Chapter 5

The Network Layer

Internetworking &
The Network Layer in the Internet
 Internetworking

• How networks differ

• How networks can be connected
• Tunneling
• Internetwork routing
• Packet fragmentation
How Networks Differ

Some of the many ways networks can differ

How Networks Can Be Connected

a) A packet crossing different networks.

b) Network and link layer protocol processing.
c) From 802.11 to MPLS – multi-protocol router strips the 802.11 frame and put the MPLS frame and then fragments when it
is sent over IP
 Tunneling (1)

Tunneling a packet from Paris to London.

 Tunneling (2)

Tunneling a car from France to England

a) The disadvantage of tunneling is that none of the hosts on the network that is tunneled over can be
reached because the packets cannot escape in the middle of the tunnel
 Internetwork Routing (1)
Challenges in internetwork routing:

1)The networks may internally use different routing algorithms

(e.g., link state routing and distance vector routing) – finding
shortest path becomes tricky.
2)Networks run by different operators:
a) Different ideas about what is a good path through the
network – one operator wants least delay, another least cost.
b) One operator may not want another operator to know details
of the paths in its network.
3)Individual networks may not need hierarchical solutions, while
the combined network (internet) is huge and requires such solutions
for scaling
 Internetwork Routing (2)
Two-level routing algorithm:
1)Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP): Intra-domain routing
protocol, used within individual networks.
2)Border Gateway Protocol (BGP): Inter-domain routing
protocol, used across the networks which make up the network.

Since each network is operated independently of all the others, it is

often referred to as an AS (Autonomous System).

Routes across networks determined by:

1)Business arrangements between ISPs.
2)Government laws for countries if internetwork routing requires
crossing international boundaries.
 Packet Fragmentation (1)
Packet size issues:

1. Hardware
2. Operating system
3. Protocols
4. Compliance with (inter)national standard.
5. Reduce error-induced retransmissions
6. Prevent packet occupying channel too long.
Packet Fragmentation (2)

(a) Transparent fragmentation.

(b) Nontransparent fragmentation
 Packet Fragmentation (3)

Fig.: Fragmentation when the elementary data size is 1 byte.

(a) Original packet, containing 10 data bytes.
 Packet Fragmentation (4)

Fig. (contd.): Fragmentation when the elementary data size is 1 byte

(b) Fragments after passing through a network
with maximum packet size of 8 payload bytes plus header.
 Packet Fragmentation (5)

Fig. (contd.): Fragmentation when the elementary data size is 1 byte

(c) Fragments after passing through a size 5 gateway.
 Packet Fragmentation (6)

Path MTU Discovery

MTU: Maximum Transmission Unit – pushes the fragmentation to host from network
 The Network Layer in the Internet

• The IP Protocol
• IP Addresses
• Internet Control Protocols
• OSPF – The Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
• BGP – The Exterior Gateway Routing Protocol
• Internet Multicasting
• Mobile IP
• IPv6
 Design Principles for Internet
1. Make sure it works. – deploy multiple protocol
2. Keep it simple.
3. Make clear choices. – not too many options as mentioned in
standards
4. Exploit modularity.
5. Expect heterogeneity.
1. Simple, general and flexible
6. Avoid static options and parameters.
7. Look for a good design; it need not be perfect.
8. Be strict when sending and tolerant when receiving.
9. Think about scalability.
10. Consider performance and cost.
 Collection of Subnetworks

The Internet is an interconnected collection of many networks.

a) Tier – 1 network
 The IP Protocol

The IPv4 (Internet Protocol) header.

 The IP Header (1)

• Version – IPv4 / IPv6

• IHL – how long the header is – in 32 bit word, minimum is
5, maximum is 15 (60 bytes)
• Type of Service – (6 bits) – four queuing priority, three
discard probabilities and the historical class (Bottom 2 bits
–congestion notification)
 The IP Header (2)

• Total Length – header + data, maximum is 65,535

• Identification Field – fragments of a datagram have same Identification
value
• DF – Don’t Fragment (may mean moving through sub-optimal route,
MF- More Fragments (all except the last fragment set).
• Fragment offset – all fragments multiple of 8 bytes – 8192 fragments
 The IP Header (2)

• Time to Live
• Protocol – TCP, UDP
• Header Checksum – each 16 bit – 1’s complement and total
1’s complement
The IP Protocol (2)

5-54

Some of the IP options.

IP Addresses (1)

An IP prefix.
 IP Addresses (2)

Splitting an IP prefix into separate networks with subnetting.

IP Addresses (3)

A set of IP address assignments

IP Addresses (4)

Aggregation of IP prefixes
 IP Addresses (5)

Longest matching prefix routing at the New York router.

IP Addresses (6)

IP address formats
IP Addresses (7)

Special IP addresses
 IP Addresses (8)

Placement and operation of a NAT box.

 Subnets

A campus network consisting of LANs for various departments.

 Subnets (2)

A class B network subnetted into 64 subnets.

CIDR – Classless Inter-Domain Routing

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A set of IP address assignments.

 Address Moving in CIDR
• A packet comes in .addressed 194.24.17.4 –compare it with
each mask….

• Largest Suffix match

• Aggregated entry of the three –

194.24.0.0/19

• Omaha  Minneapolis, New York, Dallas, Denver

• 194.24.12.0/22
NAT – Network Address Translation

Placement and operation of a NAT box.

 NAT
a) While leaving – IP, port are put in table, checksum is
calculated and inserted into the packets.

b) While coming back – IP, port, checksum of IP and

port checksum

c) Three ranges of IP addresses as private

– 10.0.0.0
– 172.16 ---- 172.31
– 192.168
 NAT – Criticism
a) Architectural model of IP where each IP is identified by
a single machine
b) Internet from connection-less to connection-oriented
c) NAT violates the most fundamental rule of protocol
layering
d) Processes on the Internet are not required to use TCP or
UDP
e) Some application insert IP address in their body – (FTP)
– NAT doesn’t know about it.
f) Doesn’t ensure end-to-end connectivity
 IP Version 6 Goals
• Support billions of hosts
• Reduce routing table size
• Simplify protocol
• Better security
• Attention to type of service
• Aid multicasting
• Roaming host without changing address
• Allow future protocol evolution
• Permit coexistence of old, new protocols
IP Version 6 (1)

The IPv6 fixed header (required).

IP Version 6 (2)

IPv6 extension headers

 IP Version 6 (3)

The hop-by-hop extension header for

large datagrams (jumbograms).
IP Version 6 (4)

The extension header for routing.

Internet Control Message Protocol

The principal ICMP message types.

a) Time exceeded path – when TTL becomes zero, the control packet
comes back… Can be used for Traceroute

b) Congestion control – mainly done in transport layer

c) Redirect – router notices a packet is routed incorrectly

d) Echo – ping

e) Timestamp – arrival time and departure time

f) Router Advertisement – let hosts find nearby server
ARP– Address Resolution Protocol

Two switched Ethernet LANs joined by a router

 Optimizations on ARP
Two Broad Techniques
A.Have configuration file
B.Broadcast

Optimizations for ARP:

a)Caching
b)Broadcast the mapping when booting (gratuitous
ARP)
c)Send it to router if not local
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

Operation of DHCP.
• DHCP Relay, Broadcasts a DISCOVER,
• Leasing of IP, if not renewed it is taken back.
OSPF—An Interior Gateway
Routing Protocol (1)

An autonomous system
 OSPF—An Interior Gateway
Routing Protocol (5)
Salient Features:
a)O – open source
b)Support variety of distant metrics
c)Dynamic algorithm – have to adapt
d)Load balancing and not the best path
e)Hierarchical systems
f)Security is needed

OSPF supports connection – point-to-point/multi-access with

broadcast
OSPF—An Interior Gateway
Routing Protocol (2)

A graph representation of the previous slide.

 OSPF—An Interior Gateway
Routing Protocol (3)

The relation between ASes, backbones, and areas in OSPF.

OSPF—An Interior Gateway
Routing Protocol (4)

The five types of OSPF messages

 BGP—The Exterior Gateway
Routing Protocol (1)
Examples of routing constraints:

1. No commercial traffic for educat. network

2. Never put Iraq on route starting at Pentagon
3. Choose cheaper network
4. Choose better performing network
5. Don’t go from Apple to Google to Apple
BGP—The Exterior Gateway
Routing Protocol (2)

Routing policies between four Autonomous Systems

Peering
Peering is not transitive

Early-exit or Hot Potato Routing

Exit own ISP fast
BGP—The Exterior Gateway
Routing Protocol (3)

Propagation of BGP route advertisements

 Internet Multicasting
• Multicasting: Sender sends to a large number of receivers
simultaneously.
• Examples: streaming a live sports event to many viewers,
delivering program updates to a pool of replicated servers.
• In IP, each class D address identifies a group of hosts; 28 bits
available for identifying groups.

Fig: Examples of local multicast addresses

 Mobile IP
Goals:
1. Mobile host use home IP address anywhere.
2. No software changes to fixed hosts
3. No changes to router software, tables
4. Packets for mobile hosts – restrict detours
5. No overhead for mobile host at home.
 End

Chapter 5
Label Switching and MPLS (1)

Transmitting a TCP segment using IP, MPLS, and PPP.

Label Switching and MPLS (2)

Forwarding an IP packet through an MPLS network