Discrete Mathematics for

Computer Science
Department of Computer Science

Instructor: Dr. Ayesha Altaf

Reference Book: Discrete Mathematics and its applications

BY Kenneth H. Rosen – 8th edition

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 .

Lecture 10
Chapter 2. Basic Structures
2.3 Functions

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 2.3 Functions
.

From calculus, you are familiar with the

concept of a real-valued function f,
which assigns to each number xR a
value
y = f(x), where yR.

 But the notion of a function can also be

naturally generalized to the concept of
assigning elements of any set to elements of
any set. (Also known as a map.)
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 Function: Formal Definition
.

 For any sets A and B, we say that a function

(or “mapping”) f from A to B (f : A  B) is a
particular assignment of exactly one element
f(x)B to each element xA.
 Functions can be represented graphically in
several ways:
f A B
• • y
a• •b •
•
•
f •
•
A •
B • x
Like Venn diagrams Bipartite Graph Plot
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 Some Function
Terminology .

 If it is written that f : A  B, and f(a) = b

(where aA and bB), then we say:
 A is the domain of f
 B is the codomain of f
 b is the image of a under f
 a can not have more than 1 image
 a is a pre-image of b under f
 b may have more than 1 pre-image
The range RB of f is R = {b | a f(a) =


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 Range versus Codomain
.

 The range of a function might not be its whole

codomain.
The codomain is the set that the function is


declared to map all domain values into.

 The range is the particular set of values in the
codomain that the function actually maps
elements of the domain to.

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 Range vs. Codomain:
Example
 Suppose I declare that: “f is a function

mapping students in this class to the set of

grades {A, B, C, D, F}.”

 At this point, you know f ’s codomain is:

_{A,_B, C, D_,_F_}_, and its range is _unknown!

 Suppose the grades turn out all As and Bs.

 Then the range of f is _{A,_B} , but its
codomain is _still {A,_B, C, D_, _F_}_!
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 Function Operators
.

  , × (“plus”,“times”) are binary operators

over R. (Normal addition &
multiplication.)
 Therefore, we can also add and multiply

two
real-valued functions f,g: R  R:
 (f  g): R  R, where (f  g)(x) = f(x) 

g(x)
 (fg): R  R, where (fg)(x) = f(x)g(x)

 Example 6:
Let f and g be functions from R to R
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such that f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x – x2. 9
 Function Composition Operator
Note the match here. It’s necessary!

 For functions g: A  B and f : B  C, there is a

special operator called compose (“◦”).
 It composes (creates) a new function from f and

g by applying f to the result of applying g.

 We say (f ◦ g): A  C, where (f ◦ g)(a) = f(g(a)).

 Note: f ◦ g cannot be defined unless range of g

is a subset of the domain of f.

 Note g(a)B, so f(g(a)) is defined and C.

 Generally, f ◦ g  g ◦ f.

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 Function Composition .

Illustration
 g: A  B, f : B  C

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 Function Composition: .

Example
 g: A  B, f : B  C

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 Function Composition: .

Example
 Example 20: Let g: {a, b, c}  {a, b, c} such that
g(a) = b, g(b) = c, g(c) = a.
Let f : {a, b, c}  {1, 2, 3} such that
f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2, f(c) = 1.
What is the composition of f and g, and what
is the composition of g and f ?
 f◦g: {a, b, c}  {1, 2, 3} such that
(f◦g)(a) = 2, (f◦g)(b) = 1, (f◦g)(c) =
3. (f◦g)(a) = f(g(a)) = f(b) =
2
(f◦g)(b) = f(g(b)) = f(c) = 1
 g◦f is not(f◦g)(c)
defined= (why?)
f(g(c)) = f(a) = 3
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 Function Composition: .

Example
 If f(x) = x2 and g(x) = 2x + 1, then what is the
composition of f and g, and what is the
composition of g and f ?
 (f◦g)(x) = f(g(x))
= f(2x+1)
= (2x+1)2
(g◦f)(x) = g(f(x))


= g(x2)
= 2x2 + 1
Note that f◦g  g◦f. (4x2+4x+1  2x2+1)
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 Images of Sets under Functions
 Given f : A  B, and SA,
 The image of S under f is simply the set of all

images (under f) of the elements of S.

f(S) = {f(t) | tS}
= {b | tS: f(t) = b}.
 Note the range of f can be defined as simply

the image (under f) of f ’s domain.

 Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4} with f (a) =

2, f (b) = 1, f (c) = 4, f (d) = 1, and f (e) = 1. The image

of the subset S = {b, c, d} is the set f (S) = {1, 4}.

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 One-to-One Functions
.

 A function f is one-to-one (1–1), or injective,

or an injection, iff f(a) = f(b) implies that a = b
for all a and b in the domain of f (i.e. every
element of its range has only 1 pre-image).
 Formally, given f : AB,

“f is injective”: a,b (f(a)  f(b)  a = b) or

equivalently a,b (a  b  f(a)  f(b))
 Only one element of the domain is mapped to
any given one element of the range.
 Domain & range have the same cardinality.

What about codomain?

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 One-to-One Illustration
.

 Bipartite (2-part) graph representations of

functions that are (or not) one-to-one:
• • • • • •
• • • •
• •
• • •
• • •
• • • • •
•
• • •
One-to-one Not one-to-one Not even a function!
 Example 8:
Is the function f : {a, b, c, d}  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with
f(a) = 4, f(b) = 5, f(c) = 1, and f(d) = 3 one-to-one?
 Example 9:
Let f : Z  Z such that f(x) = x2. Is f one-to-one? NO
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 Sufficient Conditions for .

1–1ness
 For functions f over numbers, we say:
 f is strictly (or monotonically) increasing

iff x  y  f(x)  f(y) for all x, y in domain;

 f is strictly (or monotonically) decreasing

iff x  y  f(x)  f(y) for all x, y in domain;

 If f is either strictly increasing or strictly

decreasing, then f is one-to-one.
 E.g. x3

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 Onto (Surjective) Functions
.

 A function f : A  B is onto or surjective or a

surjection iff for every element bB there is
an element aA with f(a) = b (bB, aA: f
(a) = b) (i.e. its range is equal to its
codomain).
 Think: An onto function maps the set A onto
(over, covering) the entirety of the set B, not
just over a piece of it.

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 Illustration of Onto
.

 Some functions that are, or are not, onto their

codomains:

 Example13: Is the function f(x) = x + 1 from

the set of integers to the set of integers onto?
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 Bijections and Inverse Function
 A function f is said to be a one-to-one
correspondence, or a bijection, or reversible, or
invertible, iff it is both one-to-one and onto.

Let f : A  B be a bijection.


The inverse function of f is the function that

assigns to an element bB the unique element
aA such that f(a) = b.
The inverse function of f is denoted by f -1: B  A.
Hence, f -1(b) = a when f(a) = b.

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 Inverse Function Illustration
.

 Let f: A  B be a bijection

 Example 16: Let f : {a, b, c}  {1, 2, 3} such that

f(a) = 2, f(b) = 3, f(c) = 1. Is f invertible, and if it is,
what is its inverse? Yes. f–1(1) = c, f–1(2) = a, f–1(3) =
b
f(x) = x 2. Is f invertible?
No. f is not
 Example 18: Let f be the function fromaRone-to-one
to R with
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function. So it’s not invertible.
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 The Identity Function
.

 For any domain A, the identity function

I: A  A (also written as IA, 1, 1A) is the
unique function such that aA: I(a) = a.
 Note that the identity function is always both
one-to-one and onto (i.e., bijective).
 For a bijection f : A  B and its inverse
function f -1: B  A,
f 1  f  A
 I
Some identity functions you’ve seen:
  0,  1,  T,  F,  ,  U.

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 Identity Function Illustrations .

 The identity function:

•
• •
• • y y = I(x) = x
• •
• •

Domain and range x

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 Graphs of Functions
.

 We can represent a function f : A  B as a set of

ordered pairs {(a, f(a)) | aA}. ← The function’s graph.

 Note that aA, there is only 1 pair (a, b).

 Later (ch.9): relations loosen this restriction.

 For functions over numbers, we can represent

an ordered pair (x, y) as a point on a plane.
 A function is then drawn as a curve (set of

points), with only one y for each x.

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 Graphs of Functions:
Example s

The graph of f(n) = 2n + 1 The graph of f(x) = x2

from Z to Z from Z to Z
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 Plots with Floor/Ceiling: .

Example

y = ⎣ x⎦ y = ⎡x
 ⎤

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 Applications of Floor/Ceiling: .

Data stored on a computer disk or transmitted

over a data network are usually represented as
a string of bytes. Each byte is made up of 8
bits. How many bytes are required to encode
100 bits of data?
Solution: To determine the number of bytes
needed, we determine the smallest integer that
is at least as large as the quotient when 100 is
divided by 8, the number of bits in a byte.
Consequently, 100/8 = 12.5 = 13 bytes are
required.
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