BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICALTURE AND ENVIROMENTAL SCIENCES

GRADUATE PROGRAM

PHENOTYPIC CHARACTERIZATION AND BREEDING OBJECTIVES OF

INDIGENOUS CHICKEN ECOTYPES IN THREE DISTRICTS OF NORTH GONDAR
ZONE, ETHIOPIA

M.Sc. Thesis

By
Hana Asmamaw Kassie

SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ANIMAL
GENETICS AND BREEDING

May, 2016
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

i
 BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

GRADUATE PROGRAM

PHENOTYPIC CHARACTERIZATION AND BREEDING OBJECTIVES OF

INDIGENOUS CHICKEN ECOTYPES IN THREE DISTRICTS OF NORTH GONDAR
ZONE, ETHIOPIA

M.Sc. Thesis

By
Hana Asmamaw Kassie

May, 2016

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

ii
 THESIS APPROVAL SHEET

As member of the Board of Examiners of the Master of Sciences (MSc.) thesis open defense
Examination, certifying that we have read and evaluated the thesis prepared by Hana
Asmamaw Kassie entitled “PHENOTYPIC CHARACTERIZATION AND BREEDING
OBJECTIVES OF INDIGENOUS CHICKEN ECOTYPES IN THREE DISTRICTS
OF NORTH GONDAR ZONE, ETHIOPIA” We here by certify that the thesis be
accepted for fulfilling the thesis requirement for the award of the degree of the MSc. in
Animal Genetics and Breeding.

Board of Examiners

________________________ ___________ _____________

Name of External Examiner Signature Date

________________________ ___________ _____________

Name of Internal Examiner Signature Date

________________________ ___________ _____________

Name of Chair Person Signature Date

iii
 DECLARATION

This is to certify that this thesis entitled “PHENOTYPIC CHARACTERIZATION AND

BREEDING OBJECTIVES OF INDIGENOUS CHICKEN ECOTYPES IN THREE
DISTRICTS OF NORTH GONDAR ZONE, ETHIOPIA” Submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of Sciences in Animal
Genetics and Breeding to the graduate program of College of Agriculture and
Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University by Hana Asmamaw Kassie
ID.No.Re/0602041/06 is a real work carried out by me under our guidance. The matter
embodied in this thesis work has not been submitted earlier for award of any degree or
diploma to the best of our knowledge and belief.

Name of the student

Hana Asmamaw

Signature and Date: _________________________________

Name of the Advisors

1. Dr. Kefyalew Alemayehu (Major Advisor)

Signature and Date: __________________________________
2. Dr. Solomon Gizaw (Co- Advisor)

Signature and Date: ___________________________

3. Dr. Hailu Mazengia (Co- Advisor)

Signature and Date: ____________________

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, I would like to thank the Almighty God for his grace and immeasurable love,
giving me strength and patience to bring me out humble piece of work in to light. Special
thanks and heartfelt appreciation goes to my major devisor Dr. Kefyalew Alemayehu for
his unreserved support and guidance during thesis proposal writing, research work and
thesis write up. I am grateful to Dr. Solomon Gizaw and Dr. Hailu Mazengia, my co-
advisors for all the effort they made to shape during thesis proposal writing research work
and thesis write up.

I am also grateful to my place of work: Dembiya District Agricultural Development Office

for giving me time off and allowing me to study leave. I would like also to express my
sincere gratitude to LIVES-ILRI project for providing the funding tuition fee, research and
other expenses.

I am indebted to the Department of Animal production and Technology, Graduate Studies

of Bahirdar University for their contribution in the process of developing the research
proposal and provision of various services and providing me a great opportunity to
advance intellectually.

Finally, I am also grateful to the Gondar Zuria and Lay Armachiho district office of
agricultural development and all staff members for providing necessary baseline data
required for this study. I thank also all farmers, village chicken owners, district livestock
agricultural office experts, development agents, key informants and other participants who
helped me to carry out every activity on this research.

v
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this manuscript to my father Mr. Asmamaw Kassie, who passed away without
seeing any of my achievements. Let this also stand for a great welcome to my mother
Ayaleneshi Shibabaw and my brother Tesfahun Asmamaw who gave me continuous
appreciation and encouragement to this work.

vi
 ABBREVIATIONS

AnGR Animal Genetic Resource

BC Before Christ
Cp Crude Protein
CSA Central Statistical Agency
DA Discriminate Analysis
DDAO Dembiya district Agricultural office
DZARC Debrezeit Agricultural Research Center
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
FGD Farmer Group Discussion
FTC Farmer Training Center
GLM General Linear Model
GDAO Gonder zuria district Agricultural office
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
LDAO Lay armacheho district Agricultural office
MtDNA Methichonderial Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid
NCD Newcastle Disease
PA Peasant Association
SAS Statistical Analysis System
SFS Scavenging Feed Source
SLM Sustainable Land Management
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences
USAID United States Agency for International Development
WADU Wolaita Agricultural Development Unit
WB World Bank

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages

THESIS APPROVAL SHEET .................................................................... iii

DECLARATION............................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................. v
DEDICATION................................................................................................vi
ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................... viii
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................... x
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................xi
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................... 4

2.1 Origin and Domestication of Chickens ....................................................................... 4

2.2 Chicken Population in Ethiopia ................................................................................... 4
2.3. Poultry Production System in Ethiopia ...................................................................... 5
2.4. Contribution of Chickens to Rural Households in Developing Countries ................. 7
2.5. Village Chicken Breeds and their Characteristics ...................................................... 8
2.6. Production and Reproduction Traits of Ethiopian Indigenous Chickens ................... 9
2.7. Breeding Objectives and Selection Practices for Chicken ....................................... 10
2.8. Constraints of Village Chicken Production .............................................................. 11
2.9. Feeding and Feed Resources .................................................................................... 12
2.10. Housing .................................................................................................................. 13
2.11. Health and Mortality .............................................................................................. 14
2.12 .Disease and Predators............................................................................................. 15
2.13. Marketing Systems and Practices ........................................................................... 16
2.14. Phenotypic Characterization of Indigenous Chicken ............................................. 16
CHAPTER 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................ 18

3.1. Description of the Study Area .................................................................................. 18

3.1.1 Lay Armacheho District ............................................................................................................ 18

viii
 3.1.2 Dembiya District ....................................................................................................................... 18
3.1.3 Gondar Zuria District ................................................................................................................ 19

3.2 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques................................................................ 20

3.3. Data Management and Statistical Analysis .............................................................. 21
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ........................................ 22

4.1 Farming System Characteristics ........................................................................... 22

4.1.1 Household characteristics .............................................................................................................. 22
4.1.2 Flock and family size of the respondents .................................................................................. 23

4.2. Chicken Production System ................................................................................. 24

4.2.1 Feeding practice ........................................................................................................................ 24
4.2.2 Housing ......................................................................................................................................... 25

4.3. Phenotypic Characteristics of Chickens ............................................................... 25

4.3.1 Qualitative traits ................................................................................................... 26
4.3.2 Quantitative traits ......................................................................................................................... 26
4.3.3. Phenotypic description of the study ecotypes............................................................................... 29
4.3 .3.1 Necked Neck chicken ecotype .............................................................................................. 29
4.3.3.2Yetilku zere chicken ecotype .................................................................................................. 29
4.3.3.3 Kechere chicken ecotype ....................................................................................................... 30

4.4. Performance of Local Chicken Ecotypes ................................................................. 30

4.5. Breeding Objective in the Study Areas .................................................................... 33
4.5.1. Trait Preferences of Respondents in The Study Area ........................................................... 33
4.5.2. Breeding practice of chicken in the study area ..................................................................... 34

4.6. Marketing Price and Marketing Chain ..................................................................... 35

4.6.1 . Marketing price of chicken and egg at the survey areas.......................................................... 35
4.6.2 Marketing chain and input suppliers ......................................................................................... 36

4.7 Major Constraints of Chicken Production in the Study Area ............................... 38

CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............... 39

5.1. Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 39

5.2. Recommendations .................................................................................................... 39
6. REFERENCES.......................................................................................... 41
7. APPENDICES ........................................................................................... 49
BIBLOGRAPHICAL SCETCH .................................................................. 63

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Pages

Table 1. Characteristics of Ethiopian poultry production systems .................................................................... 6

Table 2. Household characteristics engaged in chicken rearing activities in Dembiya, Gondar Zuria and Lay
Armachiho and districts .................................................................................................................................. 22
Table 3. Flock Structure and Land Size in Dembiya, Gondar Zuria and Lay Armachiho districts ..................... 23
Table 4. Phenotypic measurements (LSM ± SE) of body weight (kg) and linear body measurements (cm) of
the three indigenous chicken’s ecotypes ......................................................................................................... 28
Table 5. Productive and Reproductive Performances of chicken ecotypes in the study district ...................... 32
Table 6. Major Breeding Objectives and Its Index with Ranks Value in the Study Area .................................. 33
Table 7. Trait preference of respondents in the study area ............................................................................ 34
Table 8. Marketing price (ETB) of chicken at different age and production system ....................................... 36
Table 9. Rating of major constraints of chicken production in the study area ................................................ 38

x
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Pages
Figure 1: Map of the study area (using GIS version 9.2 software) .................................................................. 19
FiguFigure 2 Typical Necked neck chicken ecotype male in the right and female in the left .......................... 29
Figure 4: Typical Yetilku zere, male (left and female (right) chicken ecotype ................................................. 30
Figure 5: Typical short beak and leg Kechere chicken ecotype ....................................................................... 30
Figure 6 Marketing channel of chicken and eggs in the study area ................................................................ 37

xi
 PHENOTYPIC CHARACTERIZATION AND BREEDING OBJECTIVES OF
INDIGENOUS CHICKEN ECOTYPES IN THREE AGRO-ECOLOGIES OF
NORTH GONDAR ZONE, ETHIOPIA

By: Hana Asmamaw (BSc), Bahir Dar University, P.o.Box 79, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
Major Advisor: Kefyalew Alemayehu (PhD), Bahir Dar University, P.o.Box 79, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
Co-advisors: Solomon Gizaw (PhD), ILRI, P.o.Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Hailu Mazenegia (MVSc), Bahir Dar University, P.o.Box 79, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT
The study was conducted from November to August 2015/16 to characterize the indigenous
chicken ecotypes and identify the breeding objectives of the farmers across different selected
districts of Gondar Zuria, Dembia and Lay Armachiho. From the selected districts three peasant
associations (PA) were selected randomly in each district and a total of 9 PA was used for the
survey and characterization. About 20 household (HH/ (PA)) within the total respondents of 230
HH (180 rural and 50 urban HH) was used for primary data collection. whereas, measurable
traits like body weight (Bwt), body length (BL), wing span (WS), shank length (SL) and
circumference (SC), wattle length (WL) and width (WW), keel length (KL), super length (sl), beak
length (bl), comp length (CL) and width (CW) were used. For the quantitative traits measurement
450 local chicken were measured. Comb type, feather color, shank color and body shape was the
considered morphological characters chicken. The data was analyzed using GLM procedure of
SPSS (version 20) and index methods for priority setup of the major constraints. The overall mean
for body weight obtained for mature male chicken and female chicken were 1.57±0.27and 1.34±03
Kg, respectively which, showed a significant difference (p<0.001) across districts, sex and
ecotype. To address the marketing system, and understand the poultry and egg marking value
chain, semi structured questioner for producers and checklists and field observations for
consumers and middlemen’s was used. Reproductive performance study revealed that in male and
female average age at first sexual maturity was 5.01±0.27 and 5.47±0.42, respectively for rural
and 4.87±0.02 and 5.05±0.03, respectively for urban production system. Hatchability percentage
was 87% and 77% for rural and urban production systems, respectively. The main breeding
objectives of the study areas were for egg production to home consumption, as source of income
and meat production for home consumption with their order of importance. The main preferable
traits for poultry production were color, weight gain, comb and others with their order of
importance. The marketing chain in poultry and its products incorporate the producer (the start of
the chain), brokers (middlemen’s), retailers/wholesalers, shops, supermarkets, hotel and
restaurants (in the middle of the chain) and the consumers (the end user of the chain). The major
constraints of poultry production in the study district were disease, predator and shortage of feed
with respective index value of 0.38, 0.31 and 0.31. The identified chicken populations generally
showed higher (p< 0.001) phenotypic variations with their adopted environments. Almost all of the
differences in the populations could be explained by the genetic variability of individuals among
the population. Therefore, the breeding program should be considered the district effects to
improve the performance of local resources in the country and it further needs better conservation
and improvement plan for breeding strategies so as to utilize in a sustainable way based on
different districts and further breeding program development should incorporate the breeding
objective of farmers’.

Key Words: ecotype, breeding objectives, production system, rural, urban

xii
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Local chicken contribute significantly to the worlds’ meat and eggs production and
represents about 80% of the total world poultry population (Moula, 2012). However, the
majority of these breeds and their characteristics are not well recorded and studied
(Besbes,2009). Likewise about 40% of poultry breeds have an unknown their risk status
that needs a considerable effort to evaluate the resources (FAO, 2008).

Ethiopia, in general, is endowed with a huge livestock population in Sub-Saharan Africa.

It has been estimated that livestock supports the livelihoods of about 80% of the 60 million
rural population (FAO, 2004). The poultry production system is predominantly traditional
and small scale with low-input/low-output indigenous chicken types representing close to
97% of the national poultry flock (CSA cited in Vernooij et al., 2012).The fact that almost
all of the poultry in Ethiopia comprises indigenous birds reveals that the poultry subsector
is strongly dominated by small-scale, household-level poultry (CSA. 2005; Alemu et al.,
2008).

Though, the total chicken population in the country was estimated about 56.87 million of
which 95.86%, 2.79% and 1.35 % indigenous, hybrid and exotic breeds, respectively
(CSA, 2015). The same source indicated that chicken populations in Amhara region were
about 18 million and about 5.58 million in North Gondar zone. Off which about 99% of
these chicken populations are maintained under the traditional production systems. Rural
poultry production system is dominated by indigenous chickens and made significant
contribution to poverty alleviation in many developing countries (Alders and Pym, 2009)
and well adapted to harsh environmental conditions (Ajayi, 2010).

These indigenous chickens show a large variation in body position, feather distribution,
plumage color, comb type, shank color, poor production and productivity. According to
Tadelle et al. (2003) and Halima et al. (2006) reported that these variations are due to their
adaptive nature in different production environment like low inputs, harsh Scavenging
conditions, poor nutrition, and parasite and disease challenges and possess high genetic
diversity (Nigussie Dana et al., 2010). However, their productive and reproductive
performance is very poor than exotic chickens. Therefore, in Ethiopia many works were
made at various times to improve village chicken production systems through introduction

1
of exotic chickens like fertile eggs, pullets and cocks (Alemu Yami and Tadelle, 1997).
Despite, this hugely disseminated exotic chicken and its contribution to improve the
chicken one in the current production system of the region is believed to be very low
(Teklewold et al., 2006). However, these local chicken genetic resources are poorly
improved its performances, the contribution to the economy of the country, the region and
the zone is significant having with the larger chicken populations (CSA, 2011).

Even though village chickens provide a valuable function in the livelihood of rural
smallholders, little research and development work has been carried out to characterize,
understand and improve the village chicken based on agro ecologies in the country
(Mammo Mengesha et al., 2008). Therefore, it is necessary to obtain baseline data on the
characteristics of production systems and production performance of local chickens under
scavenging system in the three districts of north Gondar zone. Having this in mind,for a
nation to bring sustainable development for every citizen to be benefited, it is important to
have improved indigenous chicken through identification, characterization of available
genetic resource and documenting the effects of the agro ecology in a country (FAO,
2011).

As it expressed on many of livestock related sectors, chicken genetic resource

characterization is launched to measure their performances and tried to improve the
production system in different parts of the country. However, lack of information on
farmers’ breeding practices and marketing chain based on agro ecology is creating
difficulty to design and implement poultry breeding programme. Developing appropriate
village based breeding program is required through defining the production environments
and identified production objectives based on agro ecologies. Therefore, identifying
potential indigenous chicken and improve the livelihoods of poor society through
investigating adapted local chicken genotypes for genetic improvement, market
requirements and production circumstances should be inhaled, many researchers like
Tadelle Dessie (2003); Halima Hassen (2007), Nigussie Dana et al., 2009 and (Addis Getu
et al., 2013) have made phenotypic and genetic characterization of indigenous chicken in
some parts of the country. Like ways, poultry production and marketing system by
Mekonnen G/Egeziabeher (2007), characterization of poultry productivity and marketing
system by Bogale Kiberet (2008) and genetic parameters on Horro chickens by Nigussie
Dana, et al. (2010). However, the above researchers who conducted their work in the same

2
area were not considering the district effects on the performance of the identified chicken
ecotypes. Therefore, the research was developed to address the following objectives.

General Objective

The general objective of the study was phenotypic characterization of the indigenous
chicken ecotypes based on different districts of north Gondar zone, Ethiopia.

Specific Objectives

✓ To undertake phenotypic characterization of available indigenous chickens

✓ To identify the breeding objectives of indigenous chicken in North Gondar zone
✓ To assess the market value of chicken
✓ To identify chicken production related constraints

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 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Origin and Domestication of Chickens

From the total poultry species, chickens are the most socio economic important and
largely constituent of the population (Gueye, 2003) and the indigenous chickens are the
once which commonly distributed across every corner of the tropical countries of Africa.
The domestic chicken (Gallus gallus) is believed to have descended from the wild Indian
and Southeast Asian red jungle fowl. The domestication of fowl in the region of the Indus
valley is believed to have occurred by 2000 BC (Zeuner, 1963), but more recent
archaeological evidences showed that a much earlier domestication occurred in China
6000 BC (West and Zhou, 1989) cited by Addis Getu et al., 2014. Four species of Gallus
have been considered as progenitors of the domesticated fowl: Gallus gallus (Red jungle
fowl), Gallus lafayettei (Ceylon jungle fowl), Gallus sonnerrati (Grey jungle fowl) and
Gallus varius (Green jungle fowl) and all found in regions of Southeast Asia (Stevens,
1991). The red jungle fowl is one of the oldest domesticated birds and its popularity
quickly spread to Europe. Oddly enough, its original popularity till the beginning of the
19th century was not for meat but for game of cockfighting and use in religious rituals
(Singh, 2000).

Poultry include all domestic birds kept for the purpose of human food production (meat
and eggs) such as chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, ostrich, guinea fowl and doves and
pigeons. In Ethiopia ostrich, ducks, guinea fowls, doves and pigeons are found in their
natural habitat (wild) whereas, geese and turkey are exceptionally not common in the
country. Thus the word poultry production is synonymous with chicken production under
the present Ethiopian conditions (EARO, 1999). Indigenous poultry contribute almost99%
of the national egg and poultry meat production (Tadelle Dessie et al., 2003).

2.2 Chicken Population in Ethiopia

The total chicken population in the country was estimated at 56.8 million (CSA, 2015).
However contribution of the sector to improve the income of each farm household in
particular and the national income in general is not proportional to the huge chicken
numbers.

4
According to Fisseha Moges (2007) the local chicken genetic resources in the Amhara
region of are becoming seriously endangered owing to the high rate of genetic erosion and
inbreeding resulting from chicken diseases, specifically Newcastle disease and predation.
The rural poultry production system is dominated by indigenous chickens and has made
significant contribution to poverty alleviation and household food security in many
developing countries (Alders and Pym, 2009).

2.3. Poultry Production System in Ethiopia

The poultry sector in Ethiopia can be characterized into three major production systems
based on some selected parameters such as breed, flock size, housing, feeding, health,
technology and bio-security. These are large scale commercial poultry production system,
small-scale commercial poultry production system and village or backyard poultry
production system (Bush, 2006).

The large-scale commercial production system is highly intensive production system

involves an average of greater or equal to 10,000 birds kept under indoor conditions with a
medium to high bio-security level. This system heavily depends on imported exotic breeds
that require intensive inputs such as feed, housing, health, and modern management
systems. It is estimated that this sector accounts for nearly 2% of the national poultry
population. This system is characterized by higher level of productivity where poultry
production is entirely market oriented to meet the large poultry demand in major cities.
The existence of somehow better bio security practices has reduced chick mortality rates
to merely 5% (Bush, 2006).

Small-scale intensive production system is characterized by medium level of feed, water

and veterinary service inputs and minimal to low bio-security. Most small-scale poultry
farms obtain their feed and foundation stock from large-scale commercial farms
(Nzietchueng, 2000). There are few studies about diseases affecting poultry in this
production system. Kinung’hi et al. (2004) mentioned coccidioses as a cause of mortality,
reduced weight gain and egg production and market value of affected birds.

Village/indigenous production system characterized by little or no inputs for housing,

feeding (scavenging is the only source of diet) and health care with minimal level of bio-

5
security, high off take rates and high level of mortality. Mostly, indigenous chickens are
kept although some hybrids and exotic breeds may be kept under this system (Dawit
Alemu et al., 2008).
Table 1. Characteristics of Ethiopian poultry production systems

Characteristic Intensive Small scale market Scavenging

commercial oriented
Breed and flock size Specialized breeds: Specialized and dual- Local indigenous
2,500–50, 000 (18 purpose breeds: 50– type: <50
farms) 1000
Housing Modern housing, Varies from modern Specific poultry
Generally with houses to simple houses are rare
concrete walls and housing made from
regulated internal locally available
environment materials
Feed resource Commercially Commercially Scavenging and
compounded feeds compounded, occasional feeding
homemade mixtures with home grains and
and scavenging refuse
Health programme Standard and regular Disease control and No regular health
animal health health program at program of disease
program varying levels control measures
Markets Cold chain system for Input and output No formal marketing
input-output distribution is based channels
distribution on existing trading
Centers
Source: (FOA, 2000)

6
2.4. Contribution of Chickens to Rural Households in Developing Countries

The local chicken sector constitutes a significant contribution to human livelihood and
contributes significantly to food security of poor households and can be considered an
initiative enterprise owing to its low cost (Gondwe, 2004; Abdelqader, 2007). Family
chicken is rarely the sole means of livelihood for the family but is one of a number of
integrated and complementary farming activities contributing to the overall well-being of
the household. Village chickens were regarded as a walking bank by many families and
were often sold to meet emergency cash needs (Moreki, 2001).

Scavenging chicken also serve in waste disposal system by converting leftover of grains
and human foods and insects in to valuable protein foods-egg and meat (Doviet, 2005).
Both chicken meat and eggs were affordable sources of protein and contribute to a well
balanced diet to satisfy human needs. Village chicken could be particularly important in
improving the diet of young children in Sub-Saharan Africa. Rising income and
urbanization in many parts of the developing world caused a growing demand for
alternative food resources like animal products. There are only few alternative animal
protein sources available in the tropics including chicken and chicken products (Odunsi,
2003).

Village chickens make substantial contributions to household food security throughout the
developing world. Indigenous chicken serve as an investment and source of security for
households in addition to their use as sources of meat and eggs for consumption and of
income (Muchadeyi et al., 2007). Chicken in general are a means of investment that is
important to the welfare of women and children in traditional, low-input farming systems
in the tropics. Besides rural households, these low-input, low-output poultry-husbandry
systems are an integral component of the livelihoods of most of peri-urban, and some
urban, households in most parts of the developing world. A review by Gueye (2000)
indicated that an average family flock of five adult chickens (two males and three females)
enables women in Central Tanzania to have an additional income equivalent to 10% of the
average annual income. In the Niger Delta family poultry husbandry contributes 35% of
the income of household women, which represents about 25% of Nigerian minimum wage
and 50% of the per capita income (Alabi et al., 2006). Experiences in many other

7
developing countries have shown that village poultry can be used as an effective means of
empowering women and as a tool for poverty alleviation (Kitalyi, 1998).

2.5. Village Chicken Breeds and their Characteristics

Indigenous chickens in Ethiopia are in general hardy, adaptive to rural environments,

survive on little or no inputs, adjust to fluctuations in feed availability, thermo tolerant,
resistant to some disease, good egg and meat flavor , hard eggshells, high fertility and
hatchability as well as high dressing percentage (Tadelle Dessie, 2003; Halima Hassen et
al., 2007; FAO, 2007). Their use is largely limited to home consumption and generation of
small cash income to the household. However, they have a great value in the cultural and
religious life of rural communities. There is no comprehensive list of the breeds and
varieties of village chickens used by rural smallholders, but there is considerable
information on some indigenous populations from various regions. Most of this is based
on feather color and other easily measurable features like body weight (Sonaiya and Swan,
2004). Reta Duguma (2006) and Halima Hassen (2007) reported that the names of the
indigenous chicken groups were being called as chicken-ecotypes and native-chickens,
respectively. The indigenous chickens are studied so far in two approaches as criteria for
their differentiation and identification. (1) Based on their ecological or main habitat, thus
the chickens are named after their area of geographical origin. (2) Based on
morphological characteristics for identification specially feather type and color.

Some of the characterized and designated chicken ecotypes (native chickens) of Ethiopia
by the same authors were: Tilili, Horro, Jarso, Tepi, Gelila, Debre-Elias, Melo-Hamusit,
Gassay/ Farta, Guangua , Mecha ,Dawo, Raya-azebo, Endamehoni and Ofla ,Seden Sodo,
Mehale Amba and Mehurena Aklile (Tadelle Dessie, 2003, Halima Hassen, 2007,
Nigussie Dana, 2011, Hailemichael Nigussie, 2013, Emebet Moreda, 2015).

On the other hand, Various report showed that the names of indigenous chicken
designated based on their plumage colors such as Fissiha Moges (2009) most village
chicken were characterized based on their phenotypic variations in terms of plumage
color, shank length, comb type and growth performances and named as: Tikur, Gebsat,
Red, Black, White, Nech Wosera, Nech Gebsat, Wesera, White Necked neck, Teterima,
Nech Gebsat, Sinde melek, Hailemichael Nigussie (2013) at southern zone of Tigray

8
(Raya-azebo, Endamehoni and Ofla district) has characterized local chicken on the basis
of plumage color as, Ambesuma ,Brown, Black, Brownish black, Gebsima, Libework,
Grey, key Teterma, Multicolor, Nech teteruma, Kuarichama, Red, Tikur gebsat , Tikur
teteruma Wheaten, White and Zigirama .There are large variations in morphological
appearances, conformation and body weights of indigenous chicken in Ethiopia.
Morphological variations of indigenous chicken ecotypes (between and within) are
described in terms of comb types, shank types, earlobe types, plumage colors and other
qualitative traits (Meseret Molla, 2008).

2.6. Production and Reproduction Traits of Ethiopian Indigenous Chickens

Indigenous chickens are kept in many parts of the world irrespective of the climate,
traditions, life standards, and/or religious taboos relating to consumption of eggs and
chicken meat like those for pig meat.
Results of several researchers Muchadeyi et al., (2007); and Halima Hassen et al., (2007)
on biodiversity of indigenous chickens in many parts of Africa revealed the presence of
high genetic variability between and within populations, thereby evincing the potential for
genetic improvement of these chickens through selective breeding.

The production performance of indigenous or local scavenging chickens of Ethiopia is low

in case of low egg production potential with only about 36-60 small sized eggs produced
per bird on an annual basis, high chick mortality and longer reproductive cycle or the low
genetic potential (Tadelle Dessie et al., 2000; FAO, 2004; Aberra Mellese and Tegene
Negesse Dana , 2011).

Results of a study by FAO (2010) indicated no significant differences among the village
chicken production system in five different zones in Ethiopia. The report by Gueye (2000)
indicated that the adult weight of male and female African village chicken range from1.2
to 3.2 kg respectively. In Ethiopia the meat production ability of local stocks is limited.
Local male may reach 1.5 kg live weight at 6 month of age and female about 30% less.
The carcass weight of local stocks at 6 month of age was 550 gram which was
significantly lower than that of white leghorn (875gm). However, local stock has a higher
dressing percentage (Alemu Yami and Tadelle Dessie, 1997).Solomon Demeke (2003)
showed that there was no difference between white leghorn and local chicken raised under

9
scavenging condition in mean daily body weight gain at 2 months. The chick mortality is
high in the scavenging system of management and is coupled with longer reproductive
cycle. Solomon Demeke (2007), Meseret Molla (2010) and Fisseha Moges etal.,
(2010a)reported that about 40-60% of the chicks that hatch die by the first 8 weeks of age
mainly attributed to many vaccine preventable disease and predators. Thus, as indicated by
Fisseha Moges etal., (2010a) about half of the eggs have to be hatched to replace the
mortality in which the brooding time of the laying hens is longer with many brooding
cycles required to compensate for its unsuccessful brooding.

Halima Hassen et al., (2009) in their studies in Northern Ethiopia estimated that, under
scavenging conditions, the reproductive cycle of indigenous hens consists of 20 days of
laying phase, 21days of incubation phase and 56 days of brooding phase. This implies the
fact that, the number of clutches per hen per year is probably 2-3. Assuming 3 clutches per
hen per year, the hen would have to stay for about 168 days out of production every year.
Even though village chickens do have low productivity they are well known to possess
desirable characters/special features such as ideal mothers, good sitters, hatch their own
eggs, thermo tolerant, excellent foragers and ability to utilize the limited and poor quality
feed resources, immunities to resist common poultry diseases and the special meat and egg
quality/flavor, hard eggs hells high fertility and hatchability as well as high dressing
percentage provide them an important place.

Sonaiya and Swan (2004) reported that indigenous village chicken, in Ethiopia attains
sexual maturity at an average of 7 months. The hen lays about 36 eggs per year in 3
clutches of 12 to 13 eggs in about 16 days. Each reproductive cycle lasts for 17 weeks.
Three cycles then make one year. By using brooding coop or other means of controlling
broody character of village chicken it is possible to shorten the period to switch the clutch
to every 27 days and to increase the egg produce by bird in 81 days time to 30 eggs
(Amsalu Asfaw, 2003).

2.7. Breeding Objectives and Selection Practices for Chicken

According Addisu Hailu (2014) only 17.3% of respondents had breeding experience in
improving their chicken productivity either by cross breeding (20.0%) or by line breeding
(80.0%).Meseret Molla (2010) also reported traditional chicken production system is

10
characterized by lack of systematic breeding practice in Gomma district. Similarly,
another study in different part of Ethiopia revealed that village chicken breeding is
completely uncontrolled and replacement stock produced through natural incubation using
broody hens (Nigussie Dana, 2011). In another study, Fisseha Moges (2009) reports that,
92.2% of chicken owner farmers in Bure district have the tradition of selecting cock for
breeding stock. Similarly, Okeno et al. (2011) in Kenya reports that farmers who are
confining their flocks do selection of chicken for breeding. Combination of comb type and
plumage colour (28.3%) and egg production and broodiness performance (32.1%) were
the major selection criteria of farmers in genetic improvement for male and female
chickens, respectively. About half of the respondents in mid agro-ecological zones
considered comb type as selection criteria of male chicken while 29.2% respondents in
high altitude and 31.6% respondents in low altitude considered plumage Colour and comb
type as a selection criterion Fisseha Moges (2009) also plumage color (45.4%), physical
stand and shank length (37.1%), comb type (8.6%) and pedigree history (1.1%) are some
of selection criteria for breeding stock in Bure district. Another study conducted in mid
Rift valley of Oromia revealed that 68.0% of the farmers selected productive hens by body
size, 12.0% by finger accommodation between the pelvic bones and 20% by pedigree
performance for replacement (Samson and Endalew, 2010).

Developing appropriate breeding programs for village conditions requires characterization

of production circumstances and identification of breeding practices and trait of economic
importance to farmers (Abdelqader et al., 2007).

2.8. Constraints of Village Chicken Production

Under village poultry production, prevailing diseases, predators, lack of proper health
care, poor feeding and poor marketing information were reported as constraint by (Fisseha
Moges et al., 2010a), Dinka et al. (2010), and Mammo Mengesha et al.(2011). The high
mortality of chicks under village chicken production in Ethiopia is due to diseases,
parasites, predation, lack of feed, poor housing and insufficient water supply (Tadelle
Dessie, 2001). Among the infectious diseases, Newcastle disease, Salmonellosis,
coccidioses and fowl pox are considered the most important causes of mortality in local
chicken while predators are an additional causes of loss (Eshetu yimer et al., 2001).
Newcastle disease (NCD) is highly infectious and causes more losses than any other

11
diseases in the tropics which spread rapidly through the flock and mortality can reach up
to 100% (Nigussie Dana et al., 2003 and Serkalem Tadesse etal.,2005).

2.9. Feeding and Feed Resources

Family poultry production in Africa survives by scavenging and generally, no supplements

provided except that some times, household waste fed to the birds and other circumstances
the diet supplemented with grain (Dwinger et al., 2003). Similarly, in Ethiopia the
smallholder chicken production system is characterized by keeping under free range
system and the major feed sources are believed to be insect worms, seed and plant
materials (Solomon Demeke, 2004).

Poultry production in tropical countries is based on the traditional scavenging system and
characterized by low output per bird (Aichi and Kitaly, 1998). In a study conducted by
Mapiye and Sibanda (2005) in Rushinga district of Zimbabwe, about 6.2% of the
households practice zero supplementation; 93.6% partial supplementation; and 0.2%
always provides supplementary feed to their chickens. According to Tadelle Dessie
(1996), in village chicken production systems, the major proportion of the feed is obtained
through scavenging. As indicated by Tadelle Dessie and Ogle (2000) the amount of feed
available for scavenging in relation to the carrying capacity of the land area and flock
dynamics across the different seasons and agro-ecology is still not adequately quantified.
However, studies conducted in three villages of the Central Highlands of Ethiopia with
different altitudes and in three different seasons revealed that the materials present in the
crop, as visually observed, are seeds, plant materials, worms, insects and unidentified
materials.

Sonaiya et al. (1998) indicated that scavenging birds not certainly found all nutrients it
needs for optimal production all the year round. During the dry season, chickens quickly
develop vitamin deficiencies because of the scarcity of succulent vegetables on the range.
During the short rainy season (March-may) the percentage of seeds in the crop contents is
higher, probably because of the increased availability of cereal grains which had just been
harvested and are given to the birds in larger amounts than during the big rainy season and
dry season of the year. The average percentage of plant materials in the crop contents is
highest during the rainy season (June-September) as a result of the increase availability of

12
plant materials, and the relative scarcity of seeds during this season might have increased
intake of plant materials. The largest proportions of worms in the crop contents were
found during October to February in higher altitude which might be attributed to the
relatively high and extended rainfall. A larger proportion of insects were also found during
the short rainy season (Tadelle Dessie and Ogle, 2000). Insects and their larvae are
identified as protein sources for scavenging poultry. Atech and Ologbenla (1993) reported
that maggots could make up three percent of the diets of chicken without compromising
performance.
Crop analysis studies conducted earlier by Tadelle Dessie and Ogle (1996) and Alemu
Yami and Tadelle Dessie (1997) indicated that the physical proportion of seeds was higher
in the short rainy season; however the concentration of crude protein, Calcium and
Phosphorus were below the recommended requirements for egg production. Mbugua
(1990) also suggested that both egg production and egg size vary with season, as the
quality and availability of feed varies.

2.10. Housing

Usually, there is no special housing provided for birds in rural villages of Ethiopia. In
most cases (88.5 %) they roost inside the family dwelling at night, the roost being made of
two or three raised planks of wood placed in parallel. A few households (11.5%) have
constructed a house wife, depending on her work load (Taddelle Dessie, 1996). Mapiye
and Sibanda (2005) reported that in Rushinga district of Zimbabwe all farmers provide
housing to their chicken. Brick and litter types were the most popular houses because
farmers felt that they provide more warmth and security from both thieves and predators
than other type of housing. Proper housing must not only provide an environment that
moderates environmental impact but must provide adequate ventilation for birds to lay
eggs in nest boxes, as well as to feed and sleep in comfort and security (Katie, 1990). Lack
of housing is one of the constraints of the smallholder poultry production systems. In some
African countries, a large proportion of village poultry mortality accounted due to
nocturnal predators because of lack of proper housing (Dwinger, et al., 2003). Some
research works also indicated that the mortality of scavenging birds reduced by improved
housing. For instance, in the Gambia livestock improvement program, which included
improved poultry housing resulted in lower chick mortality (19%) relative to that observed

13
in Ethiopia (66%) and Tanzania (33%), where no housing improvements were made
(Kitalyi, 1998).

2.11. Health and Mortality

Production of indigenous chickens under the scavenging production systems is wide-

spread and well-established in the country villages, even where resource is poor
(Hunduma et al., 2010). Reta Duguma (2006) also indicated that they are predominantly
raised where a traditional family-based free range scavenging management system is
practiced. Consequently, the problem of disease in village chickens is compounded by the
interaction of different entities that are of significant importance to disease epidemiology.
At village level, contacts between flocks of different households, exchange of birds as
gifts or even entrusting sales and purchase are the main sources transmission of infection
(Tadelle Dessie, 2003; Mapiye and Sibanda, 2005).

Attempts have been made from time to time at different times to raise indigenous chickens
under confined management in different research institutions situated in various
geographical areas of the country (Hunduma et al., 2010). However, all attempts have
failed due to high morbidities and mortalities of the chickens. These repeated failures
make some researchers to conclude that indigenous chickens of Ethiopia are unfit for
confined management (Reta Duguma,2006).According to Hunduma et al., (2010),
Newcastle disease (NCD), Infectious Bursal disease(Gumboro), Mareks disease, Fowl
typhoid, Cholera, Mycoplasmosis and Coccidiosis are widely distributed in most African
countries. The Ethiopian indigenous flocks are said to be tolerant towards various diseases
and adapted to their environment. However, survival rate of chicks kept under natural
brooding conditions is considered to be very low. As indicated by Tadelle Dessie and Ogle
(2001) the mortality rates of chicks is as big as 60 to 69 percent. Similarly, Tadelle Dessie
(2003) reported chick mortality rate of 49% in the first two months after hatching with
expected increase when disease outbreaks in the area.

In Ethiopia disease and predators are known to be the major causes of mortality (Nigussie
Dana, 2011). Robert (1992) reported that in Indonesia losses were due to a combination of
poor nutrition, predators and various disease factors. Although predators were blamed for
the majority of losses, other biological and environmental factors made significant

14
contribution. Mapiye and Sibanda (2005) also reported that in Rushinga district of
Zimbabwe predation and disease attribute to 40.5 and 30.2 percent of the total death
respectively. Kitaly (1998) in Africa, Sonaiya et al., (1998) in sub-Saharan Africa, Mallia
(1999) in America, Mwalusanya et al. (2002) and Tadelle Dessie (2003) in Ethiopia
reported that among the diseases of village chicken, Newcastle disease was ranked as the
most important cause of economic loss since vaccination occurs only in response to an
outbreak in the traditional chicken production system. According to Hunduma et al.,
(2010), losses attributed to Newcastle disease are estimated at about 57.3% of the overall
annual chicken mortality whereas Fowl pox, Coccidiosis, and predation account for about
31.6%, 9.4% and 1.7% of the total annual flock mortality, respectively. Identified Fowl
cholera, followed by Newcastle disease, Coccidiosis, Fowl influenza (Infectious
Bronchitis), Fowl pox, Fowl typhoid and Salmonella to be the major poultry diseases,
respectively

2.12 .Disease and Predators

Disease and predators are known to be the major causes of mortality in the country
(Negussie Dana, 1999). According to Negussie Dana and Ogle (1997), New castle disease
accounted for the largest proportion of overall flock mortality to be 57.3% followed by
fowl pox 31.6%, coccidiosis 9.4% and predator loss 1.7%. Another study conducted in all
zones found in Southern Ethiopia by Aberra Melesse (2007) indicated that the major
problems of poultry production in the study areas were Fowl cholera (28.8%), followed by
New Castle Disease (26%), Coccidiosis (21.6%), Fowl influenza [Infectious Bronchitis]
(15.4%), Fowl pox (3.4%), Fowl typhoid (3.4%) and Salmonella (1.4%). The prevalence
of fowl cholera was considerably higher in the mid-altitude (53.3%) while fowl typhoid
was a major problem in low altitudes accounting for 57% of the overall mortality.
Predators such as snakes, rats, dogs, cats and foxes are the main causes of losses especially
in young birds. Thefts are also another important cause for the loss of adult birds.
According to Aberra Mellese ( 2007), about 46% of the respondents in Southern Ethiopia
reported, that wild birds (eagle, hawk, etc.) are the most common predators during the dry
season, while wild cat (locally known as Shelemetmat) is the most dangerous predator
during the rainy season.

15
2.13. Marketing Systems and Practices

In Ethiopia live chickens and eggs are sold from the ordinary day. Whereas, the prices of
chickens are influenced by phonotypic natures of chickens, seasons and holidays. In the
usual market the owners get better prices from matured chickens from different districts
for both live male and female chickens (Addis Getu et al., 2014). In Ethiopia many
researchers reported that site if the market and road accessibility in particular, phenotypic
nature of an animals, seasons and holydays in general play important role for the
variations of chicken prices (Mekonnen G/Egeziabeher, 2007).Whereas no formal poultry
and poultry product marketing channel and informal marketing of live birds and eggs
involving open markets are common (Meseret Molla, 2010). The same work result
revealed that farmers are directly sold their chicken to consumers and/or to small retail
traders who take them to large urban centers.

Poultry products in most developing countries, especially in Africa, are still expensive.
The marketing system is generally informal and poorly developed. Unlike eggs and meat
from commercial hybrid birds (derived from imported stock), local consumers generally
prefer those from indigenous stocks. The existence of a local market offering good sales
opportunities and adequate transport facilities are obvious prerequisites for family poultry
development. As most consumers with greater purchasing power live in and around cities,
intensification of poultry production should be initiated in peri-urban areas or, at least, in
areas having a good road network (Branckaert et al., 2000). Many study results indicated
that research in promoting of village chicken production has concentrated on
improvements in management while ignoring the potential role of socioeconomic issues,
such as marketing. According to Gausi et al. (2004), small holder village chicken
producers tend to ignore new technology even when it appears to be better than their
current practices due to market limitations. This implies that apart from meeting
subsistence needs, engagement and level of investment of smallholder farmers in
agricultural enterprises responds to existing market opportunities.

2.14. Phenotypic Characterization of Indigenous Chicken

Phenotypic character is affected by agro-climates, ethnic groups, socio- economic,

religious and cultural influences in the nature of the qualitative and quantitative traits

16
variation (Halima Hassen, 2007). Ethiopia is gateways of domestic animals migration
from Asia to Africa and it has further impact on the diversity of Ethiopian chickens
(Hallima Hassen, 2007). According to FAO (2011) stated that diversified chicken
characterization is identifying distinct Animal Genetic Resource /AnGR/ and describing
their uniqueness in their environment within specific location and describes any
measurable (quantitative trait), adaptable and observable (qualitative) nature of AnGR and
evaluate effective population size and evaluates status their risks (FAO, 2011). Different
report stated that indigenous chickens are characterized in different parts of Ethiopia;
Bogale Kebret (2008) at Fogera District (based on plumage colors as, white, red, black,
grayish, brown, white brownish, black brownish, and red brownish), Fissiha Moges (2009)
at Bure (characterized based on their phenotypic variations in terms of plumage color,
shank length, comb type and growth performances). Based on location Tadelle Dessie
(2003) at Tilili, Horro, Chefe, Jarso and Tepi, Halima Hassen (2007) at Tilili, Gelila,
Debre-Elias, Melo-Hamusit, Gassay/Farta, Guangua and Mecha and Nigussie Dana (2011)
characterized at Farta, Konso, Mandura, Horro and Sheka. However, only 5 chickens are
listed in DAD-IS (FAO, 2008) and 10 in DAGR-IS (DAGRIS, 2008) including those
listed in DAD-IS. This small number represented in the databases indicates that locally
adapted populations are still un documented (Nigussie Dana, 2011).

17
 CHAPTER 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Description of the Study Area

3.1.1 Lay Armacheho District

Lay Armacheho district is one of the districts of North Gondar Administrative Zone,it
covers an area of 129,272 ha. The altitude of the district ranges between 980 and 2820
meters above sea level and the average annual rainfall range between 1223mm-1700mm.
The annual maximum and minimum temperature of the district is 38oC and 10 oC,
respectively. The agro ecology of the district is highland 7%, midland 65% lowland 32%
and the soil type is claylome 25%, vertisoli 8%, and red brown 45%. Lay Armacheho is
bordered on the north by Tachi Armacheho, on the south by Gondar town, to the west
by Chilga, to the east by Wogera districts. Major crops in the district are teff, wheat, finger
millet and maize respectively. The livestock populations of the district was reported to be
172,438 cattle, 285,604 sheep and goat, 197,100 poultry, 197,100 equines and 18,522 bee
colonies (LDAO, 2015).

3.1.2 Dembiya District

Dembiya district is one of the districts of North Gondar Administrative Zone , it covers an
area of 148,968 ha. The altitude of the district ranges between 1750 and 2100 meters
above sea level. Dembiya is bordered on the south by Lake Tana, on the southwest
by Takusa, to the west by Chilga, to the north by Lay Armacheho, and to the east
by Gondar Zuria district. Its administrative town Kolla Diba is 35 km from Gondar town.
In the Woreda, there are four small urban centers including kolladiba, Aynba, Chuahet and
Robet towns as well as rural Kebeles and peasant associations. The topography of the
district is 87 % plain, 8 % mountain 2.8% plateau and 2.2% covered by water and the soil
type is clay 65 clay lome 35%. The area has a summer rain fall with mean annual rain fall
and mean annual temperature of 1600mm and 20°C respectively .The district has 64% is
arable or cultivable (49118 ha) and another 25% under irrigation, 6% pasture, 4% forest or
shrub land, and the remaining 1% is considered degraded or other. This district is adjacent
about 287 square kilometers to Lake Tana which is subjected to regular and extensive
flooding. Major crops in the district (in order of importance) are teff, sorghum, finger

18
millet and maize respectively. The livestock populations were accounted as 314,423 cattle,
58,601 sheep, 18,659 goat, 147,720 poultry, 20,205 donkey, 269 mule, 58 horses and
12,485 bee colonies (DDAO, 2015).

3.1.3 Gondar Zuria District

Gondar Zuria district is one of the districts of North Gondar Administrative Zone , it
covers an area of 114,983ha .The altitude of the district is 1107-3022 meters above sea
level and the average annual rainfall range between 950mm-1035mm. The annual
temperature of the Woreda is 330c maximum and 270c minimum. Its administrative town
Maksegnete is 42 km from Gondar town. In the district, there are four small urban centers
including Maksegnete, Teda, Enfranze and Degoma towns as well as rural Kebeles and
peasant associations. Regarding the economic activity, agriculture is the dominant source
of income for the farmers in the area. The major crop produced includes, Teff, Maize,
Sorghum and Barley. The livestock populations were accounted as 212,164 cattle (exotic,
cross and local), 75,324 sheep, 345,640 goats, 987 horses, 636 mules, 26,722donkeys and
173,391 poultry and 5,909 bee colonies (GDAO, 2015).

Figure 1: Map of the study area (using GIS version 9.2 software)

19
3.2 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques

The study was conducted in the three districts viz. Dembiya, Gondar Zuria and Lay
Armacheho. The districts were purposively selected because of chicken production
potential, socioeconomic significance and accessibility. From each district representative
districts, three rural PAs per district were selected randomly. From each selected PA, 20
respondent farmers; 60 per district and 180 farmer respondents were used for the
questioner survey. In addition, five chicken producers from each 10 urban centers, a total
of 50 respondents were selected using Systematic simple random sampling technique and
used for the interview. Systematic simple random sampling technique was applied to
choose the respondents in each of the selected PAs. Based on the production system, 180
households for rural poultry production and 50 interviews from urban poultry producers
were used.

To document the main chicken ecotypes, their production system and major production
constraints, nine focus group discussions comprising of 8 to12 members selected from
development agent of the kebele, kebele administratives, elders, female HH and youths
were also conducted. For the phenotypic characterization, 210 male and 240 female adult
live chicken were used; 12 quantitative traits like body weight (kg), body length (BL),
wing span (WS), shank length (SL) and circumference (SC), wattle length (WL) and width
(WW), keel length (KL), super length (sl), beak length (bl), comp length (CL) and width
(CW) were measured based on agro ecologies separately for females and males using
spring balance and centimeter (cm) in the nearest two digital techniques (FAO, 2011).

To address the marketing system, and understand the poultry and egg marking value chain,
semi structured questioner for producers and checklists and field observations for
consumers and middlemen’s was used. Four poultry commodity and input suppliers were
recorded in Gondar town; and all of them were used to capture major information on
poultry input distribution path.

20
 3.3. Data Management and Statistical Analysis

The qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed by using Statistical Package for Social
Sciences SPSS (version 20). Analysis of variance was carried out for some of the
parameters and Teky Test was used to locate treatment means that are significantly
different. More specifically descriptive statistics and General Linear Model (GLM) was
used for liner body measurements with the fixed effects of sex, ecotype and agro ecology.
The following model was used to the measurement of data.
Yijkl = µ + Di + Sj + Ek + DEik + DESijk + eijkl
Where: Yijkl = the observed body weight and linear body measurement of chickens
µ = overall mean
Di = Fixed effect of ith district (1= Dembia, 2= Gondar Zuria and 3= Lay Armachiho)
Sj = Effect of jth sex (1= male and 2= female)
Ek= Ecotype kth (1= Naked Neck (Angete Melata), 2 =Yetilku zere and 3= kechere)
DEik= the intraction effects of district by ecotype
DESijk = the intraction effects of district, ecotype and sex of chicken
eijkl= Random residual error Model that was used for data analysis

The major poultry production constraints and breeding objective of the producers were
analyzed and summarized by index method.

Index =Σ (n x number of HHs ranked 1st) + (n-1) x number of HHs ranked HHs ranked
1st+ (n-1) x number of HHs ranked 2nd+…. +1x number of HHs ranked last) for all traits,
and where n = number of traits under consideration. The variable with the highest index
value is the highest economically important (Kosgey, I .S. 2004).

21
 CHAPTER 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Farming System Characteristics

4.1.1 Household characteristics

The household characteristics of interviewed village chicken owners are presented in

Table 2. About 90% of the respondents’ village chicken owners were females, while the
remaining proportion of the households was males. This is due to females are mainly
occupied in the house for the sec of home management, whereas males are responsible for
farm work. Majority of the respondents (88%) were fully involved in crop-livestock
production systems and used chickens as source of income for immediate expenses such as
purchasing salt, coffee, clothe and Chicken medicaments or drugs. Similarly Halima
Hassen (2007) and Meseret Molla (2010) in north western Ethiopia and Gomma district
reported that farmers were used chicken as means of livelihood and immediate household
expenses, respectively. Most of the respondents were married (88.3%). Whereas, smaller
result was reported by Mekonnen G/Egeziabeher (2007) who showed that only about 59%
of the respondents were married. As we have seen from the result most of the information
was generated from females which indicated that mainly women are traditionally
responsible for rearing of chicken. Moreover, about 89.4% of the interviewed farmers
were illiterate, which might be due to females were the major respondents and they got
marriage during young age before getting to education. The educational status of the
interviewed farmers in the recent study was slightly similar to southern Ethiopia of
reported by (Mekonnen G/Egeziabeher, 2007).

Table 2. Household characteristics engaged in chicken rearing activities in Dembiya,

Gondar Zuria and Lay Armachiho and districts

Characters District Overall

Dembiya Gondar Zuria Lay Armachiho
N % N % N %
Sex
Male 7 11.7 5 8.3 6 10.0 18 10.0
Female 53 88.3 55 91.7 54 90.0 162 90.0
Educational level
Illiterate 48 80.0 57 95.0 56 93.3 161 89.4
Read and write 9 15.0 2 3.3 4 6.7 15 8.3

22
 1-4 grade 1 1.7 1 1.7 2 1.1
5-8 grade 2 3.3 2 1.1
Marital status
Married 52 86.7 51 85.0 56 93.3 159 88.3
Widowed 8 13.3 3 5.0 3 5.0 14 7.8
Widower 6 10.0 1 1.7 7 3.9

4.1.2 Flock and family size of the respondents

Average family size of Dembiya, Gondar Zuria and lay Armachiho districts were
3.88±0.958, 4.17±1.011 and 3.88±1.059 persons, respectively with overall mean of
3.98±1.014 (Table 3). These results were less family size than the reported work from
southern Ethiopia 6.95 persons reported by Mekonnen G/Egeziabeher (2007 and similar to
the national report with the average of 5 persons per household (CSA, 2011/12). Moreover
land holding characteristics of the respondents are presented in Table 4.2. The total land
holding/household was showed non-significant (p>0.05) difference among the three
districts. The result was higher than the reported data 1.01, 0.75, 1.28 and 1.23 ha land
holding/HH of national, Amhara Region, north Gondar zone (WB, 2004), northwestern
Amhara (Fisseha Moges, 2009), respectively.

The overall chick, hen, pullets, cockerels and cock of the study area were 7.35±1.758,
1.93±0.351, 2.01±0.490, 1.08±0.277 and 0.97±0.180, respectively (Table 4.2), which is
not in line with Gueye (1997), who reported that the flock sizes generally ranged from 5 to
20 fowls per African village household. An average flock size of 16 birds was also
reported in the central parts of Ethiopia and in the Kwale district of the South coast Kenya
(Tadelle Dessie et al., 2003; Njenga, 2005). In the present study, the respondents stated
that flock size varies between seasons mainly due to the availability of feed, the
occurrence of diseases, the presence of predators as well as the economic status of the
owners. However, flock size in the study was almost consistently going across districts
without affecting the population number counting together the blood level and cross
breeding effect.

Table 3. Flock Structure and Land Size in Dembiya, Gondar Zuria and Lay Armachiho
districts

Characters Dembiya Gondar Lay Overall Sig.

23
 Mean ±SD zuria Armacheho Mean± SD
Mean± SD Mean± SD
Chick 8.08±1.344a 6.97±1.948b 7.00±1.717b 7.35±1.758 ***
Hen 2.02±0.291a 1.90±0.354ab 1.87±0.389b 1.93±0.351 **
Pullets 1.97±0.581ab 1.92±0.424b 2.13±0.430a 2.01±0.490 **
Cockerels 1.12±0.324 1.03±0.181 1.10±0.303 1.08±0.277 NS
Cock 0.98±0.129 0.97±0.181 0.95±0.220 0.97±0.180 NS
Land size 1.48±0.234 1.43±0.168 1.45±0.197 1.45±0.202 NS
Family size 3.88±0.958 4.17±1.011 3.88±1.059 3.98±1.014 NS

4.2. Chicken Production System

4.2.1 Feeding practice

Feed resources, major feeds and feeding practices of chickens in the study area as
indicated by the respondents were all most all are traditional production with extensive
management activities. There is no purposeful feeding of rural household chickens in the
area and the scavenging feed resource is the major feed sources. According to the results
of this study, almost all of the respondents (88.8 %) reported that scavenging system with
a little supplementary feed is the two feed resources. The result of this study was in
agreement to that of Assefa Tadesse (2007), Mekonnen G/egeziabeher (2007) and Addis
Getu et al (2014) who reported that 95-98% of the small scale household poultry
producers in Awassa Zuria, Dale and north Gondar zone were offering little
supplementary feed to their chickens. The respondents of the current study also confirmed
that the scavenging feed resource is consisted with insect, grass and harvest leftovers
indicating that the village chicken production system is friendly with the environment.
Unfortunately, all the available evidences tend to indicate that scavenging feed resource
base for local birds are inadequate and variable depending on season (Hoyle, 1992 and
Alemu Yami and Tadelle Dessie, 1997). About all respondents described that cereal grains
(maize and sorghum) and household scraps are the major supplementary feeds offered, the
amount of each being dependant on seasons of the year and the quantity and availability of
the resources at the household level. About 48.3% of respondents offer supplement twice a
day (morning and afternoon).

24
4.2.2 Housing

Housing in the study result showed that the farmers usually kept their chickens which are
considered without individual housing provided. In most cases about 84.5 % of the
representative interviewers were roost the chicken inside the family dwelling at night and
the roost being made of two or three raised planks of wood placed in house. A few
households (11.5%) have constructed a small enclosure outside the house made from
stones, and the poultry night shelter is occasionally cleaned by the house wife. This type of
management is not in line with the result of Mapiye and Sibanda (2005) reported in
Rushinga district of Zimbabwe all farmers provided housing to their chicken. Lack of
adequate housing can partly explain chicken mortalities and thus good housing is a
prerequisite for any viable and sustainable chicken project.

4.3. Phenotypic Characteristics of Chickens

From the sampled adult chickens, observable parameters were documented through direct
visualization. Of the total chicken populations about (29%) red (Kiy) followed by (13.4%)
white (Nech) and (12%) Grayish mixtures (Gebsema) were the most frequent dominant
plumage colors of chickens. However, considerable numbers of chickens showed
heterogeneity and had diverse additional plumage color like reddish brown (Kokima), Red
with white trips (kiy Teterma), black with white tips (Tikur Teterma), black White with
black tips (Nech Teterma), multicolor (Ambesa) and White black red trips (Kiy Tikur
Teterma), Bulla (whitish) and Dalechema which accounted for 1.3%, 11%, 8%, 12%, 2%
, and 13%, 5% and 1%, respectively This finding is in line with the findings of Halima
et.al. (2007b) and Nigussie Dana et al., (2011) who reported that each ecotype possessed
multiple variations of plumage colors. Individual characteristics of the ecotype are
described.

According to Halima Hassen (2007) the plumage color proportion of indigenous chickens
were reversely agreed to the current study who reported that about (13.40%) white,
(29.00%) red and (12.00%) Grayish mixture was the dominant color of indigenous
chickens. The overall observed skin color of chickens in this investigation was white
(67.89 %), yellow (21%) and red (6%) and had the average shank colors of yellow (63%),
white (18%), green (5%), black (9%) and red (5%). This result is agreement with the

25
report of Aberra Mellese and Tegene Negesse (2011) who showed that yellow shank color
was the dominant one in southern regions of Ethiopia. Regarding to body shapes most of
the chickens were found to be blocky 61% and triangular 34.22% inters of head profile
most were plain, crest and pea type are about 55%, 61% and 58%, respectively. According
to Halima Hassen et al. (2007b) and Nigussie Dana et al. (2010) comb type distribution
was not in lined with this result which pea comb was as a predominant type in other parts
of Ethiopia.

4.3.1 Qualitative traits

The identified three chicken ecotypes in the area were reported earlier than the present
investigation without the effects of agro ecologies like Necked neck, Yetilku zere
(yesegone zere) and kechere. The results are due to measurable traits and observation of
450 sampled adult chickens with visible parameters through direct visualization. Of the
total three chicken populations, white, red (Kiy) and Grayish mixtures in color are the
frequent dominant plumage colors of chickens. However, considerable numbers of
chickens had diverse additional plumage color like reddish brown (Kokima), white with
red tips (kiy Teterma), black with white tips (Tikur Teterma), black (Tikur), multicolor
(Ambesa) and White black red trips (Kiy Tikur Teterma) which accounted similarly
(Halima Hassen, 2007; Nigussie Dana, 2011 and Addis Getu et al 2014). Reported each
ecotype possessed multiple variations of plumage colors. In addition to plumage colors
other qualitative traits like rose comb type, sicken color, eye color, body shape and head
shape chickens were the documented morphology of chickens. In addition to the focus
groups and key informant discussion made and qualitative, quantitative analysis of the
three identified different chicken ecotypes are described as follows:

4.3.2 Quantitative traits

From the total sampled adult chickens whose age was approximately 36 weeks/to avoid
maternal immunity with twelve measurable parameters such as wing span (WS), shank
length (SL), body length (BL), comb length (CL), comb length (CW), wattle length (WL),
wattle length (WW), beak length (bl), keel length (KL) in (cm) and body weight (Wt) (in
kg) for different sexes were considered. The GLM least squares mean of body weight and
liner body measurements of chickens from Dembiya, G/Zuria and Lay Armacheho and

26
their variations are presented from Table 4. The overall mean square of body weight
obtained for mature chickens were significantly varied in body weight (p < 0.05). Thus,
cocks and hens has found to the average shank length which is relatively similar to the
report of Nigussie Dana (2011) with the shank length of 9.22cm for cocks and 9.04 cm for
hens. This result was more significantly (p < 0.01) thicker shank circumference than the
report of Halima (2007) with the shank circumferences of 0.82 and 0.62cm for cocks and
hens, correspondingly. Comb width is not significantly different (p>0.05) within sexes.
However, it was also non-significant (p>0.05) different between sexes in different
ecotypes for cocks and hens in three various ecotypes were recorded (Table 4.4). The
overall mean for body weight obtained for mature chicken was 1.45±0.01 kg which was
less than other Ethiopian chickens 1.6 kg and heavier than 1.2 kg (Nigussie Dana, 2011)
and northwest Ethiopia Halima Hassen (2007) with 1.26 and 0.87kg for mature cocks and
hens, respectively.

27
Table 4. Phenotypic measurements (LSM ± SE) of body weight (kg) and linear body measurements (cm) of the three indigenous chicken’s
ecotypes

Parameters Agro-ecology Sex Ecotype

Dembiya G/Zuria L/Aremac Overall Sig Male Female Sig Yetileku zer Kechere Sig
Necked neck
hiho . . .
N 150 150 150 450 210 240 120 150 180
NS 37.24±1.59a *** 37.92±0.95a ***
WS 36.79±1.34 36.86±1.34 36.77±1.89 36.61±0.07 36.42±1.39b 37.80±0.82a 35.24±0.84b
NS *** 0.30±0.26a ***
SpL 0.25±0.25 0.20±0.22 0.23±0.25 0.23±0.01 0.31±0.24a 0.15±0.23b 0.28±0.24b 0.14±0.21c

8.77±0.51a 8.53±0.62a 8.17±0.74b *** 8.61±0.61a 8.38±0.72b *** 8.62±0.63a 8.65±0.54a ***
ShL 8.49±0.03 8.27±0.75b

3.46±0.15a 3.37±0.28b 3.30±0.25b *** 3.41±0.20a 3.35±0.27b ** 3.34±0.23 NS

SC 3.28±0.01 3.38±0.28 3.39±0.22

2.91±0.28a 2.31±0.30bc 2.69±0.42b *** 2.70±0.43a 2.59±0.40b ** 2.60±0.40 NS

CL 2.64±0.02 2.69±0.42 2.62±0.42
1.89±0.29a 1.64±0.29b 1.74±0.33a *** 1.73±0.33 NS 1.75±0.34 NS
CW 1.76±0.01 1.78±0.31 1.78±0.32 1.75±0.30
1.82±0.92a 1.68±0.77b *** 1.93±0.68a *** 1.77±0.74b ***
WL 1.39±1.03c 1.63±0.04 1.37±1.04b 2.09±0.63a 1.16±1.03c
1.92±0.68a 1.54±0.54b 1.56±0.77b *** 1.71±0.67 NS 1.72±0.80a 1.65±0.71b NS
WW 1.67±0.03 1.64±0.71 1.66±0.59b
1.53±0.28a 1.44±0.33b 1.37±0.26c 1.45±0.01 *** 1.57±0.27a 1.34±0.28b *** 1.53±0.32a 1.43±0.29b ***
Wt 1.40±0.28b
37.03±0.91a 36.52±0.05 *** 36.65±1.32a * 36.83±0.95a ***
BoL 36.30±1.50b 36.23±0.88b 36.40±1.05b 36.92±1.10a 35.97±1.20b

8.40±0.60a 8.61±0.60a 8.27±0.56b 8.43±0.03 *** 8.49±0.66a 8.37±0.55b * 8.67±0.61a 8.51±0.55a ***
KL 8.19±0.56b
1.99±0.16a 1.85±0.09a 1.78±0.15b *** 1.88±0.18 NS 1.90±0.24a 1.87±0.14b **
BL 1.87±0.01 1.87±0.14 1.85±0.09
WS = wingspan, SpL = super length ShL = shank length, SC= shank circumstance (cm), CL= comb length, CW = comb width, WL= wattle length, WW = wattle width, Wt =
weight (kg), BoL= body length, KL= keel length, and BL = beak length

N= number of observation, different subscribe of a, b, c are significant variation (***P<0.001; **P< 0.01and *P<0.05 are strongly, highly and significant, respectively); NS=
Not Significant.

28
4.3.3. Phenotypic description of the study ecotypes

4.3 .3.1 Necked Neck chicken ecotype

Necked neck chicken ecotype is dominantly found in a very hot ecological zone at altitude
ranging from 528-654 masl with the maximum temperature of 44ºc (Addis Getu, et al,
2014). This chicken ecotype was historically originated and come to Shenfa around border
of Gelavat particularly from Gumze ethnic group. The peculiar features of the chickens are
defeatherinig at neck and chest, highly aggressive, high feed intake, good productive and
reproductive performance; high disease resistance and cleaned & high carcass body weight
are the exceptional features of the ecotype.

The chickens have predominantly red and white red body plumage colors. However, they
had heterogeneity and diverse additional plumage colors like: red-braunish, white with red
tips, black with white tips, black and multi color, yellow skin colored, single combed and
plain headed, respectively (Figure 4.3).

Figure 2 Typical Necked neck chicken ecotype male in the right and female in the left

4.3.3.2Yetilku zere chicken ecotype

According to the key informants during group discussion Yetilku zere chicken ecotype is
dominantly found in a very topography particularly mid and plain topography is suitable
for this ecotype.

The chickens have predominantly red body plumage colors with other diverse plumage
color of white, red-braunish and multicolor. Rose comb type, long shank length, long
necked (especially males), fast growth rate, high cultural and social value, docile and

29
good productive and reproductive performance and attractiveness (good looking) is the
main distinct feature of the ecotype.

Figure 3: Typical Yetilku zere, male (left and female (right) chicken ecotype
4.3.3.3 Kechere chicken ecotype
The respondents reveled that this chicken ecotype was inherited from early lived parents
and transmitted from generation to generation and suited in different ecological zone. The
chickens have predominantly red brownish body plumage colors and unique
characteristics of the breed is small body size, short beak length, very small size wattle in
females, docile, and small size egg with less production of egg & good hatchability are
the critical behaviors of the ecotype.

Figure 4: Typical short beak and leg Kechere chicken ecotype

4.4. Performance of Local Chicken Ecotypes

Districts with average productive and reproductive performance of chicken ecotypes were
characterized under traditional production systems conducting through semi structured
questionnaire. According to the respondents’ information during data collection, the
performance of chicken could be attributed to non-genetic factors such as supplementary
feed and care of farmers given to their chickens. Currently, this work finding showed a
mean age at first sexual maturity was 5.05±0.03, 5.01±0.27, 4 .87±0.02 and 5.01±0.27

30
months from rural and urban areas in case of female and male chickens, respectively.
Average productive and reproductive performances of chicken ecotypes and their
significant difference were estimated under existing farmers’ management condition
(Table 4.4). Whereas, egg production performance of Necked Neck ecotype was better
than the other chickens in terms of agro ecologies and production systems. Therefore, the
result indicated us the average age at first female sexual maturity was much earlier than
6.8 months reported by (Tadelle Dessie et al., 2003) and similar to 5 months reported by
Halima Hassen (2007).

Whereas, the reproductive performances based on the production system obtained from
the present study had smaller clutch size than Addis Getu et al. (2014) who reported that
the average clutch size of local chickens were 3.53±0.10 clutches/hen/year. Mean annual
egg production in rural and urban area was 46.08±8.54 and 43.06±0.44 which were lower than
those reported 55.2 eggs/year from southern Ethiopia (Mekonnen G/Egeziabeher, 2007)
and larger than and similar to (36-42 eggs/year from Ambo (Fikre, 2000), 32 eggs/year
from Assela (Brannang and Pearson, 1990) and 36 eggs/year from Fogera (Bogale Kebret,
2008). This indicated that the different performances of the ecotypes and existence of
variability in egg production could be indicated us the presence of varied genetic potential
for genetic improvement through selection followed by cross breeding. Generally site
effect on the performance chicken was not created as such variations except some
production traits. Current work and its result were not affected by rural and urban chicken
production except annul egg production and egg per clutch. Following that the present
investigation showed that hatching performance of chicken was highly influenced by
ecotypes than agro ecologies and production systems (Table 5). However, the present
study reported that the survival rate of the hatched chickens was positively associated with
all the fixed effects of agro ecologies, ecotypes and production systems.

31
Table 5. Productive and Reproductive Performances of chicken ecotypes in the study district

Parameters Agro-ecology Sex Ecotype

Dembiya G/Zuria L/Aremac Overall Sig Male Female Sig Yetileku zer Kechere Sig
Naked neck
hiho . . .
N 150 150 150 450 210 240 120 150 180
NS 37.24±1.59a 36.42±1.39b *** 37.92±0.95a 37.80±0.82a 35.24±0.84b ***
WS 36.79±1.34 36.86±1.34 36.77±1.89 36.61±0.07
NS *** 0.30±0.26a ***
SpL 0.25±0.25 0.20±0.22 0.23±0.25 0.23±0.01 0.31±0.24a 0.15±0.23b 0.28±0.24b 0.14±0.21c

8.77±0.51a 8.53±0.62a 8.17±0.74b *** 8.61±0.61a 8.38±0.72b *** 8.62±0.63a 8.65±0.54a ***
ShL 8.49±0.03 8.27±0.75b
3.37±0.28b *** 3.41±0.20a ** 3.34±0.23 NS
SC 3.46±0.15a 3.30±0.25b 3.28±0.01 3.35±0.27b 3.38±0.28 3.39±0.22
2.31±0.30bc *** 2.70±0.43a ** 2.60±0.40 NS
CL 2.91±0.28a 2.69±0.42b 2.64±0.02 2.59±0.40b 2.69±0.42 2.62±0.42
1.89±0.29a 1.64±0.29b 1.74±0.33a *** 1.73±0.33 NS 1.75±0.34 NS
CW 1.76±0.01 1.78±0.31 1.78±0.32 1.75±0.30
1.82±0.92a 1.68±0.77b 1.39±1.03c *** 1.93±0.68a 1.37±1.04b *** 1.77±0.74b 2.09±0.63a ***
WL 1.63±0.04 1.16±1.03c
1.92±0.68a *** 1.71±0.67 NS 1.72±0.80a NS
WW 1.54±0.54b 1.56±0.77b 1.67±0.03 1.64±0.71 1.65±0.71b 1.66±0.59b
1.53±0.28a 1.44±0.33b 1.37±0.26c 1.45±0.01 *** 1.57±0.27a 1.34±0.28b *** 1.53±0.32a 1.43±0.29b ***
Wt 1.40±0.28b
37.03±0.91a 36.30±1.50b 36.23±0.88b 36.52±0.05 *** 36.65±1.32a 36.40±1.05b * 36.83±0.95a 36.92±1.10a 35.97±1.20b ***
BoL
8.43±0.03 *** * 8.67±0.61a ***
KL 8.40±0.60a 8.61±0.60a 8.27±0.56b 8.49±0.66a 8.37±0.55b 8.51±0.55a 8.19±0.56b
1.99±0.16a 1.85±0.09a 1.78±0.15b *** 1.88±0.18 NS 1.90±0.24a 1.87±0.14b **
BL 1.87±0.01 1.87±0.14 1.85±0.09
WS = wingspan, SpL = super length ShL = shank length, SC= shank circumstance (cm), CL= comb length, CW = comb width, WL= wattle length, WW = wattle width, Wt =
weight (kg), BoL= body length, KL= keel length, and BL = beak length

N= number of observation, different subscribe of a, b, c are significant variation (***P<0.001; **P< 0.01and *P<0.05 are strongly, highly and significant, respectively); NS=
Not Significant.

32
4.5. Breeding Objective in the Study Areas

The confirmatory filed work has been revealed that the information obtained from the
respondents were on the selection practices of chickens which were based on different
characters mainly the three essential breeding objectives that to obtain in the requirement
of better confirmed chicken about the performance of egg production (for home
consumption), meat production (for home consumption) and source of income with the
overall index rank value of I = 0.28, I = 0.37, and I = 0.35, respectively. The function of
chickens as source of cash income and meat for home consumption was equally important
from Dembiya and Lay Armacheho districts and less important than chicken for income
production where as egg production for home consumption from Lay Armacheho is the
priority area for chicken production and was the most essential reason for production of
chickens. Whereas the function of chicken production for meat (for home consumption)
was more important than egg production in lay Armacheho district. This work is in lined
with the previous reported work in the same area reported by (Addis Getu et al., 2014) and
different area by Nigussie Dana (2011) who investigated that the function of chickens as
source of cash income was rated to be as the first breeding objectives.

Table 6. Major Breeding Objectives and Its Index with Ranks Value in the Study Area

Functions of chicken Districts Weighted

Dembiya Gondar Lay value
Armachiho
Zuria
Meat (home consumption) 0.34 (2) 0.32 (3) 0.33 (2) 0.28 (3)
Egg (home consumption) 0.31 (3) 0.33 (2) 0.34 (1) 0.37 (1)
Marketing as a source of income 0.35 (1) 0.35 (1) 0.33 (2) 0.35 (2)

4.5.1.Trait Preferences of Respondents in The Study Area

Preferred traits of farmers in the studied area are presented in Table 4.6. All interviewed
farmers practiced selection to pick breeding and replacement cocks and hens to improve
the performances of chickens based on color, live weight, comb type, conformation and
breeding ability of chickens. The emphasis given to each trait category is the same in
sexes in all districts like the report of Nigussie Dana (2011) and unlike Addis Getu et al

33
(2014). Farmers in all districts give the highest emphasis for plumage color as used as the
most important selection criteria with index value of 0.35, 0.37 and 0.41 from Dembiya,
G/Zuria and Lay Armacheho district for both male and female chickens, respectively. The
emphasis given to each trait category is not similar across the districts except comb type
which is almost equally important character for selection of chickens. In addition, this
criterion is critical point for farmers to select chickens from purchasing of breeding cocks
and hens for production, religious contribution and home consumption.

Table 7. Trait preference of respondents in the study area

Traits Dembiya Gondar/Zuria Lay Armachiho Over all

Color 0.35(1) 0.37(1) 0.41(1) 0.38(1)
Weight 0.29(2) 0.26(2) 0.23(2) 0.26(2)
Comb 0.17(3) 0.19(3) 0.16(3) 0.17(3)
Conformation 0.11(4) 0.07(5) 0.11(4) 0.10(4)
Breeding ability 0.08(5) 0.11(6) 0.09(5) 0.09(5)
Different number is indicated for its significant variation

4.5.2.Breeding practice of chicken in the study area

Through farmers had preferred traits and breeding objectives, there is no designed
selection and controlled breeding of village chickens. All chickens are moved without
restraint in and around the village through cocks and hens mate indiscriminately without
systemic mating where the dominant cocks in the vicinity became a sire. Though breeding
practices of the village chicken owners were completely uncontrolled and replacement
stocks were produced through natural incubation using broody hens the breeding
experiences of the respondents are improving their chicken productivity either by
purchasing of best cock based on farmers selection criteria , purchasing of exotic fertile
eggs incubated and hatching by local broody hen which were 11 and 13% of the
respondents were had an experience from Dembiya and lay Armachiho districts,
respectively.

Poor productive and old age chickens through selling and slaughter were the major factors
and methods of culling of chickens from the flock, in that order. The farmers in the
districts seem to be very conscious and concerned in the preparation of appropriate
incubation nest boxes and place to set the broody hens. The interviewed people to be

34
found the incubation boxes in a protected, quite and dark corner of the family set with the
use of cereal straws bedding either on clay pot or on bare ground sandstones.

Whereas, respondents avoid the broody character of the hens using different methods to
adjust their broody manners when incubation was not preferred and the hens were
necessary to start again mating and laying eggs. Some of the most popular methods
reported were hanging the hen up-side-down for a day, moving the hen to neighboring
houses and tethering for three to four days.

4.6. Marketing Price and Marketing Chain

4.6.1 . Marketing price of chicken and egg at the survey areas

Urban and rural production system was the major production activities in the study area.
As the respondents indicated, the performances and current marketing prices chickens are
highly influenced by the production system. According to Wondu Mamo et al (2013)
urban productions is important in Ethiopia and required for the development of successful
poultry production strategies. During data collection, the communities were stated that live
chickens and eggs are sold from the ordinary days from unrestricted marketing place. On
the other hand, the prices of chickens and their products are influenced by phonotypic
natures of chickens, size of chickens, seasons and holidays of the year. In the usual market
the owners get better prices from matured chickens up to 171±0.40 and 128±1.00 with the
overall mean prices of 108±0.80 and 100±0.60 birr from urban and rural area for matured
cocks and hens, in that order. The prices obtained in this findings were significantly higher
compared to Mekonnen G/Egeziabeher (2007) who reported that 21.74±0.54 (78) and
13.95±0.43 (78) as well as (Tadelle Dessie et al., 2003b) on the price of 21.5 (30) and13.4
(30) birr for matured cocks and matured hens, respectively. This finding is still higher
than Assefa Tadesse (2007) who reported that 27.24 and 15.51 birr was required for
matured male and female chickens, respectively in the study made around Awassa Zuria.
Market and road accessibility in particular, phenotypic nature of an animals, seasons,
inflation and holydays in general play important role for the variations of chicken price
and market defilation and inflation in the study area (Table 8).Whereas average productive
and reproductive performances of chickens were characterized under rural and urban
production systems (Table 5). Even, lower performance record was reported (36.94±2.05)
from Mekonnen G/Egeziabeher and Fikre than small size female prices of eggs/hen/year.

35
This indicated that the better performance of the ecotypes and existence of variability in
prices could be an indication of the potential for genetic improvement through selection
and the demand increment followed by chicken production opportunity observed in the
country. This consideration was focused on market price variation between production
systems.

Table 8. Marketing price (ETB) of chicken at different age and production system

PS MSs MMs MLs FSs FMs FLs Overall

Sig. NS NS ** ** *** NS *

Rural 82b±0.40 126b±0.3 164b±0.4 47b±0.30 64b±0.80 121b±0.40 100b±0.6

Urban 93a±0.90 133a±0.7 171a±0.4 53a±0.60 75a±0.50 128a±0.91 108a±0.8

PS= production system; MSs is male small size, MMs is male medium size, MLs is male
large size, FSs is female small size, FMS is female medium size, FLS is female large size

4.6.2 Marketing chain and input suppliers

Irregular marketing practices like without formal poultry and poultry products was
conducted on a marketing channel in through informal marketing of live birds and eggs
was involving on common open markets throughout the district. According to the
information obtained the chicken owners directly sold their chicken to both consumers and
small retail traders who take them to large urban centers,While all most all respondents
practiced that the live chickens and eggs are sold either at farm gate, small village market
(primary market) or at larger Woreda market (Secondary market in the town). As the
respondents indicated that exchange of the commodities were done in a week with one
regular market day at the center of each Kebeles. Respondents underlined that eggs are
most frequently selling products at the market and at villages’ level. So the results of this
study clearly showed that both eggs and chickens pass through different individuals before
reaching to the consumers. The regular chain is presented from (Figure 5). About 10% of
chickens are collected by village collectors and consumers. At all the market areas, selling
and purchasing of the live chickens and eggs are the responsibility of female for household
immediate income to meet household expenses. About 99.6% of interviewed village
chicken owners involved in marketing of live chicken, since sale of chickens are the major
reason for them to keep chicken. The marketing of birds takes placed in various places

36
including: urban market, local markets and around the villages (farm gates). Whereas, the
near and the major four live chicken, fertile eggs and commercial feeds without vaccine
drug input suppliers in poultry production in the study area was found in the urban areas
which was connected the supplier with the users by lives project through training and
promoting different events. Though, the major constraints for input supplier in the study
area were practicing training, promotion and awareness creation to the user to buy the
inputs. However, some NGO like LIVES was performed on going work to connect the
suppliers and the producers through training and visiting in the last two consecutive years
in urban and rural areas even if the suppliers are absent in the rural areas.

Women and children were the major members of the household involved in marketing of
live birds. Urban market was the first priority place for most village chicken producers
(56.7%) of the study area to sale live birds and eggs. Regarding the marketing channel of
live birds, most chicken owners (33.3%) sold birds directly to consumers and middle men.
The rest of the birds were usually sold to other urban and rural chicken producers and
retailers (hotels and restaurants). Figure 5 showed the marketing channel of live birds and
eggs in the district.

Figure 5 Marketing channel of chicken and eggs in the study area

37
According to the study result, marketing place to the main area where the producers are
found its own contribution for the prices of chicken and its products. The prices of chicken
and eggs at village of the rural areas are reduced by 50% from the main marketing places.
Whereas, both public and private service providers and input suppler like breed, feed,
vaccinations, drugs, awareness creation and price inconsistency are the major critical
constraints in chicken marketing.

4.7 Major Constraints of Chicken Production in the Study Area

Major constraints of chicken production are presented in Table 9. Among the reported
constraints of chicken production prioritized by the interviewers were presence of disease,
predators and feed shortage with the overall weighted value of 0.38, 0.31 and 0.31,
respectively. The frequently mentioned constraints was diseases and rated as the first
ranked chicken production constraint in all districts whereas predators were the second
problems in all districts of different agro ecologies. Feed availabilities including its
qualities were the bottleneck of chicken production in all districts where as poor veterinary
and lack of extension services were identified and unranked common limitation in all
districts. Constraints were not different from those reported by others in Ethiopia such as
Solomon Demek (2007), Bogale Kiberet (2008), Meseret Molla (2010) and Addis Getu et
al. (2014) who reported that the main constraint of traditional chicken production system
was disease. This result is in lined with Solomon Demek (2007) who reported that the bio-
security of the backyard poultry production system is very poor and risky, since
scavenging birds live together with people and other species of livestock.

Table 9. Rating of major constraints of chicken production in the study area

Districts
Constraints Overall
Dembiya Gondar Zuria Lay Armachiho
Disease 0.37 (1) 0.38 (1) 0.37 (1) 0.38 (1)
Predator 0.33 (2) 0.32 (2) 0.32 (2) 0.31 (2)
Feed shortage 0.30 (3) 0.30 (3) 0.31 (3) 0.31 (2)

38
 CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusion

The identified chicken populations generally showed less phenotypic variations with their
adopted environments. Almost all of the differences in the populations could be explained
by the genetic variability of individuals among the population. The main chicken breeding
objectives of the study areas were home consumption and for income generation, to fulfill
the required commodities and consumables of the household. The main production
problems, as the respondents indicated, were disease (lack of veterinarian and experience
of vaccination by the producers), feed shortage (lack of access and understanding to
provide better feed for poultry) and predator. While, the respondents indicated that the
main involved actors for the marketing chain were in the area producers, middle men,
retailers and direct consumers.

Breeding objectives of the respondents were linked to increase performances per animals
through obtaining well performed chickens for meat, egg and religious roles to insure their
incomes and home consumptions. Whereas, the breeding practices in the area was
uncontrolled mating and absence of planned breeding programme.

The morphologies, performance and measurable traits are giving powerful evidence on the
uniqueness of ecotypes from the common chicken ecotypes. The liner body measurement
analyses indicated that the chickens are uniquely different one from the other. In addition
qualitatively as Necked neck chickens ecotype was easily identified by their complete
absence of feather at neck and chest. Whereas, Yetilku zere chicken ecotype was also
characterized by their normal feather (not bold or muffed) and long necked.

5.2. Recommendations

Based on the facts and figures obtained in this study, the following recommendations were
amended.
✓ Indigenous chicken genetic resources are created a great importance and could be
utilized for the purpose of home consumption and income generation which needs

39
 better conservation plan for breeding strategies so as to utilize in a sustainable way
based on different districts.
✓ Intensive and monitoring studies to be proceed on type and coverage of chicken
production constraints which affect the income of farmers should be conducted.
✓ Marketing actor in a chain is dominated by the middle men that reduce the income
of the producer; those direct marking between the producer and the consumers
should better be designed.
✓ The future breeding programme development should incorporate the breeding
objectives of farmers’.

40
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 7. APPENDICES

Questionnaires for phenotypic characterization of local chicken ecotype based on agro

ecologies in North Gondar Zone: NARS, Ethiopia.

1. Semi structured questionnaires (30 respondents per ecotype)

a. Enumerator’s Name ----------------------- age, -------------------- ecotype/50/ kebeles -

-------------
b. District (agro ecology) --------------------------, Peasant Association (Keble) -----------
----
c. Date of interview------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d. Identified number of the respondent--------------------------------------------------------
e. Sex of the respondent a. Male b. Female
f. Major occupation 1.Agriculture2. GO employer3. Construction4. Unemployed
g. Educational level of the respondent
a. Illiterate b. Read & write c. 1st –4th
d. 5th –8th e.9th-12th

h. Religion

49
 1. Muslim 2. Orthodox 3. Others
j. Marital status
A. marred b. unmarred c. widowed
k. Land size /ha/ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

L. Family size of the respondent ------------------------------------------------------------

Male Female
Total
a) Ages under 14 years --------- ----------------
b) Ages between 15 to 30 years ---------- ------------ --------
c) Ages between 31 to 60 years ---------- ------------ --------
d) Ages above 60 years --------- ---------- --------
e) Total number -------------- ---------------- -------- ---------------------------------------

50
2. Chicken types
2.1. Flock size and structure
Chicken No. of Source of Source of family member
Stock Chicken Replacement foundation stock Responsible to manage
Type’s stock
Local
Chicks
Cocks
Pullet
Hens
Cockerels
Total
Exotics
Chicks
Cocks
Pullet
Hens
Cockerels
Total

2.2. Sources of foundation or replacement stock

a. Purchase b. Gift c. Hatched d.Other especify
2.3. The extent of exotic chickens (RIR, WLH,) distribution in the area
2.4. What are the constraints in ordering to consume poultry product at family level?
1st ---------------
2nd---------------
3rd-----------------------
4th-----------------------
5th----------------------------------Chicken management system

2.5. Housing

2.5.1. What type of management system do you practice for your chicken rising?
a. Extensive b. Semi-intensive c. Intensive d. Others specify ----------------
---
2.5.2. Do you have separate poultry house from your family
1. Yes 2. No
2.6. If they rest in separate house, do you practice cleaning of poultry house? Yes---no
2.7. If yes, how many days in a week) do you clean? -----------------------------

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2 .8 Feed Resources and Feeding Strategy
2.8.1 Do y2our chickens scavenging (forager) in? 1. Yes 2.No

2.8.2 Do you provide supplementary feed for your chicken? 1. Yes 2. No

2.8.3 If yes, indicate the ingredients you provide supplementary feed for your poultry
fill the following table:

2.8.4 If you provide feed, how frequently do you feed your chickens daily?

a) Morning only (a) Once (b) Twice) three times or more (d) - None

b) Evening only (a) Once ------- (b) Twice ------ c) three times or more -------- (d) -
None

c) Afternoon only (a) Once (b) Twice c) three times or more ------- (d) - None

d) Any time during the day------------------------------

e) Morning and evening---------------- ---------------

f) Morning and afternoon----------------- -----------

g) Morning, evening and afternoon---------------------

2.8.5 If you give feed how do you feed your chickens?

a. in a feeding trough
b. on the bare ground
c. Others specify

2.8.6 Why you give supplementary feed?

(a) To increase egg yield (b) to increase meat yield (c) Aging

(d.) Broodiness (during incubation) (e) others

2.9. At which season you are practicing incubating eggs? a. Rainy season b. Dry season

2.10 Do you practices to avoid broody behavior? 1. Yes 2. No

2.11 If yes, what types of technique do you practice & way do you use? & rank it?

(a) Hanging the bird upside down (b) Depriving of the birds from feed & water

52
 ( c) Disturbing in the nest ( d) Moving to neighbors e) Others------------
-----

2.12 Do you select egg for incubation? A. yes b. No c. specifies ----------------------

2.13 How long do you store eggs before incubation?

2.14 Production System/Husbandry Practices

2.14.1 For what purpose do you practice in chicken production Rank in order of
importance?

(a) Egg for home conception ------ (b) meat home conception----- (c)
Cultural/Religious------- (d) Source of income--------------------------------

2.14.2 How long has poultry been kept in the household? -----------------------

2.14.3What chicken type do you raise? 1. Starter/layer/ chicken 2. Finisher 3.grower

2.14.4 For which of the following purposes you spend money in poultry production?
a. Purchase of chickens
b. Purchase of poultry feeds
c. Purchase of veterinary product
d. Others (specify
2.14.5 Source of money to finance your poultry farming?
a) Poultry sales
b) Crop sales
c) Money lender family or friends
d) Egg sales
e) Livestock sales
f) Bank
g) Cooperatives
h) Off-farm
i) Others, specify
2.14.6 Do you feel the need to improve your poultry production? (a) Yes ( b) No.

2.14.7 If yes, How 1.importing (exotic) 2.indigenous

53
 2.15 Reproductive Performance

1. Approximate age of female sexual maturity months? ----- Months?

2. Age of first mating male, Cock (age at 1st mate) ---------------------months?

3. How many times brood/ year? ----------------------------------------------------------

4. Clutch frequency per year -----------------------------------------------------------------
5. Day per clutch ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. Hen at first egg -----------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.16 Culling and breeding practice

2.16.1 Do you have breed improvement practice? How 1.Importing 2. Improving

indigenous chicken by itself?

2.16.2 which trait you prefer? For conception or income or selection (Rank)
1. Male a. wt b. color, c. comp, d. breeding ability e. Conformation

2. Female a. wt b. color c. comp, d. breeding ability e. Conformation

2.16.3 Why do you cull chicken? 1. Culling underproductive 2. Lack of broodiness

2.16.4 Frequent broodiness 4. Sickness 5. Other specify ------

6.2.5 How do you cull chicken?

1. Culling at young 2. Dealing the best 3. Preventing

stage cock and hen during unwanted cock to
conception period mate hen
6.3. For what purpose (breeding objective) chickens are selected?

1. Meat for home 3. Egg and meat for Income

2. Egg for home 4. Others
6.4. How do you get (improved Spps) --------------------------------------------------------?
7. Constraints of poultry production

7.1 Potential / Production constraints to chicken production and productivity (Specify in

order of their economical importance)

54
 a. 1st-------- c. 3rd --------
b. 2nd------- d. 4th--------------
7.2 Health and disease control a. Do you understanding serious disease outbreaks? 1.Yes
2.no
8. Marketing
8.1 Rank marketing chain
1. Producer – trader ---- consumer 3. Producer –middle men – retailer---
2. Producer – consumer consumer
8.2 What are marketing problems relating to chicken?
1. Instable Chicken price 4. Availability of substitute
2. Poor sales (demand 5. Poor infrastructure (road,
seasonality) market…)
3. Lack of market place 6. Others specify
1. How far the market place from the home area?
Current market price of chicken

Male chicken Female chicken

Small size Medium size Large Small Medium size Large size
size size

8.2.1 Where do you buy poultry production inputs?

1. NGO 2.Goverment 3.Private companies 4. If others

specify

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 8. Marketing
8.1 Rank marketing chain
1. Producer – trader ---- consumer 3. Producer –middle men – retailer---
2. Producer – consumer consumer
8.2 What are marketing problems relating to chicken?
1. Instable Chicken price
2. Poor sales (demand
seasonality)
3. Lack of market place
4. Availability of substitute
5. Poor infrastructure (road,
market…)
6. Others specify

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 2. How far the market place from the home area?
Current market price of chicken

Male chicken Female chicken

Small size Medium size Large Small Medium size Large size
size size

8.2.1 Where do you buy poultry production inputs?

1. NGO 2.Goverment 3.Private companies 4. If others

specify
9. Phenotypic Data
A. Categorical Traits
1. Age (days/wks) of chickens------------ type of ecotype ------------
2. Sex of chickens
1. Male 2. Naked neck
2. Female 3. Shank feathered & feet;
3. Feather distribution muffs
1. Normal
4. Plumage color
1. Completely white 6. Black with white
2. Completely black tips/Teterma
3. Completely red 7. Red brownish/Kokima
4. Grayish/Gebsema 8. White with red stripes
5. Multicolor/Anbesma 9. Others/Specify
5. Breast color

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 1. Black 4. Grayish/Gebsema
2. Red 5. Multicolor/Anbesma
3. White
4. Others/specify 6. Black with white tips
6. Neck color 7. Red brownish 8.
1. Completely white White with red stripes
2. Completely black 9. Others
3. Completely red
7. Back color
1. Completely white 6. Black with white tips
2. Completely black 7. Red brownish
3. Completely red 8. White with red
4. Grayish stripes/Seran
5. Multicolor 9. Others/Specify--------
8. Comb type
1. Rose 4. Single
2. Pea 5. Duplex
3.Watnut/strawberry 6. Cushion,
9. Head shape
1. Plain 3. Others, specify ----------
2. Crest /Gutya
10. Ear lobe/presence (P/A)
1. Present 2. Absent
11. Ear lobe color
1. White 4. White and red
2. Red 5. Others,
3. Black
12. Ear mark
1. Present 2. Absent
13. Shank feather
1. Present 2. Absent
14. Eye color
1. Orang 3. Red
2. Brown 4. Pearl

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15. Shank color 4. Blue
1. Yellow 5. Green
2. Black 6. Grey-blue
3. White
16. Skin color
1. Silky
2. White
3. Yellow1

17. Body shape

1. Wedge

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 2. Triangular
3. Blocky
B. Linear Body Measurement (Measurable traits per ecotype)
1. Wing span (arrested) /cm/ 7. Wattle lengths (cm)
2. Spur length (cm) 8 Wattle height
3. Shank length (cm) 9. Body weight (kgs/
4 .Shank circumferences (cm) 1o. Body length (cm)
5. Comb length (cm) 11. Keel length,
6. Comb height (cm) 12 Beak lengths
Appendix table 1. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of phenomic measurements of
characterization

Source Dependent Type III SS Df Mean Square F value Sig.

Variable
Wing Span .306 2 0.153 0.386 0.680
Spur Length .273 2 0.137 3.061 0.048
Shank Length 21.883 2 10.942 41.985 0.000
Shank Circum 1.699 2 0.850 18.546 0.000
Comb Length 25.978 2 12.989 175.154 0.000
Comb Width 5.257 2 2.629 38.922 0.000
Agro ecology
Wattle Length 28.848 2 14.424 105.645 0.000
Wattle Width 28.023 2 14.011 66.003 0.000
Weight 2.586 2 1.293 19.751 0.000
Body Length 48.807 2 24.404 33.195 0.000
Keel Length 9.075 2 4.538 16.185 0.000
Beak Length 4.168 2 2.084 129.614 0.000
Wing Span 112.314 1 112.314 282.953 0.000
Spur Length 3.388 1 3.388 75.965 0.000
Shank Length 4.023 1 4.023 15.436 0.000
Shank Circum .320 1 0.320 6.987 0.009
Comb Length 1.415 1 1.415 19.075 0.000
Comb Width .337 1 0.337 4.995 0.026
Sex
Wattle Length 26.273 1 26.273 192.431 0.000
Wattle Width .538 1 0.538 2.533 0.112
Weight 5.446 1 5.446 83.204 0.000
Body Length 14.083 1 14.083 19.157 0.000
Keel Length 2.503 1 2.503 8.926 0.003
Beak Length .005 1 0.005 0.299 0.585
Ecotype Wing Span 762.785 2 381.392 960.840 0.000

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 Spur Length 2.763 2 1.382 30.982 0.000
Shank Length 15.024 2 7.512 28.825 0.000
Shank Circum .200 2 0.100 2.183 0.114
Comb Length .799 2 0.399 5.385 0.005
Comb Width .029 2 0.014 0.211 0.809
Wattle Length 65.518 2 32.759 239.939 0.000
Wattle Width .420 2 0.210 0.989 0.373
Weight 1.187 2 0.593 9.067 0.000
Body Length 99.039 2 49.519 67.359 0.000
Keel Length 17.627 2 8.814 31.436 0.000
Beak Length .229 2 0.115 7.134 0.001
Wing Span 29.929 4 7.482 18.850 0.000
Spur Length .634 4 0.158 3.553 0.007
Shank Length 18.684 4 4.671 17.924 0.000
Shank Circum 3.920 4 0.980 21.390 0.000
Comb Length 10.697 4 2.674 36.061 0.000
Agro ecology Comb Width 9.269 4 2.317 34.309 0.000
* ecotype Wattle Length 40.488 4 10.122 74.137 0.000
Wattle Width 72.545 4 18.136 85.434 0.000
Weight 1.469 4 0.367 5.611 0.000
Body Length 99.789 4 24.947 33.934 0.000
Keel Length 6.865 4 1.716 6.121 0.000
Beak Length 1.109 4 00.277 17.244 0.000
***P<0.001; **P< 0.01; *P<0.05; NS= Not Significant.

Appendix table 2. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of Productive and Reproductive Performances

of chicken ecotypes for rural production system

Source Dependent Type III SS df Mean Square F value Sig.

Variable
AAFMSM (Month) 0.914 2 0.457 7.953 0.000
AAFFSM (Month) 4.089 2 2.045 44.258 0.000
CSPY 0.033 2 0.017 0.111 0.895
DPC 27.878 2 13.939 6.018 0.003
Agro ecology EPY 875.544 2 437.772 63.802 0.000
NEI 60.278 2 30.139 31.254 0.000
ChpI 14.211 2 7.106 4.558 0.012
Csph 22.078 2 11.039 14.029 0.000
Epc 91.433 2 45.717 18.988 0.000
AAFMSM (Month) 1.776 2 0.888 15.450 0.000
AAFFSM (Month) 17.714 2 8.857 191.718 0.000
CSPY 0.100 2 0.050 0.332 0.718
Ecotype
DPC 410.811 2 205.406 88.687 0.000
EPY 8182.144 2 4091.072 596.244 0.000
NEI 317.011 2 158.506 164.369 0.000

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 ChpI 295.211 2 147.606 94.693 0.000
Csph 111.144 2 55.572 70.627 0.000
Epc 2678.800 2 1339.400 556.321 0.000
AAFMSM (Month) 0.801 4 0.200 3.485 0.009
AAFFSM (Month) 3.334 4 0.834 18.043 0.000
CSPY 1.067 4 0.267 1.771 0.137
DPC 220.789 4 55.197 23.832 0.000
Agro ecology *
EPY 2847.922 4 711.981 103.766 0.000
Ecotype
NEI 44.389 4 11.097 11.508 0.000
ChpI 66.756 4 16.689 10.706 0.000
Csph 17.222 4 4.306 5.472 0.000
Epc 215.267 4 53.817 22.353 0.000
***P<0.001; **P< 0.01; *P<0.05; NS= Not Significant.

Appendix table 3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of Productive and Reproductive Performances

of chicken ecotypes for rural production system

Source Type III SS df Mean Square F value Sig.

AAFMSM (Month) 0.745 1 0.745 11.103 0.001
AAFFSM (Month) 6.837 1 6.837 43.515 0.000
CSPY 0.053 1 0.053 0.338 0.562
DPC 4.553 1 4.553 0.852 0.357
EPY 356.360 1 356.360 5.987 0.015
NEI 69.334 1 69.334 23.262 0.000
ChpI 0.574 1 0.574 0.174 0.677
Csph 15.313 1 15.313 11.410 0.001
Epc 74.520 1 74.520 4.868 0.028
***P<0.001; **P< 0.01; *P<0.05; NS= Not Significant.

Appendix table 4. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of Marketing price (ETB) of chicken at

different age and egg at different size at urban and rural production system

Source Type III SS df Mean Square F value Sig.

MSs 4020.731 1 4020.731 142.999 0.000
MMs 1503.324 1 1503.324 44.771 0.000
MLs 17858.818 1 17858.818 224.255 0.000
FSs 226.227 1 226.227 10.762 0.001
FMs 2.424 1 2.424 0.236 0.628
FLs 9.198 1 9.198 0.129 0.720
SSe 0.000 1 0.000 0.008 0.930
Lse 0.015 1 0.015 0.829 0.364
***P<0.001; **P< 0.01; *P<0.05; NS= Not Significant

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 BIBLOGRAPHICAL SCETCH

Hana Asmamaw, the author, was born in Dembiya District North Gonder, Amhara Regional
State in 1980 EC. She started her elementary school education at kolladiba in 1986 EC, and
completed her Secondary school in 1995 EC. Then, she joined Woreta TVIT College of
Agriculture, in 1996 EC graduated with Diploma in Agriculture (Animal science) in 1998 after
her graduation; she was employed by the Ministry of Agriculture and served as Animal
Production Expert at Dembia District Agriculture and Rural Development Office of North
Gondar Zone, then she joined Bahir Dar University, College of Agriculture and environmental
sciences, in 2001 EC, and graduated with B.Sc. degree in Agriculture (Animal Production and
technology) in 2003 EC. After her graduation, she was employed by the Ministry of Agriculture
and served as Animal Production Expert at Dembia District Agriculture and Rural Development
Office of North Gondar Zone. Then she joined the Graduate School of the Bahirdar University
for a Master of Science degree in Animal Genetics and breeding in ocutober 2006 EC.

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