Dimension

In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a mathematical space (or

object) is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed
to specify any point within it.[1][2] Thus a line has a dimension of one (1D)
because only one coordinate is needed to specify a point on it – for
example, the point at 5 on a number line. A surface such as a plane or the
surface of a cylinder or sphere has a dimension of two (2D) because two From left to right: the square, the cube
coordinates are needed to specify a point on it – for example, both a latitude and the tesseract. The two-dimensional
(2D) square is bounded by one-
and longitude are required to locate a point on the surface of a sphere. The
dimensional (1D) lines; the three-
inside of a cube, a cylinder or a sphere is three-dimensional (3D) because
dimensional (3D) cube by two-
three coordinates are needed to locate a point within these spaces.
dimensional areas; and the four-
dimensional (4D) tesseract by three-
In classical mechanics, space and time are different categories and refer to
dimensional volumes. For display on a
absolute space and time. That conception of the world is a four-dimensional
two-dimensional surface such as a
space but not the one that was found necessary to describe screen, the 3D cube and 4D tesseract
electromagnetism. The four dimensions (4D) of spacetime consist of events require projection.
that are not absolutely defined spatially and temporally, but rather are
known relative to the motion of an observer. Minkowski space first
approximates the universe without gravity; the pseudo-Riemannian
manifolds of general relativity describe spacetime with matter and gravity.
10 dimensions are used to describe superstring theory (6D hyperspace +
4D), 11 dimensions can describe supergravity and M-theory (7D
hyperspace + 4D), and the state-space of quantum mechanics is an infinite-
dimensional function space. The first four spatial dimensions,
represented in a two-dimensional
The concept of dimension is not restricted to physical objects. High- picture.
dimensional spaces frequently occur in mathematics and the sciences.
They may be parameter spaces or configuration spaces such as in 1. Two points can be connected
Lagrangian or Hamiltonian mechanics; these are abstract spaces, to create a line segment.
independent of the physical space we live in. 2. Two parallel line segments
can be connected to form a
square.
Contents 3. Two parallel squares can be
In mathematics connected to form a cube.
Vector spaces 4. Two parallel cubes can be
Manifolds connected to form a
Complex dimension tesseract.
Varieties
Krull dimension
Topological spaces
Hausdorff dimension
Hilbert spaces
In physics
Spatial dimensions
Time
Additional dimensions
Networks and dimension
In literature
In philosophy
More dimensions
See also
Topics by dimension
References
Further reading
External links

In mathematics
In mathematics, the dimension of an object is, roughly speaking, the number of degrees of freedom of a point that
moves on this object. In other words, the dimension is the number of independent parameters or coordinates that are
needed for defining the position of a point that is constrained to be on the object. For example, the dimension of a
point is zero; the dimension of a line is one, as a point can move on a line in only one direction (or its opposite); the
dimension of a plane is two, etc.

The dimension is an intrinsic property of an object, in the sense that it is independent of the dimension of the space in
which the object is or can be embedded. For example, a curve, such as a circle is of dimension one, because the
position of a point on a curve is determined by its signed distance along the curve to a fixed point on the curve. This is
independent from the fact that a curve cannot be embedded in a Euclidean space of dimension lower than two, unless
it is a line.

The dimension of Euclidean n-space En is n. When trying to generalize to other types of spaces, one is faced with the
question "what makes En n-dimensional?" One answer is that to cover a fixed ball in En by small balls of radius ε,
one needs on the order of ε−n such small balls. This observation leads to the definition of the Minkowski dimension
and its more sophisticated variant, the Hausdorff dimension, but there are also other answers to that question. For
example, the boundary of a ball in En looks locally like En-1 and this leads to the notion of the inductive dimension.
While these notions agree on En, they turn out to be different when one looks at more general spaces.

A tesseract is an example of a four-dimensional object. Whereas outside mathematics the use of the term "dimension"
is as in: "A tesseract has four dimensions", mathematicians usually express this as: "The tesseract has dimension 4",
or: "The dimension of the tesseract is 4" or: 4D.

Although the notion of higher dimensions goes back to René Descartes, substantial development of a higher-
dimensional geometry only began in the 19th century, via the work of Arthur Cayley, William Rowan Hamilton,
Ludwig Schläfli and Bernhard Riemann. Riemann's 1854 Habilitationsschrift, Schläfli's 1852 Theorie der vielfachen
Kontinuität, and Hamilton's discovery of the quaternions and John T. Graves' discovery of the octonions in 1843
marked the beginning of higher-dimensional geometry.

The rest of this section examines some of the more important mathematical definitions of dimension.

Vector spaces

The dimension of a vector space is the number of vectors in any basis for the space, i.e. the number of coordinates
necessary to specify any vector. This notion of dimension (the cardinality of a basis) is often referred to as the Hamel
dimension or algebraic dimension to distinguish it from other notions of dimension.

For the non-free case, this generalizes to the notion of the length of a module.

Manifolds
The uniquely defined dimension of every connected topological manifold can be calculated. A connected topological
manifold is locally homeomorphic to Euclidean n-space, in which the number n is the manifold's dimension.

For connected differentiable manifolds, the dimension is also the dimension of the tangent vector space at any point.

In geometric topology, the theory of manifolds is characterized by the way dimensions 1 and 2 are relatively
elementary, the high-dimensional cases n > 4 are simplified by having extra space in which to "work"; and the cases
n = 3 and 4 are in some senses the most difficult. This state of affairs was highly marked in the various cases of the
Poincaré conjecture, where four different proof methods are applied.

Complex dimension

The dimension of a manifold depends on the base field with respect to which Euclidean space is defined. While
analysis usually assumes a manifold to be over the real numbers, it is sometimes useful in the study of complex
manifolds and algebraic varieties to work over the complex numbers instead. A complex number (x + iy) has a real
part x and an imaginary part y, where x and y are both real numbers; hence, the complex dimension is half the real
dimension.

Conversely, in algebraically unconstrained contexts, a single complex coordinate system may be applied to an object
having two real dimensions. For example, an ordinary two-dimensional spherical surface, when given a complex
metric, becomes a Riemann sphere of one complex dimension.[3]

Varieties

The dimension of an algebraic variety may be defined in various equivalent ways. The most intuitive way is probably
the dimension of the tangent space at any Regular point of an algebraic variety. Another intuitive way is to define the
dimension as the number of hyperplanes that are needed in order to have an intersection with the variety that is
reduced to a finite number of points (dimension zero). This definition is based on the fact that the intersection of a
variety with a hyperplane reduces the dimension by one unless if the hyperplane contains the variety.

An algebraic set being a finite union of algebraic varieties, its dimension is the maximum of the dimensions of its
components. It is equal to the maximal length of the chains of sub-varieties of the given
algebraic set (the length of such a chain is the number of " ").

Each variety can be considered as an algebraic stack, and its dimension as variety agrees with its dimension as stack.
There are however many stacks which do not correspond to varieties, and some of these have negative dimension.
Specifically, if V is a variety of dimension m and G is an algebraic group of dimension n acting on V, then the quotient
stack [V/G] has dimension m − n.[4]

Krull dimension

The Krull dimension of a commutative ring is the maximal length of chains of prime ideals in it, a chain of length n
being a sequence of prime ideals related by inclusion. It is strongly related to the dimension of
an algebraic variety, because of the natural correspondence between sub-varieties and prime ideals of the ring of the
polynomials on the variety.

For an algebra over a field, the dimension as vector space is finite if and only if its Krull dimension is 0.

Topological spaces

For any normal topological space X, the Lebesgue covering dimension of X is defined to be the smallest integer n for
which the following holds: any open cover has an open refinement (a second open cover where each element is a
subset of an element in the first cover) such that no point is included in more than n + 1 elements. In this case dim
X = n. For X a manifold, this coincides with the dimension mentioned above. If no such integer n exists, then the
dimension of X is said to be infinite, and one writes dim X = ∞. Moreover, X has dimension −1, i.e. dim X = −1 if
and only if X is empty. This definition of covering dimension can be extended from the class of normal spaces to all
Tychonoff spaces merely by replacing the term "open" in the definition by the term "functionally open".

An inductive dimension may be defined inductively as follows. Consider a discrete set of points (such as a finite
collection of points) to be 0-dimensional. By dragging a 0-dimensional object in some direction, one obtains a 1-
dimensional object. By dragging a 1-dimensional object in a new direction, one obtains a 2-dimensional object. In
general one obtains an (n + 1)-dimensional object by dragging an n-dimensional object in a new direction. The
inductive dimension of a topological space may refer to the small inductive dimension or the large inductive
dimension, and is based on the analogy that, in the case of metric spaces, (n + 1)-dimensional balls have n-
dimensional boundaries, permitting an inductive definition based on the dimension of the boundaries of open sets.
Moreover, the boundary of a discrete set of points is the empty set, and therefore the empty set can be taken to have
dimension -1.[5]

Similarly, for the class of CW complexes, the dimension of an object is the largest n for which the n-skeleton is
nontrivial. Intuitively, this can be described as follows: if the original space can be continuously deformed into a
collection of higher-dimensional triangles joined at their faces with a complicated surface, then the dimension of the
object is the dimension of those triangles.

Hausdorff dimension

The Hausdorff dimension is useful for studying structurally complicated sets, especially fractals. The Hausdorff
dimension is defined for all metric spaces and, unlike the dimensions considered above, can also have non-integer real
values.[6] The box dimension or Minkowski dimension is a variant of the same idea. In general, there exist more
definitions of fractal dimensions that work for highly irregular sets and attain non-integer positive real values. Fractals
have been found useful to describe many natural objects and phenomena.[7][8]

Hilbert spaces

Every Hilbert space admits an orthonormal basis, and any two such bases for a particular space have the same
cardinality. This cardinality is called the dimension of the Hilbert space. This dimension is finite if and only if the
space's Hamel dimension is finite, and in this case the two dimensions coincide.

In physics

Spatial dimensions

Classical physics theories describe three physical dimensions: from a particular point in space, the basic directions in
which we can move are up/down, left/right, and forward/backward. Movement in any other direction can be
expressed in terms of just these three. Moving down is the same as moving up a negative distance. Moving diagonally
upward and forward is just as the name of the direction implies; i.e., moving in a linear combination of up and
forward. In its simplest form: a line describes one dimension, a plane describes two dimensions, and a cube describes
three dimensions. (See Space and Cartesian coordinate system.)
 Number of
Example co-ordinate systems
dimensions

Number line Angle

Cartesian (two-dimensional) Polar Latitude and longitude

Cartesian (three-dimensional) Cylindrical Spherical

Time

A temporal dimension, or time dimension, is a dimension of time. Time is often referred to as the "fourth
dimension" for this reason, but that is not to imply that it is a spatial dimension. A temporal dimension is one way to
measure physical change. It is perceived differently from the three spatial dimensions in that there is only one of it,
and that we cannot move freely in time but subjectively move in one direction.

The equations used in physics to model reality do not treat time in the same way that humans commonly perceive it.
The equations of classical mechanics are symmetric with respect to time, and equations of quantum mechanics are
typically symmetric if both time and other quantities (such as charge and parity) are reversed. In these models, the
perception of time flowing in one direction is an artifact of the laws of thermodynamics (we perceive time as flowing
in the direction of increasing entropy).
The best-known treatment of time as a dimension is Poincaré and Einstein's special relativity (and extended to general
relativity), which treats perceived space and time as components of a four-dimensional manifold, known as spacetime,
and in the special, flat case as Minkowski space.

Additional dimensions

In physics, three dimensions of space and one of time is the accepted norm. However, there are theories that attempt
to unify the four fundamental forces by introducing extra dimensions/hyperspace. Most notably, superstring theory
requires 10 spacetime dimensions, and originates from a more fundamental 11-dimensional theory tentatively called
M-theory which subsumes five previously distinct superstring theories. Supergravity theory also promotes 11D
spacetime = 7D hyperspace + 4 common dimensions. To date, no direct experimental or observational evidence is
available to support the existence of these extra dimensions. If hyperspace exists, it must be hidden from us by some
physical mechanism. One well-studied possibility is that the extra dimensions may be "curled up" at such tiny scales
as to be effectively invisible to current experiments. Limits on the size and other properties of extra dimensions are set
by particle experiments such as those at the Large Hadron Collider.[9]

In 1921, Kaluza-Klein theory presented 5D including an extra dimension of space. At the level of quantum field
theory, Kaluza–Klein theory unifies gravity with gauge interactions, based on the realization that gravity propagating
in small, compact extra dimensions is equivalent to gauge interactions at long distances. In particular when the
geometry of the extra dimensions is trivial, it reproduces electromagnetism. However at sufficiently high energies or
short distances, this setup still suffers from the same pathologies that famously obstruct direct attempts to describe
quantum gravity. Therefore, these models still require a UV completion, of the kind that string theory is intended to
provide. In particular, superstring theory requires six compact dimensions (6D hyperspace) forming a Calabi–Yau
manifold. Thus Kaluza-Klein theory may be considered either as an incomplete description on its own, or as a subset
of string theory model building.

In addition to small and curled up extra dimensions, there may be extra dimensions that instead aren't apparent
because the matter associated with our visible universe is localized on a (3 + 1)-dimensional subspace. Thus the extra
dimensions need not be small and compact but may be large extra dimensions. D-branes are dynamical extended
objects of various dimensionalities predicted by string theory that could play this role. They have the property that
open string excitations, which are associated with gauge interactions, are confined to the brane by their endpoints,
whereas the closed strings that mediate the gravitational interaction are free to propagate into the whole spacetime, or
"the bulk". This could be related to why gravity is exponentially weaker than the other forces, as it effectively dilutes
itself as it propagates into a higher-dimensional volume.

Some aspects of brane physics have been applied to cosmology. For example, brane gas cosmology[10][11] attempts to
explain why there are three dimensions of space using topological and thermodynamic considerations. According to
this idea it would be because three is the largest number of spatial dimensions where strings can generically intersect.
If initially there are lots of windings of strings around compact dimensions, space could only expand to macroscopic
sizes once these windings are eliminated, which requires oppositely wound strings to find each other and annihilate.
But strings can only find each other to annihilate at a meaningful rate in three dimensions, so it follows that only three
dimensions of space are allowed to grow large given this kind of initial configuration.

Extra dimensions are said to be universal if all fields are equally free to propagate within them.

Networks and dimension

Some complex networks are characterized by fractal dimensions.[12] The concept of dimension can be generalized to
include networks embedded in space.[13] The dimension characterize their spatial constraints.

In literature
Science fiction texts often mention the concept of "dimension" when referring to parallel or alternate universes or
other imagined planes of existence. This usage is derived from the idea that to travel to parallel/alternate
universes/planes of existence one must travel in a direction/dimension besides the standard ones. In effect, the other
universes/planes are just a small distance away from our own, but the distance is in a fourth (or higher) spatial (or
non-spatial) dimension, not the standard ones.

One of the most heralded science fiction stories regarding true geometric dimensionality, and often recommended as a
starting point for those just starting to investigate such matters, is the 1884 novella Flatland by Edwin A. Abbott.
Isaac Asimov, in his foreword to the Signet Classics 1984 edition, described Flatland as "The best introduction one
can find into the manner of perceiving dimensions."

The idea of other dimensions was incorporated into many early science fiction stories, appearing prominently, for
example, in Miles J. Breuer's The Appendix and the Spectacles (1928) and Murray Leinster's The Fifth-Dimension
Catapult (1931); and appeared irregularly in science fiction by the 1940s. Classic stories involving other dimensions
include Robert A. Heinlein's —And He Built a Crooked House (1941), in which a California architect designs a house
based on a three-dimensional projection of a tesseract; and Alan E. Nourse's Tiger by the Tail and The Universe
Between (both 1951). Another reference is Madeleine L'Engle's novel A Wrinkle In Time (1962), which uses the fifth
dimension as a way for "tesseracting the universe" or "folding" space in order to move across it quickly. The fourth
and fifth dimensions are also a key component of the book The Boy Who Reversed Himself by William Sleator.

In philosophy
Immanuel Kant, in 1783, wrote: "That everywhere space (which is not itself the boundary of another space) has three
dimensions and that space in general cannot have more dimensions is based on the proposition that not more than
three lines can intersect at right angles in one point. This proposition cannot at all be shown from concepts, but rests
immediately on intuition and indeed on pure intuition a priori because it is apodictically (demonstrably) certain."[14]

"Space has Four Dimensions" is a short story published in 1846 by German philosopher and experimental
psychologist Gustav Fechner under the pseudonym "Dr. Mises". The protagonist in the tale is a shadow who is aware
of and able to communicate with other shadows, but who is trapped on a two-dimensional surface. According to
Fechner, this "shadow-man" would conceive of the third dimension as being one of time.[15] The story bears a strong
similarity to the "Allegory of the Cave" presented in Plato's The Republic (c. 380 BC).

Simon Newcomb wrote an article for the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society in 1898 entitled "The
Philosophy of Hyperspace".[16] Linda Dalrymple Henderson coined the term "hyperspace philosophy", used to
describe writing that uses higher dimensions to explore metaphysical themes, in her 1983 thesis about the fourth
dimension in early-twentieth-century art.[17] Examples of "hyperspace philosophers" include Charles Howard Hinton,
the first writer, in 1888, to use the word "tesseract";[18] and the Russian esotericist P. D. Ouspensky.

More dimensions
Degrees of freedom in mechanics / physics and chemistry / statistics

Exterior dimension Order dimension

Hurst exponent q-dimension
Isoperimetric dimension Fractal (q = 1)
Metric dimension
Correlation (q = 2)

See also
Dimension (data warehouse) Intrinsic dimension
Dimension tables Multidimensional analysis
Space-filling curve
Dimensional analysis
Mean dimension
Hyperspace (disambiguation)
Topics by dimension

Zero Three

Point Platonic solid

Zero-dimensional space Stereoscopy (3-D imaging)
Integer 3-manifold
Knots

One
Four
Line
Curve Spacetime
Graph (combinatorics) Fourth spatial dimension
Real number Convex regular 4-polytope
Quaternion
4-manifold
Two
Fourth dimension in art
Complex number Fourth dimension in literature
Cartesian coordinate system
Higher dimensions
List of uniform tilings
in mathematics
Surface
Octonion
Vector space
Curse of dimensionality
in physics
Kaluza–Klein theory
String theory
M-theory

Infinite

Hilbert space
Function space

References
1. "Curious About Astronomy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140111191053/http://curious.astro.cornell.e
du/question.php?number=4). Curious.astro.cornell.edu. Archived from the original (http://curious.astro.c
ornell.edu/question.php?number=4) on 2014-01-11. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
2. "MathWorld: Dimension" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Dimension.html). Mathworld.wolfram.com.
2014-02-27. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140325220941/http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Di
mension.html) from the original on 2014-03-25. Retrieved 2014-03-03.
3. Yau, Shing-Tung; Nadis, Steve (2010). "4. Too Good to be True" (https://books.google.com/books?id=vl
A4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PT60). The Shape of Inner Space: String Theory and the Geometry of the
Universe's Hidden Dimensions. Basic Books. pp. 60–. ISBN 978-0-465-02266-3.
4. Fantechi, Barbara (2001), "Stacks for everybody" (http://www.mathematik.uni-bielefeld.de/~rehmann/E
CM/cdrom/3ecm/pdfs/pant3/fantechi.pdf) (PDF), European Congress of Mathematics Volume I, Progr.
Math., 201, Birkhäuser, pp. 349–359, archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060117052957/http://ww
w.mathematik.uni-bielefeld.de/~rehmann/ECM/cdrom/3ecm/pdfs/pant3/fantechi.pdf) (PDF) from the
original on 2006-01-17
 5. Hurewicz, Witold; Wallman, Henry (2015). Dimension Theory (PMS-4), Volume 4 (https://books.google.
com/books?id=_xTWCgAAQBAJ). Princeton University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-4008-7566-5. Extract
of page 24 (https://books.google.com/books?id=_xTWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24)
6. Fractal Dimension (http://math.bu.edu/DYSYS/chaos-game/node6.html) Archived (https://web.archive.o
rg/web/20061027003440/http://math.bu.edu/DYSYS/chaos-game/node6.html) 2006-10-27 at the
Wayback Machine, Boston University Department of Mathematics and Statistics
7. Bunde, Armin; Havlin, Shlomo, eds. (2012) [1991]. Fractals and Disordered Systems (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=TCzwCAAAQBAJ) (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-84868-1.
8. Bunde, Armin; Havlin, Shlomo, eds. (2013) [1994]. "1. A Brief Introduction to Fractal Geometry 1.2.1
The Koch Curve" (https://books.google.com/books?id=dh7rCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3). Fractals in Science.
Springer. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-3-642-77953-4.
9. CMS Collaboration (2011). "Search for Microscopic Black Hole Signatures at the Large Hadron
Collider". Phys. Lett. B. 697 (5): 434–453. arXiv:1012.3375 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1012.3375).
Bibcode:2011PhLB..697..434C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PhLB..697..434C).
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017, CERN-PH-EP-2010-073.
10. Brandenberger, R.; Vafa, C. (1989). "Superstrings in the early universe". Nuclear Physics B. 316 (2):
391–410. Bibcode:1989NuPhB.316..391B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989NuPhB.316..391B).
doi:10.1016/0550-3213(89)90037-0 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0550-3213%2889%2990037-0).
11. Scott Watson, Brane Gas Cosmology (http://www-astro-theory.fnal.gov/Conferences/cosmo02/poster/w
atson.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141027144123/http://www-astro-theory.fnal.gov/Co
nferences/cosmo02/poster/watson.pdf) 2014-10-27 at the Wayback Machine (pdf).
12. Song, Chaoming; Havlin, Shlomo; Makse, Hernán A. (2005). "Self-similarity of complex networks".
Nature. 433 (7024): 392–395. arXiv:cond-mat/0503078v1 (https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0503078v1).
Bibcode:2005Natur.433..392S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.433..392S).
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13. Daqing, Li; Kosmidis, Kosmas; Bunde, Armin; Havlin, Shlomo (2011). "Dimension of spatially
embedded networks" (http://polymer.bu.edu/hes/articles/dkbh11.pdf) (PDF). Nature Physics. 7 (6): 481.
Bibcode:2011NatPh...7..481D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011NatPh...7..481D).
doi:10.1038/nphys1932 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnphys1932).
14. Prolegomena, § 12
15. Banchoff, Thomas F. (1990). "From Flatland to Hypergraphics: Interacting with Higher Dimensions" (htt
p://www.geom.uiuc.edu/~banchoff/ISR/ISR.html). Interdisciplinary Science Reviews. 15 (4): 364.
doi:10.1179/030801890789797239 (https://doi.org/10.1179%2F030801890789797239). Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20130414023125/http://www.geom.uiuc.edu/~banchoff/ISR/ISR.html) from the
original on 2013-04-14.
16. Newcomb, Simon (1898). "The Philosophy of Hyperspace" (https://archive.org/details/cihm_42903).
Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 4 (5): 187. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1898-00478-0 (http
s://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0002-9904-1898-00478-0).
17. Kruger, Runette (2007). "Art in the Fourth Dimension: Giving Form to Form – The Abstract Paintings of
Piet Mondrian" (http://ler.letras.up.pt/uploads/ficheiros/4351.pdf) (PDF). Spaces of Utopia: An Electronic
Journal (5): 11. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110929071218/http://ler.letras.up.pt/uploads/fi
cheiros/4351.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2011-09-29.
18. Pickover, Clifford A. (2009), "Tesseract" (https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA28
2), The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of
Mathematics, Sterling Publishing, p. 282, ISBN 978-1-4027-5796-9, archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20170330181025/https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA282) from the original
on 2017-03-30.

Further reading
Murty, Katta G. (2014). "1. Systems of Simultaneous Linear Equations" (http://www.worldscientific.com/
doi/suppl/10.1142/8261/suppl_file/8261_chap01.pdf) (PDF). Computational and Algorithmic Linear
Algebra and n-Dimensional Geometry. World Scientific Publishing. doi:10.1142/8261 (https://doi.org/10.
1142%2F8261). ISBN 978-981-4366-62-5.
 Abbott, Edwin A. (1884). Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions. London: Seely & Co.
—. Flatland: ... (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/201) Project Gutenberg.
—; Stewart, Ian (2008). The Annotated Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=mvE4DgAAQBAJ). Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-7867-2183-2.
Banchoff, Thomas F. (1996). Beyond the Third Dimension: Geometry, Computer Graphics, and Higher
Dimensions (https://books.google.com/books?id=cstzQgAACAAJ). Scientific American Library.
ISBN 978-0-7167-6015-3.
Pickover, Clifford A. (2001). Surfing through Hyperspace: Understanding Higher Universes in Six Easy
Lessons (https://books.google.com/books?id=LOUiWjsgue8C). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-
19-992381-6.
Rucker, Rudy (2014) [1984]. The Fourth Dimension: Toward a Geometry of Higher Reality. Courier
Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-77978-2. Google preview (https://books.google.com/books?id=Vgk7BAA
AQBAJ)
Kaku, Michio (1994). Hyperspace, a Scientific Odyssey Through the 10th Dimension. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-286189-4.
Krauss, Lawrence M. (2005). Hiding in the Mirror. Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-03395-9.

External links
Copeland, Ed (2009). "Extra Dimensions" (http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/dimensions.htm). Sixty
Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.

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