1  cos  cos  2 
1 1
Evaluate
 3 
  1
 Because cos 
3 3 2
Another way to solve this problem:

255
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The Inverse Tangent Function

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The Inverse Tangent Function (1 of 3)
  
 2,2 
We restrict the domain of the tangent function to the interval

 
to obtain a one-to-one function.
DEFINITION OF THE INVERSE TANGENT FUNCTION
The inverse tangent function is the function
tan 1
with domain

  
 2, 2 
defined by

and range

 
tan 1 x  y  tan y  x
The inverse tangent function is also called arctangent, denoted by arctan.

  
Thus
y tan 1 x is the number in the interval   2 , 2  whose tangent is x.
 

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The Inverse Tangent Function (2 of 3)

The following cancellation properties follow from the inverse function properties.

tan(tan 1 x )  x for x

 
tan 1(tan x )  x for  x .
2 2

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The Inverse Tangent Function (3 of 3)
    and the graph of its
 2, 2
Figure 5 shows the graph of y = tan x on the interval

 
inverse function, y tan 1 x.

 
y tan x,  x y tan–1x
2 2

Graphs of the restricted tangent function and the inverse tangent function
Figure 5

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261
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264
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268
269
 Example 6 – Evaluating the Inverse Tangent
Function
Find eac h value.

(a)
tan 1 1 (b)
tan 1 3 (c)
tan 1(20)
Solution:

    
(a) The number in the interval
 2, 2
with tangent 1 is
. Thus tan 1 1  .
  4 4
    Thus tan 1 3   .
(b) The number in the interval  2 , 2  3 is .
with tangent

3 3
(c) We use a calculator (in radian mode) to find that tan 1(20) 1.52084.

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The Inverse Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent
Functions

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The Inverse Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent
Functions (1 of 4)

To define the inverse functions of the secant, cosecant, and cotangent

functions, we restrict the domain of each function to a set on which it is one-
to-one and on which it attains all its values.
Although any interval satisfying these criteria is appropriate, we choose to
restrict the domains in a way that simplifies the choice of sign in computations
involving inverse trigonometric functions.
The choices we make are also appropriate for calculus. This explains the
seemingly strange restriction for the domains of the secant and cosecant
functions.

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The Inverse Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent Functions
(2 of 4)

We end this section by displaying the graphs of the secant, cosecant, and cotangent
functions with their restricted domains and the graphs of their inverse functions (Figures 6–
8).

 3
y sec x, 0  x  ,  x  y sec –1x
2 2

The inverse secant function

Figure 6

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The Inverse Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent Functions
(3 of 4)

 3
y csc x, 0  x  ,   x  y csc –1 x
2 2

The inverse cosecant function

Figure 7

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The Inverse Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent Functions
(4 of 4)

y cot x, 0  x   y cot –1 x

The inverse cotangent function

Figure 8

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Objectives

• Some examples about inverse functions

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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

 
y sin x,  x 
2 2 y cos x, 0  x 

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The Inverse sin function

When we apply a trigonometric function on an angle then we get a ratio. But

when we apply an inverse trigonometric function on a number then we get an
angle in the restricted domain.

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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Inverse sin function

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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Inverse cos function

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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Inverse cos function

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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Inverse Sine Function

for

for

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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Inverse Cosine Function

for

for

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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
The Inverse Tan Function

for

for

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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example - Inverse Functions

Find each value.

(a) (b)

Solution:

(a) Cancellation property

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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example - Inverse Functions

(b)

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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example - Inverse Functions

Find each value.

(a) (b) (c)

(a)
Cancellation property

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Example - Inverse Functions

(b)

Idea: if we can find an m such that then we can replace

by and then use the cancellation property

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 Example - Inverse Functions

Where

Therefore

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Example - Inverse Functions

Hence

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Example - Inverse Functions

Another way to write the solution of part (b)

(b)

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Example - Inverse Functions

Since

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Example - Inverse Functions

(c)

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posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Example - Inverse Functions

and

and

Stewart, PreCalculus, 7th Edition. © 2016 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or
posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.