Linear modulation

techniques
Introduction
• amplitude, phase, or frequency of a carrier signal is varied linearly
with the baseband (message) signal.
• used in communication systems for transmitting data efficiently.
• output signal is a linear function of the input message signal.
A is the amplitude Linear modulation schemes,
fc​is the carrier frequency in general, do not have a
m(t) is a complex envelope representation of the constant envelope
modulated signal which is in general complex form. some nonlinear modulations
amplitude of the carrier varies linearly with the may have either linear or
modulating signal. constant carrier envelopes,
BPSK
• phase of a carrier signal is shifted between two distinct values,
typically 0° and 180°, to represent binary data.
• simplest and most robust forms of phase shift keying (PSK).

•1 is represented by a phase shift of 0°.

•0 is represented by a phase shift of 180° (π radians).
• The two possible signals correspond to binary values 1
and 0, represented as m1​and m2​.
• Phase Separation: The phases are separated by 180°.
• Transmitted Signal:
• For binary 1

• For binary 0
BPSK Spectrum and Bandwidth

BPSK Signal: Equivalent to a double sideband

suppressed carrier amplitude modulated waveform.
• Modulation: Uses cos(2πfc​t) as the carrier and the data
signal m(t) as the modulating waveform.
• Generation: A BPSK signal can be generated using a
balanced modulator.
Power Spectral Density (PSD)

• The PSD of the complex envelope can be expressed as

BPSK Power Spectral Density
(PSD)
• PSD Evaluation: The PSD for a BPSK signal at RF is
derived by translating the baseband spectrum to the
carrier frequency.
• Formula: The PSD of a BPSK signal is given by
• Bandwidth: The null-to-null bandwidth is found to be twice the bit
rate:
BW=2Rb​=2/Tb​
Energy Containment
• Approximately 90% of the BPSK signal energy is contained within
a bandwidth of about 1.6 times Rb​for rectangular pulses, and all
energy is within 0.5Rb​for pulses with a raised cosine filter (α =
0.5).
Receiver
• The received BPSK signal can be expressed mathematically
as:

• m(t) is the message signal.

• Eb​is the energy per bit.
• Tb​is the bit duration.
• fc​is the carrier frequency.
• θe​is the phase shift due to the transmitter.
• θh​is the phase shift due to the channel.
• BPSK uses coherent or synchronous demodulation,
• receiver needs to have information about the phase and
frequency of the carrier signal
PLL in BPSk
If a low-level pilot carrier signal is transmitted alongside the
BPSK signal, the receiver can recover the carrier phase and
frequency using a phase-locked loop (PLL).
• PLL - control system that generates a signal that is
phase-locked to the input signal.
• used to synchronize the receiver's local oscillator with
the incoming signal.
• If no pilot carrier is transmitted, alternative methods like
a Costas loop or squaring loop can be employed to
synthesize the carrier phase and frequency from the
received BPSK signal.
Block diagram
Operation
• The received BPSK signal is squared to generate a DC signal and
an amplitude-varying sinusoid at twice the carrier frequency.
• This DC signal is filtered using a bandpass filter centered at 2fc​.
• A frequency divider recreates the waveform of the original signal.
• The output after the frequency divider is given by a specific
mathematical expression.
• The signal is then applied to an integrate-and-dump circuit,
forming a low-pass filter segment of the BPSK detector.
• A bit synchronizer facilitates precise sampling of the integrator
output at the end of each bit period.
• The decision circuit determines whether the received
signal corresponds to a binary 1 or 0 based on the
integrator output relative to a threshold.
• The threshold is set to minimize the probability of error.
• The probability of bit error for BPSK in an AWGN channel
is derived using the Q-function based on the distance
between signal points in the constellation diagram.
Output of multiplier
Differential Phase Shift Keying
(DPSK)
• noncoherent form of phase shift keying
• eliminates the need for a coherent reference signal at
the receiver
• making it easier and more cost-effective to implement
in wireless communications.
• Input binary sequence is first differentially encoded.
• The resulting sequence dk​is generated from the input
binary sequence mk​
• modulo-2 sum of mk​and the previous symbol dk−1​.
• This process allows the current symbol to remain
unchanged if the incoming binary symbol mk​is 1, and
to toggle if mk​is 0.
DPSK transmitter
• A includes a one-bit delay element and a logic circuit.
• It generates a differentially encoded sequence from the
input binary sequence.
• The output is passed through a product modulator to
create the DPSK signal.
• At the receiver, the original sequence is recovered from
the demodulated differentially encoded signal through a
complementary process.
DPSK Transmitter
DPSK Receiver
Bit error probability
QPSK
• QPSK transmits 2 bits per symbol,
doubling the bandwidth efficiency of BPSK.
• The carrier phase takes on 4 equally
spaced values: 0, π/2, π, and 3π/2.
• Each phase corresponds to
a unique pair of message bits.
• The QPSK signal is defined mathematically with a specific formula involving
symbol duration Ts​.
• Ts​is equal to twice the bit period.
• Basis functions ϕ1​(t) and ϕ2​(t) are defined for the QPSK
signal.
• Four QPSK signals can be expressed in terms of these
basis signals.
• A QPSK signal can be represented in a two-dimensional
constellation diagram with four points.
• Different QPSK signal sets can be derived by simply
rotating the constellation.
Constellation diagrams
constellation features carrier phases at π, /2, π and 3π/2
• In QPSK, the distance between adjacent constellation
points is 2Eb​​, where Eb​is the energy per bit.
• Each symbol in QPSK represents two bits, leading to a
distance of 2Eb​between neighboring points.
• QPSK has the same bit error probability as BPSK but
transmits twice the data in the same bandwidth,
effectively doubling spectral efficiency.
power spectral density (PSD)
•The PSD expression for QPSK signals is derived
similarly to BPSK, using symbol periods Ts​instead
of bit periods Tb​.
• The null-to-null bandwidth of the QPSK signal is equal to
the bit rate Rb​, which is half that of a BPSK signal,
demonstrating improved spectral efficiency.
QPSK Transmitter
• The unipolar binary message stream with rate Rb​is converted to a
bipolar non-return-to-zero (NRZ) sequence.
• The bit stream m(t) is split into two streams: me​(t) (even) and mo​
(t) (odd), each with a bit rate of 2Rb​/2.
• These streams are modulated by two carriers ϕ1​(t) and ϕ2​(t) that are in
quadrature.
• The modulated signals are summed to create a QPSK signal, which can
also be viewed as a BPSK signal.
• An output filter confines the power spectrum of the QPSK signal,
preventing interference with adjacent channels and reducing out-of-
band spurious signals.
• Pulse shaping is typically performed at baseband to provide additional
RF filtering at the transmitter output.
QPSK Transmitter
QPSK Receiver
• The block diagram illustrates a coherent QPSK receiver.
• A front-end bandpass filter eliminates out-of-band noise and
adjacent channel interference.
• The filtered output is divided into two parts for coherent
demodulation.
• Each part is demodulated using in-phase and quadrature
carriers.
• Coherent carriers are recovered from the received signal using
carrier recovery circuits.
• The outputs from the demodulators are sent to decision
circuits to generate the in-phase and quadrature components.
Offset QPSK
• Amplitude Characteristics:
• QPSK signals ideally maintain a constant amplitude.
• Pulse shaping can lead to loss of this constant envelope
property.
• Phase Shift Issues:
• Phase shifts of π can cause the signal envelope to pass
through zero, affecting transmission.
• Signal Fidelity:
• Zero-crossings can introduce filtered sidelobes, leading to
spectral widening and signal fidelity issues.
• Amplification Requirements:
• To avoid regeneration of sidelobes, QPSK signals must be
amplified using linear amplifiers, which are less efficient.
• Offset QPSK (OQPSK):
• A modified form of QPSK that is less susceptible to negative
effects.
• In OQPSK, the bit transitions of even and odd streams occur at
different times, offset by one bit period.
• Waveform Representation:
• The differences in alignment between even and odd bit
streams are illustrated in specific waveforms.
Standard QPSK

• Phase Transition Timing: In standard QPSK, phase

transitions occur every Ts​=2Tb​and can reach a
maximum of 180∘180∘ when both mI​(t) and mQ​
(t) change simultaneously.
• Alignment: The time alignment of the in-phase mI​(t))
and quadrature mQ​(t)) components leads to potential
abrupt phase shifts.
Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
• Transition Offset: OQPSK introduces a half-symbol
offset between the two bit streams, allowing transitions
to occur more frequently.
• Phase Shift Limitation: This offset means that at any
given time, only one of the two bit streams can change,
limiting the maximum phase shift to 90∘90∘.
• Elimination of 180° Transitions: By switching phases
more frequently, OQPSK effectively eliminates the
occurrence of 180∘180∘ phase transitions, improving
signal integrity.
Characteristics
• Elimination of 180° Transitions: OQPSK
removes 180∘180∘ phase transitions, reducing signal
envelope variations and minimizing inter-symbol
interference (ISI) caused by bandlimiting.
• Reduced Envelope Variations: The envelope
variations in OQPSK are significantly less than in QPSK,
leading to less hard limiting and nonlinear amplification
issues.
• Spectrum Similarity: The spectrum of an OQPSK
signal is identical to that of a QPSK signal, maintaining
the same bandwidth despite the staggered alignment of
bit streams.
• Efficiency in Mobile Communications: OQPSK is
advantageous for mobile communication systems due
to its bandwidth efficiency and effective performance in
low-power applications.
• Improved Performance: OQPSK shows better
resilience to phase jitter from noisy reference signals at
the receiver compared to QPSK.
π/4 QPSK (Pi/4 Quadrature
Phase Shift Keying)
• variant of the Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
• used in digital communication systems, such as in mobile and satellite
communication, for its balance between bandwidth efficiency and
power efficiency.
Key features
Phase Shift
In standard QPSK, there are four possible phase states (0°, 90°, 180°,
 In π/4 QPSK, the phase of the modulated signal shifts by an additiona
(45°) on top of the usual QPSK states.
This results in the phase states alternating between two sets of conste
one set that is offset by π/4 radians from the other.
Constellation Diagram:
The constellation diagram of π/4 QPSK looks like two
interleaved QPSK constellations.
 One set of symbols is at 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°, while the
second set is at 45°, 135°, 225°, and 315°.
• results in better envelope preservation
• more resilient to variations compared to standard QPSK.
• simplifies receiver design and improves performance in
environments with multipath interference.
• The modulation technique involves selecting signaling
points from two QPSK constellations, ensuring a phase
shift occurs between successive symbols, which aids in
recovery and synchronization.
• Advantages:
• Detection: π/4 QPSK can be demodulated either coherently or non-
coherently, simplifying receiver design.
• Multipath and Fading: It performs better than QPSK in environments
with multipath spread and fading.
• Differential Encoding: π/4 QPSK signals can be encoded differentially
to handle phase ambiguity in carrier recovery.
Constellation digram a)npi/2 b)npi/4
c)all possible states
Transmitter
 Input bit stream is partitioned by a serial-
to-parallel (S/P) converter into two parallel
data streams mIk​and mQk.
 The kth in-phase and quadrature pulses, Ik​
and Qk​, are produced at the output of the
signal mapping circuit
 time interval kT≤t<(k+1)T
 Ik and Qk are determined by their previous
values,Ik−1​and Qk−1 ​each with a symbol rate equal
 Ik​and Qk​represent rectangular pulses over to half that of the incoming bit
one symbol duration having amplitudes rate
given by
In-phase (Ik​) and quadrature (Qk​) bit streams are
modulated separately by two carriers
carriers are in quadrature (90 degrees out of phase) with
each other.
This results in the generation of the π/4 QPSK waveform,
represented by the equation:
• p(t) is the pulse shaping function
• Ts​is the symbol period
• Ik​and Qk​represent the modulated values of the in-
phase and quadrature components, respectively.
• Both Ik​and Qk​are typically passed through raised
cosine roll off pulse shaping filters before modulation to
minimize bandwidth occupancy.
• pulse shaping -helps reduce spectral restoration issues.
• values of Ik​and Qk​can take on one of five possible
values: 0, +1, −1, +1/2​, or −1/2​.
π/4 QPSK detection techniques
• highlighting the use of differential detection for its
hardware implementation advantages.
• In an AWGN channel, the bit error rate (BER) of
differentially detected π/4 QPSK is about 3 dB worse
than that of standard QPSK.
• However, in low bit rate scenarios, such as Rayleigh
fading channels, differential detection provides a lower
error floor since it does not depend on phase
synchronization.
• Various detection methods for π/4 QPSK signals include
baseband differential detection, IF differential detection,
and FM discriminator detection.
• baseband and IF differential detectors assess phase
differences
• FM discriminator - differences in a noncoherent manner.
• Studies indicate that all three receiver structures yield
similar bit error rate performance, though each has
unique implementation challenges
baseband differential detection
• Incoming π/4 QPSK signal is demodulated using two
local oscillator signals that share the same frequency as
the original carrier but may differ in phase.
detection
process of differential decoding for
π/4 QPSK signals
• It describes how the received sequences wk​and zk​are
processed through a differential decoder, which
generates outputs xk​and yk​
• These outputs are then used in a decision circuit to
determine the detected bits SI​and SQ​for the in-phase
and quadrature components, respectively, based on
their signs:
• SI​=1, if xk​>0
• SQ​=1, if yk​>0
maintaining the local receiver oscillator frequency
to match the transmitter frequency to avoid
degradation in bit error rate (BER).
IF Differential Detector
• avoids the need for a local oscillator by using a delay
line and two phase detectors.
• The received signal is converted to IF and is bandpass
filtered.
• The bandpass filter is designed to match the
transmitted pulse shape, so that the carrier phase is
preserved and noise power is minimized.
• To minimize the effect of ISI and noise, the bandwidth of
the filters are chosen to be 0.57Ts​.
• The received IF signal is differentially decoded using a
delay line and two mixers.
• The bandwidth of the signal at the output of the
differential detector is twice that of the baseband signal
at the transmitter end.
FM Discriminator
•
The input signal is first filtered using a bandpass filter
that is matched to the transmitted signal.
• The filtered signal is then hardlimited
• Hardlimiting preserves the phase changes in the input
signal
• The FM discriminator extracts the instantaneous
frequency deviation of the received signal
• The phase difference is then detected by a four-level
threshold comparator to obtain the original signal.
• The phase difference can also be detected using a modulo-2π
phase detector.
• The modulo-2π phase detector improves the BER performance
and reduces the effect of click noise [Feh91].
Constant envelope modulation
• amplitude of the transmitted signal remains constant
over time, regardless of the variations in the modulating
message signal.
• certain applicationsthat utilize non-linear amplifiers,
such as satellite and mobile communications.
Conditions
• power efficient Class C amplifiers can be used without
introducing degradation in the spectrum occupancy of
the transmitted signal.
• Low out-of-band radiation of the order of -60 dB to -70
dB can be achieved.
• Limiter-discriminator detection can be used

In situations where bandwidth efficiency is more

important than power efficiency, constant envelope
modulation is not well-suited.
BFSK
• type of frequency shift keying (FSK) modulation used in digital
communication.
• In BFSK, two distinct frequencies are used to represent binary data (0s
and 1s). Here's how it works:
• One frequency (f1) is used to represent a binary "0".
• Another frequency (f2) is used to represent a binary "1".
SIGNAL REPRESENTATION
FSK signal generation
• The more common method for generating an FSK signal
is to frequency modulate a single carrier oscillator using
the message waveform.
• This type of modulation is similar to analog FM
generation, except that the modulating signal m(t) is a
binary waveform
though the modulating waveform m(t) is discontinuous
at bit transitions, the phase function θ(t) is proportional
to the integral of m(t) and is continuous.
spectrum and bandwidth of
BFSK signals
• spectrum is complex
• power spectral density (PSD) consists of discrete frequency
components at fc​+nΔf and fc​−nΔf
• fc​is the carrier frequency
• Δf is the frequency deviation, and n is an integer.
• The PSD of an FSK signal decreases with the fourth power of the
frequency offset from fc
Transmission Bandwidth (BT)
Carson's Rule is applied to determine the transmission bandwidth of an FSK
signal:
BT=2Δf+2B
B is the bandwidth of the digital baseband signal
Δf is the frequency deviation.
If rectangular pulses are used, B=R, so the bandwidth becomes
BT=2(Δf+R)
With a raised cosine pulse-shaping filter, the bandwidth is reduced and is given
by:
BT=2Δf+(1+α)RB
α is the rolloff factor of the filter.

This describes the relationship between frequency deviation,

baseband signal, and how different pulse-shaping techniques
influence the bandwidth of a BFSK signal.
Coherent detection
• The receiver shown is the optimum detector for
coherent binary FSK in the presence of additive white
Gaussian noise.
• It consists of two correlators which are supplied with
locally generated coherent reference signals.
• The difference of the correlator outputs is then
compared with a threshold comparator
• If the difference signal has a value greater than the
threshold, the receiver decides in favor of a 1, otherwise
it decides in favor of a 0.
• It can be shown that the probability of error for a
coherent FSK receiver is given by
Non coherent detection