MODULE 1

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
CHARACTERISTICS

CO1: ANALYZE THE

CHARACTERISTICS OF OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIER
 Content
• Operational amplifier
• Ideal Operational Amplifier
• DC characteristics
• AC characteristics
• Open loop and Closed loop Characteristics

Self Study: IC Fabrication Techniques

 Integrated Circuit (IC)
An integrated circuit (IC) — commonly called a
chip — is made out of a semiconductor material
called silicon, in which small electronic
components called transistors are formed within
the silicon and then wired together with
interconnects layered on top of the silicon
surface.
 Why IC’s
• Miniaturization
• Performance and Reliability
• Cost-Effectiveness
• Power Consumption
• Functionality
• Integration
• Thermal Management
• Speed of Design and Manufacturing
 Operational amplifier (OP-AMP)
• The operational amplifier (also known as Op-
Amp) is a multi-terminal direct coupled high
gain amplifier which consisting of one or more
differential amplifiers and a level transistor and an
output.
• The Op-Amp is a versatile device which can be
used to amplify both DC and AC signals and
these are mainly designed for performing
mathematical operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication etc.
 Symbol
• An Operational Amplifier is
basically a three-terminal device
which consists of two high
impedance inputs. One of the
inputs is called the Inverting
Input, marked with a negative or
“minus” sign, ( – ). The other
input is called the Non-inverting
Input, marked with a positive or
“plus” sign ( + ).
IC- 741 Pin Diagram
 Characteristics of Ideal Operational Amplifier

• Infinite voltage gain (A = ∞).

• Infinite input resistance/impedance (Ri = ∞) so that any source of
signal can drive it.
• Zero output resistance/impedance (Ro = 0) so that output can drive
infinite number of other devices.
• Infinite bandwidth so that signal of any frequency (from 0 to ∞ Hz)
can be amplified.
• Infinite Common Mode Rejection Ration (CMRR = ∞) so the output
common mode noise voltage is zero.
• Infinite slew rate (SR= ∞) so that output voltage changes
simultaneously with the input voltage changes.
• No effect of temperature.
• The concept of infinite voltage gain in an ideal op-amp is a
theoretical idealization that helps simplify the analysis of op-amp
circuits.
• In reality, op-amps have very high, but finite, voltage gains.
• The assumption of infinite gain ensures that the input voltage
difference is minimized to nearly zero when negative feedback is
applied, allowing for predictable and stable circuit behavior.
Block Diagram of Operational Amplifier
• Input Stage − The input stage is the dual input,
balanced output differential amplifier. This stage
provides most of the voltage gain and introduces
the input resistance of operational amplifier.
• A differential amplifier is a type of electronic
amplifier that amplifies the difference between two
input voltage signals while rejecting any voltage
common to both inputs.
• This property makes differential amplifiers
particularly useful in many applications where
noise rejection and precise amplification of the
signal are required.
• Intermediate Stage − This stage is dual input,
unbalanced output differential amplifier, which is
driven by the output of first stage.
• Level Shifting Stage − Since direct coupling is used,
therefore the DC voltage at the output of intermediate
stage is above the ground potential. Hence, the level
shifting transistor circuit is used after intermediate stage to
shift the DC level at intermediate stage output downward
to zero volts with respect to ground.
• Output Stage − The output stage is a push-pull
complementary amplifier. The output stage increases the
output voltage. The output stage also provides low output
resistance.
 Configurations of OP-AMP
Configuration of op-amp means the ways in which
an op-amp is connected in circuit. Based on the
connection, the op-amp can work in two different
modes.
1. Open loop mode
2. Closed loop mode
 Open Loop Configuration
• When no part of output is connected to input, it is
known as open loop configuration. It means that
there is absolutely no feedback present from
output to Input.
Input signals V1and V2 are applied to non-inverting and inverting
terminal respectively. Differential Input voltage (Vd) is the difference
between the voltages applied at non-inverting and inverting terminals.
Therefore it is,
Vd = (V1-V2)
Output voltage is given by,
Vo= Av . Vd
∴Vo= Av (V1-V2)
Where, Av is the open loop gain of the op-amp.
• Ideally open loop gain is infinite but practically it’s value is very
high.
• As AV is very high, a small value of Vd will drive the Op-amp into

∴Vo= ± Vsat
positive or negative saturation.
• When the output voltage of the circuit exceeds the possible
range, the op-amp is said to saturate. It just provides its
maximum or minimum possible voltage.
• Depending on the polarity of Vd, the output voltage is equal to
+Vsat or –Vsat.
• Means, If Vd is positive then the output of op-amp is positive
saturation. Also, if Vd is negative, the output of op-amp is
negative saturation.
• A very small value of differential input voltage will drive the
op-amp into positive or negative saturation. Therefore the
output voltage is not proportional to differential input
voltage. Hence open loop configuration is not used for
linear amplification.
 Closed Loop Op amp Configuration
• When a part of output is connected to (or fed back to)
the input, it is called as closed loop configuration. It
means that, some kind of feedback is present in the
circuit.
Types of feedback
• Positive feedback or regenerative feedback
• Negative feedback or degenerative feedback
 Positive Feedback
• In positive feedback, the feedback signal and the original
input signal are in phase with each.
• Here, the feedback is present between non-inverting
terminal (+) through resistor Rf.
• It is used in oscillators and Schmitt triggers.
 Negative Feedback
• If the feedback signal and the original input signal
are 180° out of phase, then it is called as negative
feedback.
• Here the feedback is present between output
and inverting terminal (-) through resistor R f.
Negative feedback is used in almost every circuit
(except few) using op-amp.
 Advantages of Negative Feedback
• Reduces the distortion.
• Reduces and stabilizes the gain.
• Increases the bandwidth.
• Changes values of input and output resistance.
• Reduces the effects of variations in temperature and
supply voltage on the output of Op-amp.
 DC Characteristics of op-amp

• Input bias current

• Input offset current
• Input offset voltage
• Total offset voltage
• Thermal drift
 Input bias current
• The op-amp’s input is differential amplifier, which
may be made of BJT or FET. In an ideal op-amp,
we assumed that no current is drawn from the input
terminals the base currents entering into the
inverting and non-inverting terminals (I B1 & IB2
respectively).
• Even though both the transistors are identical, I B1
and IB2 are not exactly equal due to internal
imbalance between the two inputs.
 Input offset current
• Bias current compensation will work if both
bias currents IB1 and IB2 are equal.
• Since the input transistor cannot be made
identical. There will always be some small
difference between IB1 and IB2. This difference
is called the offset current
|Ios| = IB1 - IB2
• Offset current Ios for BJT op-amp is 200nA and
for FET op-amp is 10pA. Even with bias
current compensation, offset current will
produce an output voltage when V i = 0.
• Unfortunately to obtain high input impedance, R 1 must
be kept large. If R1 is large, the feedback resistor Rf must
also be high.
• So as to obtain reasonable gain, the T-feedback network
is a good solution.
• This will allow large feedback resistance, while keeping
the resistance to ground low (in dotted line).
• The T-network provides a feedback signal as if the
network were a single feedback resistor.
• By T to Π conversion,
 Input offset voltage

• Inspite of the use of the above compensating

techniques, it is found that the output voltage may still
not be zero with zero input voltage [V ≠ 0 with V = 0].
o i

• This is due to unavoidable imbalances inside the op-

amp and one may have to apply a small voltage at the
input terminal to make output (V ) = 0.
o

• This voltage is called input offset voltage V . This is the

os

voltage required to be applied at the input for making

output voltage to zero (V = 0).
o
 Total output offset voltage
• The total output offset voltage VOT could be either more or less than the offset

voltage produced at the output due to input bias current (I ) or input offset
B

voltage alone(V ).
os

• This is because I and V could be either positive or negative with respect to

B os

ground.
• Therefore, the maximum offset voltage at the output of an inverting and non-
inverting amplifier (figure b, c)
• without any compensation technique used is given by many op-amp provide
offset compensation pins to nullify the offset voltage.
• 10K potentiometer is placed across offset null pins 1&5. The wipes connected
to the negative supply at pin 4.
• The position of the wipes is adjusted to nullify the offset voltage.
 Thermal Drift
• Bias Current ,Offset Current and Offset Voltage
change with temperature. A circuit carefully
nulled at some temperature (25K) may not
remain same with temperature rise and is called
as drift.
• Forced Air cooling techniques, Printed circuit
board layouts.
Op-amp Equivalent Circuit
 AC characteristics
The AC characteristics of an operational amplifier (op-amp) refer to
its behavior in alternating current (AC) applications, particularly
how it responds to varying frequencies.
 Frequency response
 Circuit Stability
 Slew-rate
 Frequency response
• The variation in operating frequency will cause variations in gain
magnitude and its phase angle.
• The manner in which the gain of the op-amp responds to
different frequencies is called the frequency response.
• Op-amp should have an infinite bandwidth BW =∞ (i.e.) if its
open loop gain in 90 dB with dc signal its gain should remain
the same 90 dB through audio and onto the high radio
frequency.
• But the op-amp gain decreases (roll-off) at higher frequency.
 • The open-loop gain of an op-amp
typically decreases with increasing
frequency due to internal
frequency-dependent effects like
parasitic capacitances.
• Op-amps often exhibit a dominant

 There is one pole due to R0C and pole response, where a single pole
one -20 dB/decade. The open loop dominates the frequency response
voltage gain of an op-amp with only
one corner frequency is obtained. at higher frequencies.
The magnitude and phase angle
characteristics:

1. For frequency f << f1 the magnitude of

the gain is 20 log AOL in dB.

2.At frequency f = f1 the gain in 3 dB down

from the dc value of AOL in dB. This

frequency f1 is called corner frequency.

3. For f >> f1 the Gain roll-off at the rate

off -20 dB/decade or -6 dB/decade.
 Circuit stability
• The major challenge is to improve the stability of an op-amp in a
wide bandwidth of applications. The solution is to compensate the
amplifier in terms of frequency response, by using a frequency
compensation circuit across the operational amplifier.
• Circuit stability in an operational amplifier (op amp) can be
determined by plotting the loop gain against frequency.
• The circuit is unstable if the loop gain equals or exceeds 1 (0
dB) at a point where the phase shift around the loop is 180
degrees.
 Circuit stability
The system will only become unstable (i.e., it will oscillate) if both
of the following conditions are met simultaneously:
• Gain is equal to or greater than 1 (0 dB): This means that the
loop gain has sufficient magnitude to sustain any oscillations.
• Phase shift is exactly 180 degrees: This condition causes the
feedback to become positive, meaning that instead of cancelling
the signal, the feedback reinforces it, leading to sustained
oscillations.
 Frequency Compensation

• When Circuit Stability is required, suitable compensation

techniques are employed. The two types of compensation
techniques used in practice are
 Internal Compensation

 External Compensation

A= Ao/(1+j(f/f1))(1+j(f/f2))(1+j(f/f3))
 External Compensation
• External frequency compensation refers to the method of
stabilizing an operational amplifier (op-amp) or similar feedback
circuit by adding external components—typically capacitors or
resistors—outside the op-amp itself.
• This is done to control the frequency response of the system and
improve its stability.
• The commonly used external compensation methods are

(i) Dominant-Pole compensation

(ii) Pole-Zero (lag) compensation

 Dominant-Pole compensation
• Dominant pole compensation is a
technique used to stabilize amplifiers,
particularly operational amplifiers (op-
amps), by controlling the frequency
response of the system.
• A dominant-pole compensation network
by adding an RC network in series with
an op-amp, or it can be achieved by
connecting a capacitor C at a suitable high
resistance node with respect to ground.
• Dominant pole compensation reduces the overall bandwidth by
pushing the dominant pole to a lower frequency, thus limiting the
amplifier's performance at higher frequencies.
• However, within the operating frequency range (before reaching
the higher frequency poles), the system maintains a stable 20
dB/decade roll-off rate, making the system behave predictably
and stably for a broad range of frequencies within the reduced
bandwidth.
 Pole-Zero compensation

This compensation method involves adding a pole (a point where the gain starts to
decrease) and a zero (a point where the gain starts to increase or decreases at a
slower rate) to the system's frequency response.
The goal of pole-zero compensation is to carefully position these poles and zeros in
the frequency domain so that they cancel each other's effects, thereby improving
stability without significantly degrading performance.
 Internal Compensation
• In such cases, internally compensated op-amps called compensated op-
amps can be employed.
• The main goal of internal frequency compensation is to ensure that the op-
amp remains stable even in the presence of feedback.
• Stability is particularly important in closed-loop configurations, where
feedback from the output to the input could cause oscillations if the phase
margin is insufficient.
• Without adequate compensation, an op-amp could become unstable when
configured with negative feedback, leading to oscillations or poor transient
response.
• Many popular general-purpose op-amps are internally
compensated to ensure stable operation.
Examples include: LM741, OP27, LM358
 Slew Rate
• Slew rate is described as the maximum rate of change of output voltage
over time in an amplifier or other electronic devices.

• It is usually expressed in volts per second (V/S).

• The concept of slew rate is important because it determines how quickly

an amplifier can respond to changes in the input signal.

• If the input signal changes too quickly, and the amplifier's slew rate is too
low, the amplifier won't be able to accurately reproduce the input signal at
its output.

• This limitation leads to a distortion known as slew rate limiting or

slew induced distortion.
• The general-purpose op-amps such as the 741 have a maximum
slew rate of 0.5 V/ms, which means that the output voltage can
change at a maximum of 0.5 V in 1 ms.
• The slew rate is determined by a number of factors such as the
amplifier gain, compensating capacitors and the change in
polarity of output voltage.
• It is also a function of temperature, and the slew rate generally
reduces due to rise in temperature.
Effects of Slew Rate
 Slew Rate Equation
Let the input voltage Vs is purely sinusoidal. In this
case the output voltage Vo will be also purely
sinusoidal, as the circuit used to derive the equation is
voltage follower circuit