Introduction to PL/SQL

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PL/SQL AND SQL
• When a SQL statement is issued on the client computer, the request
is made to the database on the server, and the result set is sent
back to the client.

• As a result, a single SQL statement causes two trips on the network.

If multiple SELECT statements are issued, the network traffic
increase significantly very fast. For example, four SELECT
statements cause eight network trips.

• If these statements are part of the PL/SQL block, they are sent to the
server as a single unit. The SQL statements in this PL/SQL program
are executed at the server and the result set is sent back as a single
unit. There is still only one network trip made as is in case of a single
SELECT statement.

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 PL/SQL BLOCKS

• PL/SQL blocks can be divided into two groups:

1. Named and
2. Anonymous.

• Named blocks are used when creating subroutines. These

subroutines are procedures, functions, and packages.

• The subroutines can be stored in the database and referenced by

their names later on.

• In addition, subroutines can be defined within the anonymous

PL/SQL block.

• Anonymous PL/SQL blocks do not have names. As a result,they

cannot be stored in the database and referenced later.
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 PL/SQL BLOCK STRUCTURE

• PL/SQL blocks contain three sections

1. Declare section
2. Executable section and
3. Exception-handling section.

• The executable section is the only mandatory section of the block.

• Both the declaration and exception-handling sections are optional.

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 PL/SQL Program Blocks

• Comments:
– Not executed by interpreter
– Enclosed between /* and */
– On one line beginning with --

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 Fundamentals of PL/SQL
• Full-featured programming language
• An interpreted language
• Type in editor, execute in SQL*Plus

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 Variables and Data Types

• Variables
– Used to store numbers, character strings, dates,
and other data values
– Avoid using keywords, table names and column
names as variable names
– Must be declared with data type before use:
variable_name data_type_declaration;

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 Scalar Data Types
• Represent a single value

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Composite and Reference Variables

• Composite variables
– RECORD: contains multiple scalar values, similar to a table
record
– TABLE: tabular structure with multiple columns and rows
– VARRAY: variable-sized array
• Reference variables
– Directly reference a specific database field or record and
assume the data type of the associated field or record
– %TYPE: same data type as a database field
– %ROWTYPE: same data type as a database record

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 Variables and Types
• %TYPE operator
DECLARE
myEmpNo EMP.empno%TYPE;
• %ROWTYPE operator
DECLARE
EmpTuple Emp%ROWTYPE;

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Arithmetic Operators

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 Assignment Statements

• Assigns a value to a variable

• variable_name := value;
• Value can be a literal:
– current_s_first_name := 'John';
• Value can be another variable:
– current_s_first_name := s_first_name;

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 Executing a PL/SQL Program in
SQL*Plus

• Create program in text editor

• Paste into SQL*Plus window
• Press Enter, type / then enter to execute
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 Manipulating Character Strings with
PL/SQL
• To concatenate two strings in PL/SQL, you use the
double bar (||) operator:
– new_string := string1 || string2;

• To remove blank leading spaces use the LTRIM

function:
– string := LTRIM(string_variable_name);

• To remove blank trailing spaces use the RTRIM

function:
– string := RTRIM(string_variable_name);

• To find the number of characters in a character string

use the LENGTH function:
– string_length := LENGTH(string_variable_name);

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Manipulating Character Strings with
PL/SQL
• To change case, use UPPER, LOWER, INITCAP
• INSTR function searches a string for a specific substring:
– start_position := INSTR(original_string, substring);

• SUBSTR function extracts a specific number of characters

from a character string, starting at a given point:
– extracted_string := SUBSTR(string_variable, starting_point,
number_of_characters);

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 PL/SQL Decision Control
Structures
• Use IF/THEN structure to execute code if condition is true
– IF condition THEN
commands that execute if condition is TRUE;
END IF;
• If condition evaluates to NULL it is considered false
• Use IF/THEN/ELSE to execute code if condition is true or
false
– IF condition THEN
commands that execute if condition is TRUE;
ELSE
commands that execute if condition is FALSE;
END IF;
• Can be nested – be sure to end nested statements
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 PL/SQL Decision Control
Structures
• Use IF/ELSIF to evaluate many conditions:
– IF condition1 THEN
commands that execute if condition1 is TRUE;
ELSIF condition2 THEN
commands that execute if condition2 is TRUE;
ELSIF condition3 THEN
commands that execute if condition3 is TRUE;
...
ELSE
commands that execute if none of the
conditions are TRUE;
END IF;
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IF/ELSIF Example

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 Complex Conditions
• Created with logical operators AND, OR and NOT
• AND is evaluated before OR
• Use () to set precedence

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 Using SQL Queries in PL/SQL
Programs
• Action queries can be used as in SQL*Plus

• May use variables in action queries

• DDL commands may not be used in PL/SQL

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 Loops
• Program structure that executes a series of program
statements, and periodically evaluates an exit
condition to determine if the loop should repeat or
exit
• Pretest loop: evaluates the exit condition before any
program commands execute
• Posttest loop: executes one or more program
commands before the loop evaluates the exit
condition for the first time
• PL/SQL has 5 loop structures

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DECLARE
x NUMBER := 100;
BEGIN
FOR i IN 1..10 LOOP
IF MOD(i,2) = 0 THEN -- i is even
dbms_output.put_line( x || ‘i is even');
ELSE
dbms_output.put_line( x || ‘i is odd');
END IF;

x := x + 100;
END LOOP;
COMMIT;
END;
.
run

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DECLARE
salary emp.sal%TYPE;
mgr_num emp.mgr%TYPE;
last_name emp.ename%TYPE;
starting_empno CONSTANT NUMBER(4) := 7902;
BEGIN
SELECT sal, mgr INTO :salary, :mgr_num FROM emp
WHERE empno = :starting_empno;
WHILE salary < 4000 LOOP
SELECT sal, mgr, ename INTO :salary, :mgr_num, :last_name
FROM emp
WHERE empno = :mgr_num;
END LOOP;

INSERT INTO temp VALUES (NULL, :salary, :last_name);

COMMIT;
END;

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 EXCEPTION-HANDLING SECTION
• The exception-handling section is the last section of the PL/SQL block.
• This section contains statements that are executed when a runtime error
occurs within a block.
• Runtime errors occur while the program is running and cannot be detected
by the PL/SQL compiler.

EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE
(‘ There is no student with student id 123 ’);
END;

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 Handling Runtime Errors in PL/SQL
Programs
• Runtime errors cause exceptions
• Exception handlers exist to deal with different error situations
• Exceptions cause program control to fall to exception section
where exception is handled

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Predefined Exceptions

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 Undefined Exceptions

• Less common errors

• Do not have predefined names
• Must declare your own name for the
exception code in the declaration section
– DECLARE
e_exception_name EXCEPTION;
PRAGMA
EXCEPTION_INIT(e_exception_name,
-Oracle_error_code);
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 User-Defined Exceptions

• Not a real Oracle error

• Use to enforce business rules

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