Click if you like the project. Pull Request are highly appreciated.

• MySQL Queries
• MySQL Basics

An index is a database structure that you can use to improve the performance of database activity. A database table can have one or more indexes associated with it. An index is defined by a field expression that you specify when you create the index. Typically, the field expression is a single field name, like EMP_ID.

Note that MySQL supports two different kinds of tables: transaction-safe tables (InnoDB and BDB) and non-transaction-safe tables (HEAP, ISAM, MERGE, and MyISAM). Advantages of transaction-safe tables (TST): Safer.

A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related column between them.
Take users table and orders table for example.
Users

Orders

So to get the list of orders with names and mobile nos. for each order, we can join orders and users on the basis of user_id.

select o.*, u.name, u.mobile from ordes o join users u on o.user_id = u.user_id;

select * from employees order by salary limit 2,1;

Both of them are used for string type data. char has fixed length and if the inserted data is less than the defined length, required no. of blank spaces are added as padding. varchar has variable length and no padding is used to fill up the left out space. So technically, varchar will save space.

A database model represents the relationship between one or more databases. The relationship is known as the relational database model. It is an extension of the normal databases without relations. It provides flexibility and allows one database to be in relation with another database. It can access the data from many databases at one time over the network.

• Table consists of some properties that are known as attributes.
• These consist of the representation of entity in the table.
• They are represented by columns in the table.
• Entity is referred to the store data about any particular thing.
• It is the smallest unit inside the table.

Relation in the relational database model is defined as the set of tuples that have the same attributes. Tuple represents an object and also the information that the object contains. Objects are basically instances of classes and used to hold the larger picture. Relation is described as a table and is organized in rows and columns. The data referenced by the relation come in the same domain and have the same constraints as well. Relations in the relational database model can be modified using the commands like insert, delete etc.

• Domain describes possible values grouped together that can be given for an attribute. It is considered the same way as a constraint on the value of attribute.
• A domain can be attached to an attribute but only if the attribute is an element of specified set.

For example: XYZ doesn’t fulfill the domain constraint but the integer value as 899 fulfills the criteria of domain constraint. Hence, domain is of high importance.

• Relational database means the relationship between different databases. In relational database user can store and access all the data through the tables which are related to each other.

• Relationship between the store data is called base relations and implementation of it is called as tables. Whereas, relations which don’t store the data, but can be found out by applying relational operations on other relations are called as derived relations. When these are implemented they are termed as views or queries.

• Derived relations are more useful then base relation, as they can have more information from many relations, but they act as a single relation.

Constraints are kind of restrictions that are applied to the database or on the domain of an attribute. For example an integer attribute is restricted from 1-10 and not more than that. They provide the way to implement the business logic and the rules in database. In database it can be implemented in the form of check constraints that checks for the rules that haven’t been followed by the programmer. Constraint also used to restrict the data that can be stored in the relations. Domain constraint can be applied to check the domain functionality and keep it safe..

The two principal rules for the relational model are as follows:

• Entity integrity: this is used to maintain the integrity at entity level
• Referential integrity: it is used to maintain integrity on all the values which have been referenced.

The differences between them are as follows:

• Entity integrity tells that in a database every entity should have a unique key; on the other hand referential integrity tells that in the database every table values for all foreign keys will remain valid.
• Referential integrity is based on entity integrity but it is not the other way around.
• For example: if a table is present and there is a set of column out of which one column has parent key set then to ensure that the table doesn’t contain any duplicate values, a unique index is defined on the column that contains the parent key.

• Primary key uniquely identify a relationship in a database, whereas foreign key is the key that is in other relation and it has been referenced from the primary key from other table.
• Primary key remains one only for the table, whereas there can be more than one foreign key.
• Primary key is unique and won’t be shared between many tables, but foreign key will be shared between more than one table and will be used to tell the relationship between them.

Stored procedure stored inside the database. This also includes the executable code that usually collects and customizes the operations like insert, encapsulation, etc. These stored procedures are used as APIs for simplicity and security purposes. The implementation of it allows the developers to have procedural extensions to the standard SQL syntax. Stored procedure doesn’t come as a part of relational database model, but can be included in many implementations commercially.

• Index is a way to provide quick access to the data and structure. It has indexes maintain and can be created to combine attributes on a relation. Index allows the queries to filter out the searches faster and matching data can be found earlier with simplicity.

• For example: It is same as the book where by using the index you can directly jump to a defined section. In relational database there is a provision to give multiple indexing techniques to optimize the data distribution.

There are many relational operators that are used to perform actions on relational database. These operators are as follows:

1. Union operator that combines the rows of two relations and doesn’t include any duplicate. It also removes the duplicates from the result.
2. Intersection operator provides a set of rows that two relations have in common.
3. Difference operator provide the output by taking two relations and producing the difference of rows from first that don’t exist in second.
4. Cartesian product is done on two relations. It acts as a cross join operator.

• Normalization is very essential part of relational model.
• Normal forms are the common form of normalization.
• It helps in reducing redundancy to increase the information overall.
• It has some disadvantages as it increases complexity and have some overhead of processing.
• It consists of set of procedures that eliminates the domains that are non-atomic and redundancy of data that prevents data manipulation and loss of data integrity.

There are 9 normalizations that are used inside the database. These are as follows:

1. First normal form: in this table represents a relation that has no repeating groups.
2. Second normal form: non- prime attributes are not functional dependent on subset of any candidate key.
3. Third normal form: in a table every non- prime attribute is non-transitively dependent on every candidate key
4. Elementary key normal form: superkey dependency or elementary key dependency effects the functional dependency in a table.
5. Boyce codd normal form: “every non-trivial functional dependency in the table is dependent on superkey”.
6. Fourth normal form: “Every non-trivial multivalued dependency in the table is a dependent on a superkey”.
7. Fifth normal form (5NF): “Every non-trivial join dependency in the table is implied by the superkeys of the table”.
8. Domain/key normal form (DKNF): “Every constraint on the table is a logical consequence of the table's domain constraints and key constraints”.
9. Sixth normal form (6NF): “Table features no non-trivial join dependencies at all”.

• Analytical processing databases are not very normalized. The operations which are used are read most databases.
• It is used to extract the data that are ancient and accumulated over long period of time. For this purpose de-normalization occurs that provide smart business applications.
• Dimensional tables in star schema are good example of de-normalized data.
• The de-normalized form must be controlled while extracting, transforming, loading and processing.
• There should be constraint that user should not be allowed to view the state till it is consistent.
• It is used to increase the performance on many systems without RDBMS platform.

Non-first normal form (NFA)

– It describes the definition of the database design which is different from the first normal form.

• It keeps the values in structured and specialized types with their own domain specific languages.
• The query language used in this is extended to incorporate more support for relational domain values by adding more operators.

There are three levels of data abstraction available in database model and these are as follows:

1. Physical level: It is the lowest level that describes how data is stored inside the database.
2. Logical level: It is the next higher level in the hierarchy that provides the abstraction. It describes what data are stored and the relationship between them.
3. View level: It is the highest level in hierarchy that describes part of the entire database. It allows user to view the database and do the query.

The major difference between extension and intension is that:

• Extension is time dependent, whereas intension includes a constant value.
• Extension tells about the number of tuples presented in a table at any instance, whereas intension gives the name, structure and constraint of the table.

System R is being developed by IBM. Its purpose is to demonstrate the possible solution to build a relational database system. The relational database system has to be such that which can interact with the real life environment to sole real life scenarios.

The two subsystems that are included in it are:

1. Research storage: This includes the research information of the database.
2. System relational system: This includes the relational data that a system has to produce and keep everything in relation.

Data independence tells about the independence of the data inside the application. It usually deals with the storage structure and represents the ability to modify the schema definition. It doesn’t affect the schema definition which is being written on the higher level.

There are two types of data independence:

1. Physical data independence: It allows the modification to be done in physical level and doesn’t affect the logical level.
2. Logical data independence: It allow the modification to be done at logical level and affects the view level.

NOTE: Logical Data Independence is more difficult to achieve.

• View is a virtual table that doesn’t really exist, but it remains present so that user can view their data.
• It is derived from the base table. The view is stored in the data dictionary and represents the file directly.
• The base table updation or reconstruction is not being reflected in views.
• It is related to the logical data independence as it is at the logical level and not at the physical level.

E-R model stands for entity-relationship model and it is used to represent a model with their relationships. This is an object oriented approach and it is based on real world that consists of objects which are called entities and relationship between them. Entities are further used inside the database in the form of attributes.

• ACID stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation and durability and it plays an important role in the database.
• These properties allow the database to be more convenient to access and use. This allows data to be shared more safely in between the tables.
• If these properties are not being implemented then the data will become inconsistent and inaccurate.
• It helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data in the database.

• Cardinality is important and used to arrange the data inside the database.
• It is related to the design part and need to be properly used in database.
• It is used in E-R diagrams and used to show the relationship between entities/tables.
• It has many forms like the basic is one to one, which associate one entity with another.
• Second is one to many: which relates one entity with many entities in a table.
• Third is many to many M: N that allows many entities to be related to many more.
• Last is many to one that allows the many entities to be associated with one entity.

• DBMS is persistent and accessible when the data is created or exists, but RDBMS tells about the relation between the table and other tables.
• RDBS supports a tabular structure for data and relationship between them in the system whereas DBMS supports only the tabular structure.
• DBMS provide uniform methods for application that has to be independently accessed, but RDBMS doesn’t provide methods like DBMS but provide relationship which link one entity with another.

• A pointer to data having physical representation is called as Index.
• Record can be located quickly and efficiently by creating Indices on existing tables.
• Each index in a table has some valid name and we can have more than one index in different columns of a table.
• We can speed up queries by setting up index in a column of a table.
• In a table , each row is examined by sql server to fulfil our query is known as table scan and it only happen when there is no index available to help the query.
• On large tables, the table scan has huge impact on performance.
• Clustered and Non clustered indexes are the most widely used indexes in a database.

• A Trigger is a process of firing an action when some event like Insert, Update or Delete occurs.
• A trigger can’t be called or even executed rather they are automatically become active by the DBMS whenever some modification in associated table occur.
• Triggers are event driven and can attached to particular table in a database.
• Triggers are implicitly executed and stored procedures are also executed by triggers.
• Referential integrity is maintained by the trigger and they are managed and stored by DBMS.
• Triggers can be nested also, in which Insert, Update or Delete logic can be fired from the trigger itself.

• NOLOCK is used to improve concurrency on a busy system.
• On data read, no lock can be taken on SELECT statement.
• When some other process is updating the data on the same time you are reading it is known as dirty read.
• Read (Shared) locks are taken by SELECT Statements.
• Simultaneous access of multiple SELECT statements is allowed in Shared lock but modification process is not allowed.
• The result to your system is blocking.
• Update will start on completion of all the reads.

• Using STUFF function we can overwrite the specified characters of a string. The syntax of STUFF function is: STUFF (stringToChange, startIndex, length, new_characters )

where stringToChange is the string which will have the characters those we want to overwrite, startIndex is the starting position, length is the number of characters in the string that are to be overwrited, and new_characters are the new characters to write into the string.

• While REPLACE function is used to replace specified character at all its existing occurrences.
• The syntax of REPLACE function is REPLACE (string_to_change, string_to_Replace, new_tring).
• Every occurrence of string_to_change will be replaced by new_string.

• When we want to join a table to itself then SELF JOIN is used.
• We can give one or more aliases to eliminate the confusion.
• A self join can be used as any type, if both the tables are same.
• The simple example where we can use SELF JOIN is if in a company have a hierarchal reporting structure and an employee reports to another.
• A cross join give the number of rows in the first table multiplied by the number of rows in second table.
• The simple example where we can use CROSS JOIJ is if in an organization wants to combine every Employee with family table to see each Employee with each family member.

• Procedure can reduce network traffic and latency, and can enhance application performance.
• Procedure execution plans can be reused, staying cached in the management tool's memory, reducing its overhead.
• Procedures provide the benefit of code reuse.
• The logic can be encapsulated using procedures and can help to change procedure's code without interacting to application.
• Procedures give more security to our data.

• RANK function can be used to give a rank to each row returned from a SELECT statment.
• For using this function first specify the function name, followed by the empty parentheses.
• Then mention the OVER function. For this function, you have to pass an ORDER BY clause as an argument. The clause identifies the column on which you are going to apply the RANK function.

For Example: SELECT RANK() OVER(ORDER BY BirthDate DESC) AS [RowNumber], FirstName, BirthDate FROM EmpDetails

• In the result you will see that the eldest employee got the first rank and the youngest employee got the last rank. Here the rows with equal age will get same ranks.
• The rank depends on the row's position in the result set, but not on the sequential number of the row.

• When we execute any SQL operations, SQL Server opens a work area in memory which is called Cursor.
• When it is required to perform the row by row operations which are not possible with the set-based operations then cursor is used.

There are two of cursors:

1. Implicate Cursor

• SQL Server automatically manages cursors for all data manipulation statements. These cursors are called implicit cursors.

2. Explicit Cursor

• When the programmer wants to perform the row by row operations for the result set containing more than one row, then he explicitly declare a cursor with a name.
• They are managed by OPEN, FETCH and CLOSE.
• %FOUND, %NOFOUND, %ROWCOUNT and %ISOPEN attributes are used in both types of cursors.

• Similarity

• Both Truncate and Delete command will delete data from given table and they will not delete the table structure from the database.

• Difference

1. TRUNCATE is a DDL (data definition language) command whereas DELETE is a DML (data manipulation language) command.

2. We can’t execute a trigger with TRUNCATE whereas with DELETE command, a trigger can be executed.

3. We can use any condition in WHERE clause using DELETE but it is not possible with TRUNCATE.

4. If table is referenced by any foreign key constraints then TRUNCATE cannot work.

5. TRUNCATE is faster than DELETE, because when you use DELETE to delete the data, at that time it store the whole data in rollback space from where you can get the data back after deletion, whereas TRUNCATE will not store data in rollback space and will directly delete it. You can’t get the deleted data back when you use TRUNCATE.

• COMMIT statement is used to end the current transaction and once the COMMIT statement is exceucted the transaction will be permanent and undone.
• Syntax: COMMIT;
• Example:

BEGIN
UPDATE EmpDetails SET EmpName = ‘Arpit’ where Dept = ‘Developer’
COMMIT;
END;

-ROLLBACK statement is used to end the current transaction and undone the changes which was made by that transaction.

• Syntax: ROLLBACK [TO] Savepoint_name;
• Example:

BEGIN
Statement1;
SAVEPOINT mysavepoint;
BEGIN
Statement2;
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
ROLLBACK TO mysavepoint;
Statement5;
END;
END;

• WITH(NOLOCK) is used to unlock the data which is locked by the transaction that is not yet committed. This command is used before SELECT statement.
• When the transaction is committed or rolled back then there is no need to use NOLOCK function because the data is already released by the committed transaction.
• Syntax: WITH(NOLOCK)
• Example:

SELECT * FROM EmpDetails WITH(NOLOCK)
WITH(NOLCOK) is similar as READ UNCOMMITTED.

• Correlated subquery executes single time for every row which is selected by the outer query.

• It has a reference to a value from the row selected by the outer query.

• Nested subquery executes only once for the entire nesting (outer) query. It does not contain any reference to the outer query row.

• For example,

• Correlated Subquery: select e.EmpFirstName, e.Salary, e.DeptId from Employee e where e.Salary = (select max(Salary) from Employee ee where ee.DeptId = e.DeptId)

• Nested Subquery: select EmpFirstName, Salary, DeptId from Employee where (DeptId, Salary) in (select DeptId, max(Salary) from Employee group by DeptId)

• INTERSECT - It will give all the distinct rows from both select queries.
• MINUS - It will give distinct rows returned by the first query but not by the second query.
• UNION - It will give all distinct rows selected by either first query or second query.
• UNION ALL - It will give all rows returned by either query with all duplicate records.

Using Join in a query, we can retrieve referenced columns or rows from multiple tables.

Following are different types of Joins:

1. JOIN: Return details from tables if there is at least one matching row in both tables.
2. LEFT JOIN: It will return all rows from the left table, even if there are no matching row in the right table.
3. RIGHT JOIN: It will return all rows from the right table, even if there is no matching row in the left table.
4. FULL JOIN: It will return rows when there is a match in either of tables.

SQL commands can be divided in three large subgroups.

1. DDL: The SQL commands which deals with database schemas and information of how the data will be generated in database are classified as Data Definition Language. -For example: CREATE TABLE or ALTER TABLE belongs to DDL.

2. DML: The SQL commands which deals with data manipulation are classified as Data Manipulation Language. For example: SELECT, INSERT, etc.

3. DCL: The SQL commands which deal with rights and permission over the database are classified as DCL. For example: GRANT, REVOKE

• Query performance as well as speed improvement of a database can be done using Indexes.
• The process of enhancing the selection of indexes is called Index Tuning.

Index tuning is part of database tuning for selecting and creating indexes. The index tuning goal is to reduce the query processing time. Potential use of indexes in dynamic environments with several ad-hoc queries in advance is a difficult task. Index tuning involves the queries based on indexes and the indexes are created automatically on-the-fly. No explicit actions are needed by the database users for index tuning.

The Index tuning wizard can be used to improve the performance of queries and databases. It uses the following measures to do so:

• It uses the query optimizer to perform the analysis of queries with respect to the workload and based on this knowledge, it recommends the best usage of indexes.
• The changes in the usage of index, query distribution and their performance are analysed for checking the effect.
• It also recommends ways of tuning the database for a small set of problem queries.

• Index tuning improves query performance by using Index Tuning Wizard. SQL profiler is used for capturing a trace of the activity, for the optimizing performance. The trace can be extended for a period of time for the purpose of capturing a wide range of activity.

• Subsequently, Enterprise manager is used for starting the Index Tuning Wizard and instructs to recommended indexes which are based on the trace that is captured. An estimation of increased performance after making changes is provided apart from appropriate columns suggestion.

Following are the reasons for the poor performance of a query:

• No indexes.

• Excess recompilations of stored procedures.

• Procedures and triggers without SET NOCOUNT ON.

• Poorly written query with unnecessarily complicated joins.

• Highly normalized database design.

• Excess usage of cursors and temporary tables.

• Queries with predicates that use comparison operators between different columns of the same table.

• Queries with predicates that use operators, and any one of the following are true:

• There are no statistics on the columns involved on either side of the operators.

• The distribution of values in the statistics is not uniform, but the query seeks a highly selective value set. This situation can be especially true if the operator is anything other than the equality (=) operator.

• The predicate uses the not equal to (!=) comparison operator or the NOT logical operator.

• Queries that use any of the SQL Server built-in functions or a scalar-valued, user-defined function whose argument is not a constant value.

• Queries that involve joining columns through arithmetic or string concatenation operators.

• Queries that compare variables whose values are not known when the query is compiled and optimized.

a) Structured Query Language b) Simple Query Language c) Standard Query Language d) Secondary Query Language

ANSWER: a) Structured Query Language

a) Relational Database Management System b) Object Oriented Database Management System c) Object Relational Database Management System d) File system

ANSWER: a) Relational Database Management System

a) select * from table_name; b) select from table_name; c) select column_name from table_name; d) select column_name , from table_name;

ANSWER: a) select * from table_name;

a) DROP command removes a table from the database & TRUNCATE removes all rows from a table b) TRUNCATE TABLE cannot activate a trigger because the operation does not log individual row deletions.& Delete activates a trigger because the operation are logged individually c) TRUNCATE TABLE always locks the table and page but not each row & DELETE statement is executed using a row lock, each row in the table is locked for deletion d) All of the above

ANSWER: d) All of the above

a) You cannot drop the SYSTEM tablespace. b) You cannot drop a tablespace that contains a domain index or any objects created by a domain index. c) You cannot drop an undo tablespace if it is being used by any instance or if it contains any undo data needed to roll back uncommitted transactions. d) All of the above

ANSWER: d) All of the above

a) Insert b) Add c) Update d) Select

ANSWER: a) Insert

a) Grant Insert b) Grant Update c) Revoke Insert d) Revoke All

ANSWER: a) Grant Insert

a) Retrieve data from database b) Update data in database c) Delete data from database d) Modify data in database

ANSWER: a) Retrieve data from database

a) Grant b) Revoke c) Both a & b d) Deny

ANSWER: c) Both a & b

a) Avg( ) b) Min( ) c) Max( ) d) Round( )\

ANSWER: d) Round( )

a) UCASE() b) LCASE() c) FORMAT() d) FIRST()

ANSWER: d) FIRST()

a) By using Distinct statement b) By using Unique statement c) Neither a nor b d) By using where clause

ANSWER: a) By using Distinct statement

A) Returns smallest integer greater than or equal to n B) Returns largest integer less than or equal to n C) It is used with numeric data D) It operates on character data

a) Only A b) Only B c) A , C & D d) B & C

ANSWER: d) B & C

a) ROWID b) LEVEL c) ROWNUM d) ROWSCN

ANSWER: b) LEVEL

a) Select, group by b) Select , connect by c) Update, order by d) Select , group by

ANSWER: b) Select , connect by

a) ROWID b) ROWNUM c) ROWSCN d) UID

ANSWER: a) ROWID

a) Where b) With c) Having d) None of the above

ANSWER: b) With

a) Delete b) Drop c) Truncate d) None of the above

ANSWER: b) Drop

a) Equi join b) Inner Join c) Self-Join d) Cross Join

ANSWER: a) Equi join

a) Testing whether a given set is empty or not b) Testing whether given set is valid c) Testing whether a given set is invalid d) Testing whether a given set is exists

ANSWER: a) Testing whether a given set is empty or not.

a) SELECT table_name from system_user_tables; b) SELECT table_name from user_objects; c) SELECT table_name from user_catalog; d) SELECT table_name from user_tables;

ANSWER: d) SELECT table_name from user_tables;

a) Tablespace b) Table c) Database d) Indexes

ANSWER: a) Tablespace

a) Create table Customer (Cust-name, Cust_address) As Select emp_name, emp_address from Employee; b) Create table Customer (Cust-name, Cust_address) As Select emp_name, emp_address from Employee 1=1; c) Create table Customer (Cust-name, Cust_address) As Select emp_name, emp_address from Employee where 1=2; d) Create table Customer (Cust-name, Cust_address) As Select emp_name, emp_address from Employee where a=b;

ANSWER: c) Create table Customer (Cust-name, Cust_address) As Select emp_name, emp_address from Employee where 1=2;

A) Change the name of the table B) Change the name of the column C) Decrease the size of a column if table data exists

a) A & B b) A,B, & C c) Only C d) B & C

ANSWER: b) A,B, & C

a) Update b) Modify c) Rename d) Describe

ANSWER: a) Update

a) 16 b) 8 c) 18 d) 14

ANSWER: a) 16

a) Primary key can be Long & long Raw data type b) Unique index is created automatically if there is a Primary Key c) Primary key will not allow Null values d) Primary key will not allow duplicate values

ANSWER: a) Primary key can be Long & long Raw data type

####To compare one value with more than one or list of values then which of the following operator will fulfil the need?

a) Like b) IN c) AND d) Between

ANSWER: b) IN

a) SELECT USERENV FROM DUAL; b) SELECT COALESCE FROM DUAL; c) SELECT USER FROM DUAL; d) SELECT USERENV FROM TABLE_NAME;

ANSWER: c) SELECT USER FROM DUAL;

a) ROLLUP, GROUP BY b) ROLLUP, ORDER BY c) CUBE , GROUP BY d) ROLLUP,CUBE

ANSWER: a) ROLLUP, GROUP BY

a) With grant option b) Grant c) Revoke d) Grant All

ANSWER: a) With grant option

a) Give the user “Reeta” privileges to view only data on table Customer along with an option to further grant permissions on the Customer table to other users. b) Give the user “Reeta” all data manipulation privileges on table Customer. c) Give the user “Reeta” all data manipulation privileges on table Customer along with an option to further grant permissions on the Customer table to other users. d) Give the user “Reeta” all data manipulation privileges on table Customer along with an option to not further grant permissions on the Customer table to other users.

ANSWER: c) Give the user “Reeta” all data manipulation privileges on table Customer along with an option to further grant permissions on the Customer table to other users.

a) Update b) Alter c) Create d) Select

ANSWER: d) Select

a) Views defined from a single table. If user wants to Insert records with the help of a view, then the primary key column and all the Not Null columns must be included in the view b) The user can Update, Delete records with the help of a view even if the primary key column and Not Null column(s) are executed from the view definition c) Both a & b d) None of the above

ANSWER: c) Both a & b

a) Create View emp_v In select fname,lname,dept from Employee; b) Create View emp_v As select fname,lname,dept from Employee; c) Create View emp_v like select fname,lname,dept from Employee; d) Create View emp_v As select , , fname,lname,dept , ,from Employee;

ANSWER: b) Create View emp_v As select fname,lname,dept from Employee;

a) OWNER b) TABLE_NAME c) SEARCH_CONDITION
d) DB_DOMAIN

ANSWER: d) DB_DOMAIN

####_______ used to sort the data in the table

a) Order by clause b) Group by clause c) Aggregate functions d) Sequence

ANSWER: a) Order by clause

a) HAVING, DISTINCT does not b) HAVING, DISTINCT c) GROUP BY, DISTINCT d) HAVING, GROUP BY

ANSWER: a) HAVING, DISTINCT does not.

a) NUMBER b) DATE c) LONG d) FRACTION

ANSWER: d) FRACTION

a) Check b) Unique c) References d) Index

ANSWER: a) Check

a) You can join a maximum of two tables b) You can join a maximum of two columns through C) You can join two or more tables d) None of the above

ANSWER: You can join two or more tables.

a) Self-join b) Cross-join c) Outer Join d) Full Outer Join

ANSWER: a) Self-join

a) At the start of b) Inside c) Outside d) After

ANSWER: b) Inside

a) Raw b) LONG c) bfile d) rowid

ANSWER: a) Raw

a) Table b) Row c) Column d) Database

ANSWER: a) Table

a) NOT NULL b) CHECK c) UNIQUE d) PRIAMRY KEY

ANSWER: a) NOT NULL

a) a value extracted from a date or an interval value b) number of columns in a table c) number of tables in a database d) number of rows in a table

ANSWER: a) a value extracted from a date or an interval value

a) UPPER( ) b) FLOOR( ) c) LEAST( ) d) ABS( )

ANSWER: a) UPPER( )

a) number of bytes in the internal representation of an expression b) number of rows where expr is not null c) largest integer value d) returns a Unicode string

ANSWER: a) number of bytes in the internal representation of an expression.

/**

InnoDB:    The default storage engine in MySQL 8.0. InnoDB is a transaction-safe (ACID compliant) storage engine for MySQL 
           that has commit, rollback, and crash-recovery capabilities to protect user data. InnoDB row-level locking 
           (without escalation to coarser granularity locks) and Oracle-style consistent nonlocking reads increase multi-user 
           concurrency and performance. InnoDB stores user data in clustered indexes to reduce I/O for common queries based on primary keys. 
           To maintain data integrity, InnoDB also supports FOREIGN KEY referential-integrity constraints. 

MyISAM:    These tables have a small footprint. Table-level locking limits the performance in read/write workloads, 
           so it is often used in read-only or read-mostly workloads in Web and data warehousing configurations.

Memory:    Stores all data in RAM, for fast access in environments that require quick lookups of non-critical data. This engine 
           was formerly known as the HEAP engine. Its use cases are decreasing; InnoDB with its buffer pool memory area provides a 
           general-purpose and durable way to keep most or all data in memory, and NDBCLUSTER provides fast key-value lookups for huge distributed data sets.

CSV:       Its tables are really text files with comma-separated values. CSV tables let you import or dump data in CSV format, to exchange 
           data with scripts and applications that read and write that same format. Because CSV tables are not indexed, you typically keep 
           the data in InnoDB tables during normal operation, and only use CSV tables during the import or export stage.

Archive:   These compact, unindexed tables are intended for storing and retrieving large amounts of seldom-referenced historical, archived, 
           or security audit information.

Blackhole: The Blackhole storage engine accepts but does not store data, similar to the Unix /dev/null device. Queries always return an empty 
           set. These tables can be used in replication configurations where DML statements are sent to slave servers, but the master server does not keep its own copy of the data.

NDB:       This clustered database engine is particularly suited for applications that require the highest possible degree 
           of uptime and availability.

Merge:     Enables a MySQL DBA or developer to logically group a series of identical MyISAM tables and reference them as one object. 
           Good for VLDB environments such as data warehousing.

Federated: Offers the ability to link separate MySQL servers to create one logical database from many physical servers. Very good for 
           distributed or data mart environments.

Example:   This engine serves as an example in the MySQL source code that illustrates how to begin writing new storage engines. 
           It is primarily of interest to developers. The storage engine is a “stub” that does nothing. You can create tables with this engine, but no data can be stored in them or retrieved from them.


**/

mysql > SHOW ENGINES\G;

//*************************** 1. row ***************************
      Engine: PERFORMANCE_SCHEMA
     Support: YES
     Comment: Performance Schema
Transactions: NO
          XA: NO
  Savepoints: NO
*************************** 2. row ***************************
      Engine: InnoDB
     Support: DEFAULT
     Comment: Supports transactions, row-level locking, and foreign keys
Transactions: YES
          XA: YES
  Savepoints: YES
*************************** 3. row ***************************
      Engine: MRG_MYISAM
     Support: YES
     Comment: Collection of identical MyISAM tables
Transactions: NO
          XA: NO
  Savepoints: NO
*************************** 4. row ***************************
      Engine: BLACKHOLE
     Support: YES
     Comment: /dev/null storage engine (anything you write to it disappears)
Transactions: NO
          XA: NO
  Savepoints: NO
*************************** 5. row ***************************
      Engine: MyISAM
     Support: YES
     Comment: MyISAM storage engine
Transactions: NO
          XA: NO
  Savepoints: NO
...
**/