R.V.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BENGALURU - 560059

(Autonomous Institution Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum)

Design and Development of Flyback Converter

MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

2017-2018

Submitted by
T.Vignesh Nayak 1RV14EE055

Under the guidance of

Internal guide External Guide

SURESH C Harshil Patel
Assistant Professor R&D
Dept. of EEE Secure meters limited
R.V.C.E Bengaluru Udaipur

in partial fulfillment for the award of degree

of
Bachelor of Engineering
in
Electrical & Electronics Engineering
 R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BENGALURU - 560059

(Autonomous Institution Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the major project titled ‘Design and development of Flyback
converter Topology’ is carried out by T.Vignesh Nayak (1RV14EE055) who is
bona-fide student of R.V College of Engineering, Bangalore, in partial fulfillment
for the award of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical and Electronics
Engineering of RVCE, Bangalore. It is certified that all corrections/suggestions
indicated for the internal Assessment have been incorporated in the report deposited
in the departmental library. The project report has been approved as it satisfies the
academic requirements in respect of project work prescribed by the institution for
the said degree.

Signature of Guide Signature of Head of the Signature of Principal

Department

External Viva
Name of examiners Signature with date
1
2
 R.V. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BENGALURU - 560059
(Autonomous Institution Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum)
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

DECLARATION

th
I, T.Vignesh Nayak student of 8 semester B.E., Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, hereby declare that the project titled “Design and development of
Flyback Converter” has been carried out by me and submitted in partial
fulfillment of the program requirements for the award of degree in Bachelor of
Engineering in Electrical and Electronics Engineering of the Visvesvaraya
Technological University, Belgaum during the year 2017-2018.

Further I declare that the content of the dissertation has not been submitted
previously by anybody for the award of any degree or diploma to any other
University.

Place: Bengaluru

Date: Name Signature

1.T Vignesh Nayak

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Any achievement not only depends on the individual’s effort but on the
guidance, encouragement and cooperation of intellectuals, elders and friends. A
number of personalities have helped us in carrying out this project work. I would
like to take this opportunity to thank them all.

I am highly indebted to SURESH C, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Electrical and

Electronics Engineering, RVCE, Bengaluru for his guidance and constant
supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the project
& also for his support in completing the project.

I am also grateful to Dr. JAYAPAL R, Professor and Head, Electrical and

Electronics Engineering Department, RVCE, Bengaluru for the help he has
provided.

I would like to express my special gratitude to Dr. K. N. SUBRAMANYA,

Principal, RVCE, Bengaluru for providing this opportunity.

I also extend my cordial thanks to Secure Meters Ltd, Udaipur for providing
me an opportunity to carry out internship in its organization. I would also like to
thank my guide Harshil Patel (R&D, SML Udaipur) for his supervision. I am
very grateful to Mr. Venkata Srinivas (Hardware design, SML Udaipur),
Sumit Lohan(Hardware design, SML Udaipur), and Mr. Kamal Prajapati
(Application Engineering, SMLS Udaipur) for their constant help and support
without them this project would have been incomplete. A special thanks to
Florian Hämmerle (Product Manager, OMICRON Lab Austria) for his advices
regarding Bode 100.

I would express my sincere thanks to all the faculty members of department of

Electrical and Electronics Engineering for constant guidance and support.

I thank my parents for their constant support and encouragement. Last but not
the least I thank my peers and friends who provided me with the valuable input.

T.Vignesh Nayak
 R. V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru-59

ABSTRACT
The Meter which is connected to the electric network needs power controlling and
power conversion for its operation. Normally if the equipment is DC and input is AC,
rectifier is needed which sometimes will give a lot of ripple. Switched mode power
supply (SMPS) is used for effective conversion from AC to DC. SMPS has two
topology Isolated and Non-isolated. This thesis addresses Fly back converter which
belongs to isolated topology. This work addresses challenges faced in developing 20
W and two output fly back converter. Normally fly back transformer has only 75%
efficiency. In order to increase the efficiency it is necessary to decide the mode in
which converter should run among continuous mode, discontinuous mode and critical
conduction mode. Every mode has its own advantages and disadvantages. This work
addresses advantages of critical conduction mode and controller is chosen accordingly.

Reducing the switching losses MOSFET efficiency can be increased hence in this
work quasi resonant mode is adopted which is done by UCC28600 controller which
drives MOSFET. Transformer core must operate in near saturation region. Also
transformer must have less leakage inductance so that most of the energy transfers to
the secondary. Transformer parasitic parameters are calculated using the Bode 100.
Simulation of transformer was also carried out using Pexprt. Feedback design must be
proper in order to regulate the output voltage properly. Type 2 compensator is used to
give additional gain and phase margin. Snubber and clamp circuit were designed
properly to reduce transient and to limit the voltage across winding. PCB design was
carried out using Altium software. Circuit is tested for its stability using Bode 100 and
varied line and load condition to check for proper working. Simulation is done using
TINA-TI.

Test results shows more than 80% efficiency in full load condition for input voltage
from 85V AC to 265V AC. It also shows ripple voltage of 0.1mV and output
maintains 30V and 50V under variable load condition. Project work exhibits good
performance at low cost of less than 100Rs. This work justified the development of a
fly back transformer with high efficiency with multiple outputs.

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Table of Contents

Abstract……………………………………………………………………..................i

Table of Contents…………………………………………………………..……...….ii

List of Symbols………………………………………………………………..............v

List of Abbreviations……….…………………………….....……………..................ix

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………...…….xi

List of Figures……………………………………………………………..................xii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………….……....1

1.1 Switched Mode Power Supply..................................................................................1

1.2 Evolution of SMPS……………………………............................….......................2

1.3 Motivation.................................................................................................................3

1.4 Problem Statement…………………………………................................................4

1.5 Main Objective ……………………………………………………………….…....4

1.6 Methodology………………………………………………………….……….…...4

1.7 Organization of the report……………………………………………..………...…5

CHAPTER 2

FLYBACK TOPOLOGY…………..............…………………………………….…..6

2.1 Theory of flyback……………………………………………………………….....6

2.2 DCM and CCM…………………………………………………………………....8

2.3 Quasi resonant mode……………………………………………………………...10

2.4 UCC28600………………………………………………………………………..11

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CHAPTER 3

SYSTEM DESIGNING……………………………………………………………..14

3.1 Methodology…………………………………………………………………..….14

3.2 Block diagram and circuit…………………………………………………...........14

3.3 Specification…………………………………………………………………........15

3.4 Calculation of parameters on primary side……………………………………….16

3.5 Calculation of parameters of UCC28600………………………………………....21

3.6 Calculation of parameters on secondary side………………………………..........25

3.7 Transformer design.................................................................................................29

3.8 Core selection..........................................................................................................29

3.9 Transformer parameter calculation.........................................................................31

3.10 Losses in Transformer...........................................................................................34

3.11 Transformer construction......................................................................................37

3.12 Transformer Modelling.........................................................................................40

CHAPTER 4

CONTROL LOOP DESIGN………………………………………....…….…….…46

5.1 TL431…………………………………………………………………………......46

5.2 Type 2 compensator……………………………………………………………....47

5.3 Calculation of transfer function……………………………………………..……48

5.4 Calculation of compensator element values………………………………….…..49

5.5 Matlab results……………………………………………………………….….....50

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CHAPTER 5

HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION…………...…………………………….…...52

6.1 PCB Design…………………………………………………………………...…..52

6.2 Simulation results using TINA-TI…………………………………………..……55

6.3 Experimental setup…………………………………………………………...…...56

6.4 Results……………………………………………………………………….…....57

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE………………………………………..…61

7.1 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...61

7.2 Future scope……………………………………………………………………....62

7.3 Mapping of COs, POs, PSOs…………………………………………………..…62

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………..…..63

APPENDIX……………………………………………………………………..........67

APPENDIX 1………………………………………………………………………...68

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List of Symbols
α - Percentage regulation

η - Efficiency

AE - Cross section area of transformer

AL - Inductance factor

AP - Area product

AW - Window area of the transformer

B -Magnetic field

C - Capacitor

C1 - Compensating capacitor

C2 - Compensating capacitor

COut - Output capacitor

Csn - Snubber capacitor

Css - Soft charging capacitor

CVDD - IC supply capacitor

D - Duty cycle

E - Energy

Ff - Fringing factor

FP - Pole frequency

Fr - Ringing frequency

Fsw - Switching frequency

FZ - Zero frequency

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Iavg - Average current

IOut - Output current

IPripeak - Primary peak current

IPrirms - Primary RMS current

ISecrms - Secondary RMS current

ISecpeak - Secondary peak current

J - Current density

Ke - Electrical constant

Kg - Core geometry

Ku - Window utilization factor

Lleakage - Leakage inductance

LPrimax - Primary maximum magnetizing inductance

NP - Number of primary turns

NPb - Primary to bias turns ratio

NPS - Primary to secondary turns ratio

NS - Number of secondary turns

PFETSwitching - FET Switching losses

Pin - Input power

POUT - Output power

PSn - Snubber losses

R2 - Compensating resistor

RCs - Current sensing resistor

RL - Load resistor

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RLED - Series LED resistor

RP - Primary winding resistance

RS - Secondary winding resistance

ROVP - Over voltage protection resistor

RSn - Sunbber resistor

RSu - IC power supply resistor

Sd - Skin depth

T - Transfer function

ton - on time of MOSFET

tdemag - Time for demagnitization

tres - Resonance time

tss - Soft charging time

VCESat - Collector emitter saturation voltage of optocoupler

VCS(OS) - Current sense offset voltage

Vdd - Supply voltage of IC

Vdcmin - Minimum DC voltage

Vdcpeak - Peak DC voltage

Vdrain - Voltage on Drain

Vds - Drain to source voltage

Vf - Forward voltage drop

Vleakage - Voltage due to leakage inductance

VOUT - Output voltage

XL - Inductive reactance

XC - Capacitor reactance

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List of Abbreviations
AC - Alternating Current

BoM - Bill of Material

CCM - Continuous Conduction Mode

CS - Current Sense

CTR - Current transfer ratio

DC - Direct Current

DCM - Discontinuous Conduction Mode

EMC - Electro Magnetic Compatibility

EMI - Electro Magnetic Interference

ESR - Equivalent Series Resistance

FB - Feedback

GND - Ground

SOIC - Small outline Integrated circuit

LED - Light emitting Diode

MLT - Mean length Turn

MOSFET - Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

MOV - Metal Oxide Varistor

MPL - Mean path length

NTC - Negative Temperature Coefficient

OVP - Over Voltage Protection

PC - Personal Computer

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PCB - Printed Circuit Board

PExprt - Power Electronic Expert

PIV - Peak inverse voltage

PWM - Pulse Width Modulation

RMS - Root Mean Square

SMPS - Switched Mode Power Supply

SS - Soft Start

TINA-TI - Toolkit for Interactive Network Analysis – Texas Instruments

UVLO - Under voltage Lock Out

WUF - Window Utilization Factor

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List of Tables

Table No Description Page no

Table 2.1 Comparison between DCM and CCM 8

Table 2.2 Pin functions of UCC28600 11

Table 3.1 Input and output specification 16

Table 3.2 Capacitor values for desired ripple voltage 18

Table 3.3 Features of different core 30

Table 3.4 Standard wire gauge 33

Table 3.5 Transformer details 33

Table 3.6 Comparison between theoretical and practical values 45

Table 5.1 Efficiency of SMPS at various load and input condition 59

Table 5.2 Comparison between theoretical and practical values 59

Table 5.3 Cost analysis of the SMPS 60

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List of Figures

Fig No Description Page No

Fig. 2.1 Basic circuit of flyback converter 7

Fig. 2.2 Operational stages of flyback converter 8

Fig. 2.3 Waveform of DCM 9

Fig. 2.4 Waveform of CCM 9

Fig. 2.5 Waveform of quasi resonant mode 10

Fig. 2.6 D package 8 pin SOIC top view 11

Fig. 2.7 Model of UCC28600 under different line and load condition 12

Fig. 2.8 Operating mode of UCC28600 based on voltage at feedback pin 13

Fig. 3.1 Block diagram of entire system 14

Fig. 3.2 Complete circuit diagram with connection 15

Fig. 3.3 Fullbridge output voltage waveform 17

Fig. 3.4 Voltage across MOSFET when it is off 18

Fig. 3.5 Waveform of snubber circuit 19

Fig. 3.6 Components for UCC28600 22

Fig. 3.7 Circuit diagram of secondary side 28

Fig. 3.8 Diagrammatic representation of fringing effect 35

Fig. 3.9 Transformer winding machine 37

Fig. 3.10 Bobbin and transformer pin details 37

Fig. 3.11 Transformer winding method 38

Fig. 3.12 Primary winding(25 turns) 38

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Fig. 3.13 Secondary winding with output 30V(16 turns) 38

Fig. 3.14 Secondary winding with output 50V(26 turns) 39

Fig. 3.15 Primary winding(25 turns) 39

Fig. 3.16 Wire used to construct transformer 39

Fig. 3.17 Front view of Bode100 40

Fig. 3.18 Rear view of Bode100 40

Fig. 3.19 Measurement of primary resistance 41

Fig. 3.20 Measurement of secondary resistance with output 30V 41

Fig. 3.21 Measurement of secondary resistance with output 50V 42

Fig. 3.22 Measurement of primary inductance 42

Fig. 3.23 Measurement of leakage inductance 43

Fig. 3.24 Interwinding capacitance measurement test setup 43

Fig. 3.25 Measurement of Interwinding capacitance 43

Fig. 3.26 Simulation results primary winding resistance 44

Fig. 3.27 Simulation result of leakage inductance 44

Fig. 3.28 Simulation result of Interwinding capacitance and

self capacitance 45

Fig. 4.1 TL431 top view SOT23 package 46

Fig. 4.2 TL431 internal structure 46

Fig. 4.3 Type2 compensator 47

Fig. 4.4 Type2 compensator in actual circuit 47

Fig. 4.5 Bode plot of filter circuit transfer function 50

Fig. 4.6 Bode plot of compensator transfer function 51

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Fig. 4.7 Bode plot of system transfer function 51

Fig. 5.1 Schematic of circuit diagram 53

Fig. 5.2 PCB update 53

Fig. 5.3 PCB top layer 54

Fig. 5.4 PCB bottom layer 54

Fig. 5.5 Circuit diagram of SMPS flyback converter 55

Fig. 5.6 Simulation result 55

Fig. 5.7 Experimental setup for flyback converter 56

Fig. 5.8 Waveform at drain and snubber 57

Fig. 5.9 Waveform at supply pin of the IC 57

Fig. 5.10 Waveform at transformer pin 7 58

Fig. 5.11 Waveform at transformer pin 8 58

Fig. 5.12 Efficiency curves of SMPS 59

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This Chapter includes brief introduction related to AC-DC conversion, discussion
about isolated and non-isolated topology. Extensive literature survey on SMPS based
on Flyback topology and its modes of conduction, transformer design, and controller
design. It also includes research motivation, problem statement, methodology and
objectives that have been considered.

1.1 Switched Mode Power Supply

AC-DC conversion can be done by simple bridge rectifier but it adds more ripple to
the system and also it doesn’t regulate the output voltage. In order to regulate the
output voltage linear regulator is the best choice. But as the wattage increases the
efficiency decrease. So in order to increase the efficiency switching element is used
which switches between on and off but dissipates less energy. This is the fundamental
idea of Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS). Regulation of output voltage by
varying the duty ratio of switching element. Normally SMPS consists of 4 stages. First
stage is the rectifier stage in which there is full bridge rectifier and bulk capacitor for
reducing ripple. Next stage is power factor correction stage. It is optional normally it is
based on application. In this project power factor correction is not considered. Next
stage is switching stage where the topology is decided. At the end there is filter to
reduce ripple.[1]

SMPS has few disadvantages compared to linear regulator. SMPS is noise sensitive
and design is complex. Apart from these two disadvantage in most of the cases
industry prefer SMPS over linear regulator. Mainly two types of SMPS are there,
namely Isolated and Non-Isolated. Non isolated topology is simple and consist of
generally one inductor but it is not used in consumer product because of non-isolation.
Buck, Boost, Cuk are the best example of non-isolated topology. These topologies
does not provide isolation. Isolated topology normally consists of transformer or
optocoupler for isolation. Flyback, Push pull, forward are the examples of non-isolated
topology. Because of isolation it is preferred in charger and portable devices.
Normally in electric meter, isolation and multiple output are the main concern, flyback
topology is the best choice [2].

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1.2 Evolution of SMPS

Jean Picard et al[3] discussed about how flyback topology works in the real world. It
also discusses about parasitic element effect on Flyback Topology. This work shows
effect of leakage inductance and how to reduce it and different winding techniques,
selection of wires to increase the transformer efficiency. This work explains in depth
about cross regulation and how to mitigate it. This work explains effect of EMI, effect
of parasitic on current limiting feature and benefit of adding feed forward technique. It
also explains different snubber circuits and their effect on efficiency.

T-Y Ho M-S chen et al[4] discussed about different type of topologies and analysis
each of topology. It also discusses about flyback topology and how it works. The work
includes a design of Flyback converter. This work shows design consideration to take
in order to build efficient flyback transformer. This work also explains number of
ways to improve efficiency. It also discusses about active clamp, quasi resonant mode
and parasitic element which affects SMPS efficiency.

Lisa Dinwoodie et al[5]discussed quasi resonant mode. This work explores advantages
and disadvantages in quasi resonant mode and it explains practical difficulties in quasi
resonant mode. It explains how to select controller for quasi resonant mode and
explains about frequency fold back mode. Finally it gives design example to create
efficient Flyback converter.

Colonel Wm. T. McLyman et al[6] discussed about flyback transformer and it types. It
discusses about material property different core types and their advantage and
disadvantage. This work shows how to design transformer with high efficiency and
how to make trade off based on design consideration. This work shows different
techniques to reduce leakage inductance, interwinding capacitance and other parasitic
element. It also shows how to model transformer. It explains about selection of wire,
window utilization factor, effect of high frequency, effect of parasitic on transformer.
It shows different design example and design consideration to design a transformer.

Ray Ridley et al[7] discussed about snubber design. This work explains how design
RC and RCD snubber based on the system requirements. This work explains effect of
parasitic element on snubber. This work shows how the efficiency of power supply
can be affected by inappropriate snubber choice.

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Laszlo Balogh et al[9] discussed about MOSFET characteristics and their effect on
power supply. It explains MOSFET characteristics, parasitic capacitances, switching
losses. It shows how miller effect can change threshold voltage of MOSFET. It
explains different driver circuit direct drive circuit. This work shows how to vary
turn on and turn off speed of MOSFET and reduce switching losses.

Dan Mitchell et al[10] discussed control strategy for power supply. This work first
explains about control strategy for buck converter for continuous conduction mode,
discontinuous conduction mode. It shows different control algorithm and what is its
effect on power supply. This work shows how to design a stable system and
compensator for a given system.

1.3 Motivation

At end of 20th century household electronics grew rapidly. It contains non-linear load.
Nonlinear load injected harmonics into the grid and caused poor efficiency and power
factor. So the converting and controlling of electric power became major issue. At the
beginning of 21st century because of energy crisis efficiency of the electronic
equipment became important.

Most of the electronic gadgets needs SMPS which transfers AC to DC effectively.

Portable charger, adapter, hair dryer, trimmer, LED lighting Electric meter contains
SMPS. Especially in metering industry SMPS plays a major role. In India most houses
has electric meter. If the SMPS does not have good efficiency losses is high. So in
energy saving point of view SMPS plays a major role. So in order to save the energy
we need to reduce the losses. There are so many ways to reduce the losses. One by
reducing the standby power. Nowadays industries are moving towards low standby
power normally in meter low standby power is needed. SMPS goes to full load when
sending the data. Apart from this situation most of the time SMPS is on no load. By
choosing the right controller we can reduce this loss.

Transformer design must be proper so that it can have less leakage inductance.
Selection of wires based on calculation of current density, the way of winding.
Selection of core play an important role. Finally the switching losses. MOSFET must
have less switching losses this can be achieved by soft switching. These problems
need to be addressed so that is the reason this project has been taken up. By

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implementing all these we can implement high efficiency low cost flyback converter
with multiple output which can meet industrial standards.

1.4 Problem Statement

To design a SMPS based on a flyback converter topology for universal input (85VAC
to 265VAC) which has two output namely 50V & 0.1A (5W) and 30V & 0.5A (15W)
to give more than 85% efficiency with regulated output voltage and less ripple content.

1.5 Main Objective:

To design and develop Flyback which has two output with high efficiency and less
ripple.

 SMPS must be efficiently convert input voltage variation from 85VAC to

265VAC to the desired output voltage of 50V and 30V respectively with less
ripple.
 Output voltage must be constant irrespective of load.
 Simulation of circuit using TINA-TI software
 Development of highly efficient and cost effective SMPS.
 Development of hardware, testing and validation of integrated system.

1.6 Methodology
Based on literature review, flyback converter can be build which can be reliable, cost
effective, and efficient. The project is undertaken in order to increase the efficiency,
reduce ripple, maintain regulation irrespective of load regulation and mitigate cross
regulation.

Every design need input specification. In this project input range chosen as universal
input and output is specified as 30V and 0.5A (15Watt) and 50V and 0.1A (5Watt).
Quasi resonant mode is selected in order to reduce switching losses and UCC28600 IC
drives MOSFET. Reflected voltage considered based on stress on primary and
secondary side. Based on reflected voltage and minimum duty cycle transformer turns
is decided. Core selection done based on wattage and window area. After this
transformer constructed with interleaved winding to reduce leakage inductance. After
this leakage inductance measured and snubber design must be completed accordingly.
According to input and output specification input capacitor, output capacitor diodes
are selected. MOSFET selection is made based on voltage stress.

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Based on UCC28600 requirements current sense resistor, power limit resistor, line and
load overvoltage resistor selected according to electrical characteristics specified in the
datasheet. Finally closed loop design must be done. Type 2 compensator is selected to
give appropriate phase margin, gain margin and good dynamic response.

PCB design must done accordingly. PCB fabrication and components should be
mounted properly. Tests are conducted for universal input and different load condition
and results must validate against theoretical and simulation.

1.7 Organization of the report:

The report has been organized into various chapters and each chapter has been
explained briefly as follows:

Chapter 1: This chapter includes introduction to SMPS, Literature survey, objective

and methodology.

Chapter 2: This chapter deals with basics of Flyback converter, Different types of
conduction mode and its comparison especially about quasi resonant mode and
explanation about UCC28600IC and way it operates.

Chapter 3: This chapter focuses on Component selection such as diode, MOSFET,

capacitor, snubber calculation of the parameters for circuit design and UCC28600
design based on its electrical characteristics. It explains transformer design
completely, the parameters necessary for a design, the way it is constructed and
transformer modelling using Bode 100 and simulation of Transformer using Pexprt.

Chapter 4: This chapter explains requirements for a closed loop to be stable and
detailed design analysis closed loop system for SMPS using TL431 and optocoupler.

Chapter 5: This chapter gives how the PCB made using Altium, hardware
development and detailed analysis of the results obtained.

Chapter 6: This chapter gives the future scope of the project and summaries the
objectives achieved as conclusion.

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CHAPTER 2

FLYBACK TOPOLOGY

This chapter includes fundamental theory of flyback topology, how it works and
comparison of discontinuous conduction mode, continuous conduction mode and
detailed explanation of quasi resonant mode. It also gives explanation about
UCC28600IC, pin details of UCC28600 and its operation based on line and load
condition.

2.1 Theory of Flyback

Flyback topology is known for low efficiency, poor cross regulation, multiple outputs,
better isolation and low number of components. It is suitable for low wattage
application less than 200Watt. Normally notebook adopter, chargers, set up boxes,
electric meter uses this topology. Normally when it comes to isolated power supply
flyback has many advantages. First of all transformers gives isolation, separates
primary from secondary and avoids electric shocks which is really helpful in consumer
product. Transformer also helps in suppressing the ripple no need of extra filter circuit,
simple capacitor is enough. Even though it is called as transformer, in reality it is a
coupled inductor which is discussed later in Chapter 4. Flyback converter can
accommodate multiple output which can be used for many application. Based on turns
ratio output voltage can be step up or step down. Only limitation for number of outputs
is number of transformer pins. It has relatively less number of components compared
to other topologies. In mass production flyback has upper hand because of less number
of components and less bill of material. Even though there are problems related to
flyback such as efficiency, poor cross regulation which can be improved but
elimination is difficult. But proper design consideration can make flyback topology
highly efficient. Normally flyback topology consists of a transformer, MOSFET,
diodes and output filter. MOSFET is used for switching purpose which is driven by
PWM generator. Clamp circuit used for to clamp the overshoot voltage generated by
leakage inductance. Transformer is used for isolation, Energy storage and energy
transfer. At the output end capacitor are used to reduce the ripple. Output voltage
depends on the turns ratio of the transformer[1]. Based on the voltage and current

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rating component must be selected and other design consideration is discussed in

Chapter 4. Fig. 2.1 shows basic circuit diagram of Flyback topology [2].

Fig. 2.1 Basic circuit of Flyback Converter

2.1.1 Working Principle of Flyback converter:

Fig. 2.2 shows working of simple flyback topology. There are three stages in Flyback
converter operation. In the first stage MOSFET is switched on and the primary current
starts rising it raises to maximum value and energy is stored in this period between air-
gap of Ferrite core transformer. In this stage energy supplied on output is only by
output capacitor. Once the current reaches its peak value MOSFET switched off. In
the second stage energy transfer occurs. Once the MOSFET switched off, dotted end
become more negative compared to un dotted end. So on the secondary side diode be
forward biased and leakage inductance oppose this change, voltage overshoot occur at
the drain side of the MOSFET and it cause the ringing with MOSFET parasitic
capacitance. When all the energy transfers to the secondary side, in the primary side
parasitic component of MOSFET and magnetizing inductance forms a LC circuit
and start to resonate. So the next switching can be any time. It depends upon the mode
of the energy transfer[3].

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Fig. 2.2 Operational stages of flyback converter

2.2 DCM and CCM

Energy transfer can be happen in two ways. First one is Discontinuous conduction
mode (DCM) where all the energy transfers to the secondary side. Second one is
Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM) where part of the energy still remains in the air
gap when MOSFET again switched on[2]. These two have their own advantage and
disadvantage; it is tabulated in Table 2.1.

TABLE2.1 COMPARISON BETWEEN DCM AND CCM

Mode Of Operation Advantage Disadvantage

 No diode reverse  Large ripple and
recovery loss peak current
 Constant switching  Higher MOSFET
DCM frequency conduction loss and
 First Order system voltage stress
 High core loss
 Small ripple and peak  High diode reverse
current recovery loss
CCM  Low core loss  Low light load
 Better cross regulation efficiency

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Fig. 2.3 Waveform of DCM

Fig. 2.3 shows primary goes to zero then secondary current starts rising. So complete
energy transferred to the secondary.

Fig. 2.4 Waveform of CCM

Fig. 2.4 shows secondary starts rising when primary current is not zero. Energy is still
left in the transformer.

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2.3 Quasi resonant Mode

In order to overcome disadvantages of Discontinuous Conduction Mode, controller

must to do soft switching. There are many ways to do soft switching. In olden days
there is a dedicated resonant converter to detect when current goes to zero to initiate
next switching. This type of circuit increases bill of material. Quasi means something
similar so quasi resonant mode uses circuit parasitic ringing to initiate next switching.
Once the core is demagnetized completely MOSFET output capacitance and
magnetizing inductance forms a resonant circuit and starts ringing. In DCM next
switching can start at any valley and it causes a lot of switching losses. But in quasi
resonant Mode switching happens at first valley and MOSFET losses are square of the
voltage across drain to source, hence it reduces all the MOSFET switching losses. Fig.
2.5 shows waveform of quasi resonant mode. In the first valley MOSFET switches on
and reduction in MOSEFET switching loss. Quasi resonant mode has other advantages
too like less electromagnetic interference, better transient response. So the difference
is in the switching. Quasi resonant mode is soft switching, the frequency of the
oscillator is modulated and DCM is hard switching, oscillator frequency is held
constant[5].

Fig. 2.5 Waveform of Quasi Resonant Mode

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2.4 UCC28600

In order to do quasi resonant switching controller must detect valley, UCC28600 is the
IC which detects the valley and suitable for quasi resonant mode. Fig. 2.6 shows the
UCC28600 top view. UCC28600 works in green mode, frequency foldback mode
based on load condition. It also has overvoltage protection, over temperature detection,
under voltage lockout and power limit feature. It has low start up current which is
25μA. It is a PWM controller whose pulse width depends on feedback voltage[14].

Fig. 2.6 D Package 8 Pin SOIC Top View

TABLE 2.2 PIN FUNCTIONS OF UCC28600

Name Number I/O Description

Soft start pin. It helps starting the IC.
SS 1 I The rate depends on capacitor value. When fault
detected it discharges through internal MOSFET.

FB 2 I Feedback pin. It takes feedback from optocoupler.

CS 3 Current sense pin. It is used for over current protection

I for MOSFET and also for power limit.
GND 4 - Ground pin.
OUT 5 O Output pin drives the power MOSFET.
VDD 6 I This pin provides power to the device. It is connected
to auxiliary winding of the transformer.
OVP 7 I Overvoltage protection pin. It senses line and load
overvoltage.
STATUS 8 O Status pin can be used to disable PFC circuit.

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2.4.1 Operation of UCC28600

UCC28600 controller has different operating modes based on line and load condition.
It modulates both frequency and peak primary current. Fig. 2.7 shows operation of
UCC28600. At heavy loads from 100% to 30% controller have less switching
frequency so that there is more time for demagnetizing and it also reduces switching
loss. As the load decreases the switching frequency increase because less energy to
deliver. But it causes problem at light load because frequency is very high. So in order
to avoid this controller clamps frequency at 130KHz. When load is between 30% to
10% controller run frequency fold back mode. In which it modulate the frequency by
keeping the current constant. At very light loads controller clamps the frequency to
40KHz and run in Green mode or Burst mode to save the energy. In burst mode
packets or burst of 40KHz runs the MOSFET[14].

Fig. 2.7 Mode of UCC28600 under different line and load condition

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These line and load condition are determined by voltage at feedback pin. This
feedback obtained from optocoupler. It provides isolation to the circuit. Fig. 2.8 shows
different operating mode based on voltage on the feedback.

Fig. 2.8 Operating mode of UCC28600 based on voltage at feedback pin

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CHAPTER 3

SYSTEM DESIGNING

This chapter deals with system designing and component selection for the circuit
given. It also includes capacitor value calculation, diode and MOSFET rating
calculation, snubber calculation and required component values for UCC28600. It
explains transformer design completely, the parameters necessary for a design, the
way it is constructed and transformer modelling using Bode 100 and simulation of
Transformer using Pexprt.

3.1 Methodology

Based on the literature review Flyback Topology is developed.

 To operate in universal input and give high efficiency and reliable

 To give less ripple and load independent

To develop the proposed system following methodology is implemented:

1. Mentioning input specification and output specification

2. Calculation of input capacitor value, diode, MOSFET rating, designing of
transformer based on specification and calculation of snubber, UCC28600
parameters, output capacitor and feedback design.
3. Simulation of the circuit using TINA- TI.
4. Development of prototype, testing and validation

3.2 Block Diagram

Fig. 3.1 Block diagram of entire system

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Fig. 3.1 shows block diagram of Switched mode power supply using Flyback
converter. It has fullbridge rectifier, transformer, UCC28600, closed loop and output
filters. Fig. 3.2 shows actual circuit diagram of SMPS.

Fig. 3.2 Complete circuit diagram with connection

3.3 Specifications

In order to design a flyback converter specification of input and output are necessary.
Table 3.1 gives input and output specification. Any system can’t be 100% efficient but
based on literature survey flyback give 70% to 80% efficiency. In this project aim is to
achieve 85% efficiency. At the output ripple free is difficult to achieve. A reasonable
ripple needs to be there. Input and output is based on the application. Input frequency
is based on region of operation. In India grid frequency is 50Hz. In this project input is
selected as universal input design is based on minimum voltage which is considered as
worst case.

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Table 3.1 Input and output specification

INPUT SPECIFICATION OUTPUT SPECIFICATION

AC rms V min 85 DC voltage 30V

AC rms V max 265 DC current .5A
Frequency 47.5 to 52.5 DC voltage 50
Efiiciency >.85 DC current 0.1A
Output
Power .3V
23.529W ripple(ΔVout)
Power 20W

3.4 Calculation of Parameters on Primary side

In order to design 20 Watt SMPS input current must be known. This can be calculated
by calculating the input power. If output power is 20W then input power is given by
equation 3.1

Pout
Pin  (3.1)

Input power is 23.529W. Then input current is given by equation 3.2

Pin
Iavg  (3.2)
Vdcmin

Iavg = 0.260A

Based on the duty cycle peak current is decided. So in order find Dmax reflected
voltage is needed. Reflected voltage is the voltage reflected on the primary when
secondary is conducting. Reflected voltage also called as Flyback voltage. Reflected
voltage value also decides stress on MOSFET and secondary side. For example
choosing the higher value of there is higher stress on MOSFET. Choosing the lower
value there is more stress on secondary. Normally in order to reduce secondary side
stress high value is chosen. It depends on the output rating. Flyback voltage or
reflected is assumed as 95V.

Vreflected = 95V

Vmin = 90V

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Vreflected
DMax  (3.3)
(Vreflected  (Vmin  Vds ))

Dmax = 0.507

Iavg
Ipeak  (2  ) (3.4)
D

Ipeak = 1.02564A

D
Iprirms  Ipripeak 
3
(3.5)

Iprirms = 0.421A

Full bridge rectifier diode must withstand 0.421A. So peak inverse voltage for
fullbridge rectifier is equal to maximum input voltage which is 265V. For input
capacitor calculation ripple voltage value is needed. 20% to 30% ripple is allowed.
Normally input capacitor is electrolytic. Capacitor selection is difficult for less ripple.
Fig. 3.3 shows output waveform of fullbridge rectifier[4].

Fig. 3.3 Fullbridge output voltage waveform

Time instant when voltage across capacitor is Vmin

1 V
Tmin =  sin 1 ( dcmin ) (3.6)
(2   f ) Vdcpeak

Time instant when voltage across capacitor is VACMIN*√2

1 V
 sin 1 ( dcpeak ) (3.7)
(2   f ) Vdcpeak

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1 V 1 V
Tc  (  sin 1 ( dcpeak ))  (  sin 1 ( dcmin )) (3.8)
(2   f ) Vdcpeak (2   f ) Vdcpeak

Discharge time of capacitor is given by the equation 3.9

Tc  Td  10mS (3.9)

Capacitor value can be found out by using the equation 3.10

(2  Pin  Td )
C (3.10)
(V dcpeak  V2dcmin )
2

By substituting desired value of ripple, capacitance value can be obtained. Table 3.2

shows different capacitor value for different ripple.

TABLE 3.2 CAPACITOR VALUES FOR DESIRED RIPPLE VOLTAGE

VACMIN*√2 Ripple Vmin TC TD Value of

Capacitance
120.208V 30 90.208 2.298mS 7.701mS 57.40μF
120.208V 25 95.208 2.250mS 7.746mS 69.06μF
120.208V 20 100.208 1.862mS 8.137mS 88.59μF

So the capacitor voltage must be withstanding maximum voltage which

375V. Hence capacitor needed is 88.59μF and voltage rating of 375V.

MOSFET must withstand primary rms current and it must have low gate threshold
voltage. When MOSFET is in switched off condition the voltage it must withstand is
given below. Fig. 3.4 shows voltage across MOSFET in off condition[9].

Vdrain  Vmax  Vreflected  Vleakage  Vspike = 375 + 95+ 230 that is 700V.

Fig. 3.4 Voltage across MOSFET when it is off

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Losses in MOSFET are calculated below.

PConductionloss  Iprirms2R dson (3.11)

Rdson = 5Ω.

Loss =1.2Watt

Switching loss is calculated below.

Coss  V2DS (V  VFlyback )  IPripeak  t f

PFETSwtching  Fmax  [( )  ( Bulk min )] (3.12)
2 2

PFETSwitching =1.3015mW.

So total loss in MOSFET is switching loss + conduction loss.

Total loss = 1.2013015W

When MOSFET switch off, complete energy can’t be transferred to secondary because
of leakage inductance. Energy stored in leakage inductance needs a path. If snubber
circuit is not there, MOSFET output capacitance gets charged and destroys the
MOSFET. So the proper snubber design very important. Fig. 3.5 shows waveform of
snubber circuit. In order to design snubber leakage inductance value which is taken
from next chapter. Value of leakage inductance obtained is 4μH. Power in leakage
inductance must be completely dissipated in snubber circuit[7].

Fig. 3.5 Waveform of snubber circuit

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So the value of resistor is given by equation 3.13.

Vsn 2
Rsn = (3.13)
1 Vsn
((  L  I2 )  (Fsw )  ( ))
2 Vsn  (nVout )

Selection of Vsn is critical. Lower the value more slow commutation process. Higher
the value faster the commutation but it may degrade cross regulation. Generally two to
three times the reflected voltage value is acceptable. Hence Vsn = 250V.

Rsn = 119KΩ

To calculate value of snubber capacitor ripple voltage must be assumed. Value of

ripple voltage is 50V. Value of capacitance obtained by equation 3.14.

Vsn
Csn  (3.14)
(Vsn  Fsw  R)

Csn = 4.7nF

Power dissipation in snubber circuit is given by equation 3.15.

V 2sn
Psn  (3.15)
R sn

Psn = 0.33W

In order to know the value of primary inductance we must decide turns ratio and
switching frequency. Turn ratio requires little foresight on secondary side. In order to
reduce conduction loss in secondary diode must be chosen carefully. Turns ratio given
by equation 3.16

NP (VIN  VDS )  D
 (3.16)
NS (VO  Vfw )  (1  D)

NP
for 30V output is 3.15
NS

NP
for 50V output is 1.89
NS

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UCC28600 has ability to switch MOSFET between 40KHz to 130KHz. Inductance

value depends on duty cycle. So switching frequency is selected as 80KHz. Even
though quasi resonant mode has little dead time which is difficult to calculate. Hence
resonant time must be assumed to be 100nS in order to calculate duty cycle. And
according to conservation of energy, energy stored in on time must be equal to energy
transferred in off time. Using equation 3.17 and 3.18 TON can be obtained[14].

Tsw  t on  t demag  t res (3.17)

Vbulkmin  t on  Nps  (Vout  VF )  t demag (3.18)

TON = 6.186μS.

Hence duty cycle is 0.507

Value of primary inductance given by equation 3.19.

Vdcmin  Dmax
Lprimax 
IPri  Fsw
(3.19)

Lprimax = 570μH.

3.5 Calculation of parameters of UCC28600

UCC28600 has overvoltage protection, power limit, current sense, soft start features.
Fig. 3.6 shows component for UCC28600. Every input pin has its own electrical
specification based on that resistance value must be calculated. UCC28600 has under
voltage lockout, below 8V it won’t start. It checks all the line and load condition once
everything is perfect and at VDD pin 13V available, it charges the soft charging
capacitor and it checks the voltage at feedback pin based on that mode of the
controller is decided.

In the beginning current flowing from Rsu charge the CVDD in the next cycle
transformer auxiliary winding supply power to the VDD pin. Auxillary diode must have
less reverse recovery time in order to cope up with the switching. UCC28600 gets the
signal for thermal shutdown in high temperature. UCC28600 is sensitive to Rovp, RPl

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and Rcs values[14]. In order to calculate the resistances values we need to know the
primary to bias turns ratio which is given by equation 3.20.

Fig. 3.6 Components for UCC28600

Vout
Npb  Nps  ( ) (3.20)
Vbias

Npb = 6.25

VBulk
R ovp1  (3.21)
(Npb  Iovpline )

Iovpline = 450 µA

Rovp1 = 133.33KΩ

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Vovp
R ovp2  R ovp1  (3.22)
N
(( ps  (Voutshut  Vf ))  Vovpload )
Npb

Vovpload = 3.75 V

Rovp2 = 36.39KΩ

Current sense and power limit resistor are calculated as below.

Ipeak for low line = 1.02564A = IP1

Ipeak for max load = 0.2690A = IP2

1 1 Vbulk min
Ics(1)  0.5  (550mV  (  ) )
R ovp1 R ovp2 Npb  R ovp1
(3.23)

Ics(1) = 64.8195uA

1 1 Vbulk max
Ics(2)  0.5  (550mV  (  ) ) (3.24)
R ovp1 R ovp2 Npb  R ovp1

Ics(2) = 414.01uA

(Vpl  Vcs(os) )  (Ics(2)  Ics(1) )

R cs 
(Ics(2)  Ip(1) )  (Ics(1)  Ip(2) )
(3.25)

Vpl = 1.20V

Vcs(os) = 0.40V

Rcs = 0.875Ω

(Vpl  Vcs(os) )  (Ip(2)  Ip(1) )

R pl  (3.26)
(Ics(1)  Ip(2) )  (Ics(2)  Ip(1) )

Rpl = 2.25KΩ

Soft charging capacitance value can be found out once the soft charging time is found
out.

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(Cout  V 2out )
t ss min 
(2  Plim )
(3.27)

tssmin = 3.419μS

Cout (Vout  V)

t ssmin  [R load  ] [ln ]
2 (R load  Pout lim )
(3.28)

tssmin = 47.230nS

tssmin must greater of above two. So tssmin = 3.419μS

So the capacitance value given by the equation 3.29

t ssmin
Css  Iss [ ] (3.29)
Acs(FB)  (Vpl  Vcs(os) )

Iss = 6μA and Acs(FB) = 2.5

Css > 10.25nF

Equation 3.30 gives Rsu value.

Vbulk(min)
R su  (3.30)
Istartup

Istartup = 25μA

Rsu = 4.7MΩ

Calculation of CVDD and RVDD are done below.

 Nb V f  Ll  (CD  Csnub )
R vdd  ( )  ( ds1(os) QR (max) ) (3.31)
4  Np IDD  (CISS  Vout(hi)  fQR (max)

IDD is the operating current of the UCC28600 which is 20mA.

CISS is the input capacitance of MOSFET which is 350pF.

VOUT(Hi) is V(OH) of the OUT pin, either 13 V (typ) VOUT clamp or less as measured.

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Vds1(os) is the amount of drain-source overshoot voltage.

RVDD=48.32Ω

TBurst
Cvdd  (IDD  (CISS  Vout(hi)  fQR(max) )  (3.32)
VDD(burst)

TBURST is the measured burst mode period.

ΔVDD(burst) is the allowed VDD ripple during burst mode.

ΔVDD(uvlo) is the UVLO hysteresis.

CVDD = 1.432μF.

Tss
Cvdd  (IDD  (CISS  Vout(hi)  fQR(max) )  (3.33)
VDD(UVLO)

CVDD = 7.58μF.

CVDD must be greater of above two. Hence CVDD is 7.58μF.

3.6 Calculation of Parameters on Secondary side

First set of calculation are for 30V and 0.5A. It includes calculation secondary current,
diode rating calculation and capacitor rating calculation.

NP
Isecpeak   Ipripeak (3.34)
Ns

Isecpeak = 3.214A

Diode must withstand Peak inverse voltage of 151V which is given by equation 3.35.

Ns
PIV  Output  Vdcmax  (3.35)
Np

2  Iout  Ipeak
Isecrms  (3.36)
3

IOUT = 0.5A.

Isecrms = 1.039A.

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Output capacitor calculation requires three things.

 Value of capacitance
 Voltage rating of capacitor
 Equivalent series resistance (ESR)

dv
Iout  C (3.37)
dt

dV is ripple which is 0.3V

Cout = 60.77μF.

Iripple  Isecrms 2  Idcsec 2 (3.38)

Iripple = 0.910A

dV
ESR must be less than which is 329mΩ.
Iripple

At the secondary side, presence of leakage inductance cause voltage spike. Proper
design must be done in order to reduce voltage spike. Calculation of snubber resistor
and capacitor are shown below. Secondaary side leakage inductance given by the
equation 3.39.

Ll1
Ll2  (3.40)
NPs 2

Ll2 = 0.41μH

1
Fr  (3.41)
2   Ll  Cp

Parasitic capacitance value is 100pF which is obtained by transformer modelling

which is explained in next chapter.

Fr = 63.078MHz

By equating characteristic impedance to resistance oscillation can damped.

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R  Z  X L 2  XC 2 (3.42)

R = 60Ω

1
C= (3.43)
(2   Fr  R)

C = 88.41nF

Power loss in secondary snubber is calculated below.

Ll2  I2secrms
Power loss = (3.45)
2

= 0.22Watt

It also contains closed loop. Closed loop design is discussed in chapter 4.

So the same calculation goes for 50V and 0.1A.

Isecpeak = 1.944A

IOUT = 0.1A.

Isecrms = 0.360A.

Diode peak inverse voltage is 256V.

Cout = 21.85μF.

Iripple = 0.34A

ESR must be less than 1.445Ω.

Snubber calculation:

Ll2 = 1.08μH

Cp =100pF

Fr = 38.29MHz

R = 84Ω

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C = 180nF

Ll2  I2secrms
Power loss = (3.46)
2

= 0.070308Watt

It also has emitter follower circuit in the secondary side. Zener clamps the voltage at
50V and wattage rating of the zener is 3Watt. And emitter follower circuit regulates
the output voltage 50V. Calculations are shown below.

Fig. 3.7 Circuit diagram of Secondary side

Wzener
Izener  (3.47)
Vzener

Izener = 0.066A

Vout  Vzener
R (3.48)
Iz

R = 282Ω.

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3.7 Transformer design

This section includes selection of core and core material, calculation of wire gauge of
primary, secondary and bias based on current density, skin effect and proximity effect.
Calculation of core loss and copper loss. Measurement of the parasitic element of the
transformer by bode 100 and precision LCR meter, simulation of transformer using
Pexprt and comparison of theoretical, practical and simulated values.

3.7.1 Theory of Flyback transformer

Most important part in flyback topology is transformer. It decides efficiency, EMI,

regulation. Even though it is called as transformer it is a coupled inductor. Generally
in transformer when primary is conducting, secondary also has current flowing in it.
But in flyback transformer when primary is conducting secondary side won’t conduct.
It stores energy in air-gap. Once the primary stops conducting polarity of primary
changes, this changes polarity in secondary ad diode becomes forward biased. Then
energy transfer occur. This property distinguishes from other transformer. Flyback
transformer act like filter, gives isolation, energy storage and transfers energy to the
secondary side. Dot in the transformer shows where the winding started. Winding
strategy decides parasitic element.

3.8 Core selection

Ferrite core are generally used for SMPS design. Ferrite are black, brittle, hard and
chemical inert. There are two types of ferrite soft ferrite and hard ferrite. Soft
ferrites(which have low coercivity) are used in SMPS. General composition of ferrite

is (MO)m-(Fe2O3)n where M represents transition metals. Most popular composition

are MnZn and NiZn. NiZn has high resistivity suitable for application over 1MHz.
MnZn has higher permeability and suitable for application below 1MHz. In this
project N87(manufacturer EPCOS) which has MnZn as base material is selected. Core
shape also play a important role. Core and bobbin should be chose based on system
requirement such as physical height, weight, number of outputs and cost. Table 3.3
gives idea about how to choose core shape. In this project E core has taken because of
its low cost and tight coupling requirement[25].

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TABLE 3.3 FEATURES OF DIFFERENT CORES

Core Type Features

EE, EI Low cost, tight coupling
EFD, EFC Low profile
EER Large winding area, suitable for multiple output
PQ Large cross sectional area and expensive
ETD Suitable for high power
Selecting core size is not easy talk because there are many variables. Some magnetic
manufactures give guidelines how to select core size based on the system requirement.
In this project area product formula used which is given by equation 3.49.

4
Pout
A p  A w  Ae  ( ) 3 cm4 (3.49)
0.014  B  Fsw

Ap = 0.05856cm4

Or by core geometry approach selection of core size can be done.

First calculation of electrical condition, Ke.

Ke  0.145 Pout  Bm2 104 (3.50)

Ke = 0.261 10-4

Then core geometry can be found out by equation 3.51.

Energy2
Kg  (3.51)
(K e  )

Where α is regulation.

Kg = 0.06850 cm5.

Even though these are rough estimate. But it gives better picture how to select the core
size. Based on above calculation E25/13/7 (Manufacturer EPCOS) is selected.
Magnetics characteristics of E25/13/7 are listed below. Gapped core selected for
energy storage.

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Ae = cross-sectional area of the core = 52.5mm2

Aw = Window area = 174mm2

Ap = Actual area product = 0.09135cm4

Mean path length = 57.5mm

Weight = 16g

Airgap = 0.25 ±0.02mm

L
AL = Inductance factor =
N2
(3.52)

= 250nH

3.9 Transformer parameter calculation

Once the core is selected selection of wire plays an important role. Skin effect and
proximity effect plays a major role. Skin effect can be reduced by selecting the proper
wire size and proximity can mitigated if place the wire uniformly over the bobbin.
Wire selection must also consider the current it carries. Calculations are shown below.

2  E 104
J (3.53)
(Bm  Ap  Ku )

J = 700

Once the current density is known we can calculate the area of the wire. Current
flowing in primary already known from the previous calculation.

I
J (3.54)
A

A = 6.0428  10-4cm2

 D2
A (3.55)
4

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D = 0.0277cm

Skin depth of the wire at 80KHz

6.62
Sd  cm (3.56)
f

Sd = 0.0234cm

Inductance factor is already known. So number of turns on primary side is gven by

equation 3.57.

L
AL  (3.57)
N2

Npri = 48to get the proper turns ratio Npri become 50.

Current density on the secondary must be same. Turns ratio is already known. By
using these constraints we calculate the secondary number of turns and radius of the
secondary wire.

For 30V and 0.1A

A = 1.484  10-3cm2

D = 0.0277cm = 0.277mm

Nsec = 16

For 50V and 0.5A

A = 5.14  10-4cm2

D = 0.0255cm = 0.255mm

Nsec = 26

For auxillary winding

A = 2.14  10-5cm2

D = 0.00529cm = 0.0529mm

Nsec = 8

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Based on the Standard wire gauge Table 3.4 selection of proper wire gauge is made. It
plays as important role in determining the losses[6].

TABLE 3.4 STANDARD WIRE GAUGE

So above calculation are summarized in Table 3.5.

TABLE 3.5 TRANSFORMER DETAILS

Type Primary Seconadary30V Secondary50V Bias

Turns 50 16 26 8
Diameter 0.277mm 0.438mm 0.255mm 0.05219mm
SWG 31 26 33 47

Now we need to cross check whether theses turns can be accommodate in window
area of core. We need to calculate window utilization factor so that how much window
area copper wire is actually utilizing. Window utilization factor (WUF) is
multiplication of four factor.

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Ku  S1  S2  S3  S4 (3.58)

conductor area
Where S1  = 0.8
wire area

wound area
S2  = 0.78
usable window area

usable window area

S3  = 0.52
window area

usable window area

S4  =1
window area + inssulation

Ku = 0.33

Npri  Wirearea N  Wirearea N  Wirearea N  Wirearea

Area  (( )  ( sec30V )  ( sec50V )  ( bias ))  2 (3.59)
WUF WUF WUF WUF

Area = 50mm2

Actual window area = 174mm2

So we can accommodate all the winding in the given window area.

3.10 Losses in Transformer

Every transformer has losses which is divided into two part one is copper loss another
is core loss. Copper loss again divided into two type one is DC losses and AC losses.
Calculation limited only for core loss and DC losses. AC losses are difficult to find.
Even though AC losses are much more than DC losses[6].

Wire gauge is already known. By using equation 3.60 we can calculate the resistance
of the wire.


R p  MLT  Np  ( ) 106 cm (3.60)
cm

Where MLT is mean length turn which is obtained from bobbin geometry which is
equal to 3cm.

RP = 0.415Ω

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
RS  MLT  NS  ( ) 106 cm (3.61)
cm

For 30V output RS = 0.1932Ω

For 50V output RS = 0.291Ω

Bias winding resistance = 5.68Ω

Loss  I2  R (3.62)

Copper loss in primary winding = 0.375W

Copper loss in bias winding = 0.002272W

Total primary copper loss = 0.377W

Copper loss in secondary winding with output 30V = 0.2085W

Copper loss in secondary winding with output 50V = 0.1509W

Total secondary copper loss = 0.3594W

Total copper loss = 0.7364W

Field in the airgap is not be uniform. It bends at the edges. It is called fringing effect.
Fig. 3.8 depicts fringing effect very well.

Fig. 3.8 Diagrammatic representation of fringing effect

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Fringing factor need to be find in order to calculate magnetic field, B.

lgap 2 W
Ff  1  (( )  (ln( )) (3.63)
Ae lgap

Where W is length of the core window.

Ff = 1.158

IPeakpri
(0.4  Np  Ff  ( ) 104
B 2 (3.64)
MPL
(lgap  ( ))


MPL= .0575m and μ = 218 are obtained from datasheet.

B = 2.37T

Watt
 4.855 105  f 1.62  B2.62 (3.65)
Kg

Milliwatt
= 40.835
Gram

mW
Coreloss  ( )  Weight core 103 (3.66)
Gram

Core loss = 0.635W

Powerloss
Watt Density  (3.67)
Surfacearea

Watt
WattDensity = 0.0110 (3.68)
mm2

Trise  450  (Watt Density0.826 ) (3.69)

C
Trise = 10.8 (3.70)
Watt

Total loss = Copper loss + Core loss

Total loss = 1.3714W

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3.11 Transformer construction

Transformer construction determines leakage inductance, parasitic capacitance. So in

this project in order to reduce leakage inductance between two primary all the
secondary windings and bias windings are inserted. Transformer is winded using
transformer winding machine. Fig. 3.9 shows the picture of transformer winding
machine. Fig. 3.11 the winding construction. And starting of the primary winding must
dv
be connected to the drain of the MOSFET in order to reduce noise. And wires are
dt
spread uniformly over the bobbin to reduce proximity effect. Fig. 3.12 shows pin
details of transformer. Primary winding started from pin 3 and ended in pin1. Next
secondary (output 30V) winding started from pin7 and pin 6. Secondary (output 50V)
winding started from pin 10 to 9. Bias winding started from pin 5 ended at pin 4. All
winding are done in clockwise direction. Fig. 3.12, Fig. 3.13, Fig. 3.14, and Fig.
3.15 shows winding of the primary and secondary. Fig. 3.16 shows wires used for the
winding.

Fig. 3.9 Transformer winding machine

Fig. 3.10 Bobbin and transformer pin details

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Fig. 3.11 Transformer winding method

Fig. 3.12 Primary winding (25 Turns)

Fig. 3.13 Secondary winding with output 30V(16 turns)

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Fig. 3.14 Secondary winding with output 50V(26 Turns)

Fig. 3.15 Primary winding (25 Turns)

Fig. 3.16 Wires used to contruct transformer

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3.12 Transformer Modelling

In order to calculate transformer parasitic element Bode 100 is used. Bode 100 is a
USB controlled vector network analyzer. It produces frrequencies of different range
from 1Hz to 50MHz with different gain values form -30dBm to 13dBm. It has one
output and three input. Based on the requiremnt frequency must be set and gain by
using the Bode 100 analyzer suite. Transformer frequency analysis is done by varying
the frequencies from 10Hz to 1MHz by setting the proper gain value. Values are
calculated at desired frequency. For example DC resistance measured at low frequency
but leakage inductance and interwinding capacitance measured at 80KHz. Fig. 3.17
and 3.18 shows front and rear view of Bode 100.

Fig. 3.17 Front view of Bode 100

Fig. 3.18 Rear view of Bode 100

Below are figures of measured resistance and inductance values. In the Fig.3.19,
Fig. 3.20, Fig.3.21 resistance value started increse as the frequency increse because of
skin effect and proximity effect. Fig. 3.22 and Fig.3.23 shows primary inductance and
leakage inductance respectively. Fig. 3.24 and Fig.3.25 sows inter winding
capacitance measured by precision LCR meter. And simulation of the transformer
done using PExprt. Power Electronics Expert(PExprt) is an interactive, PC-based
design tool that uses analytical expression to design magnetic components such as
transformer and inductors.

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Fig. 3.19 shows measurement of primary resitance whose value is 0.478Ω.

Fig. 3.19 Measurement of primary resitance

Fig. 3.20 shows measurement of secondary resintance with output 30V whose value is
0.199Ω.

Fig. 3.20 Measurement of secondary resintance with output 30V

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Fig. 3.21 shows measurement of secondary resintance with output 50V whose value is
0.509Ω.

Fig. 3.21 Measurement of secondary resintance with output 50V

Fig. 3.22 shows measurement of primary inductance whose valueis 586μH.

Fig. 3.22 Measurement of primary inductance

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Fig. 3.23 shows measurement of leakge inductance whose value is 4μH.

Fig. 3.23 Measurement of leakge inductance

Fig. 3.24 and Fig. 3.25 shows experimental setup for measurement of interwinding
capacitance and value of interwinding capacitance is 49.43pF.

Fig. 3.24 Inter winding cpacitance measurement test setup.

Fig. 3.25 Measurement of interwinding capacitance

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Fig. 3.26 shows simulation result of primary winding resistance whose value is 0.4Ω.

Fig. 3.26 Simulation result of primary winding resistance

Fig. 3.27 shows simulation result of leakage inductance whose value is 2.30μH.

Fig. 3.27 Simulation result of leakge inductance

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Fig. 3.28 shows simulation of interwinding capacitance and self capacitance whose
values are 50pF and 3pF respectively.

Fig. 3.28 Simulation result of interwinding capacitance and self capcitance

TABLE 3.6 COMAPRISION OF THEORITICL,PRACTICAL AND SIMULATION VALUES

Parameter Theoritical Practical Simulation

Primary winding 0.415Ω 0.478Ω 0.4Ω
resistance
Secondary winding .199Ω 0.199Ω 0.1Ω
(30V output) resistance
Secondary winding 0.291Ω 0.509Ω 0.2Ω
(30V output) resistance
Primary inductance 570μH 586μH 570μH
Leakage inductance - 4μH 2.30μH
Interwinding capacitance - 49.43pF 50pF

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CHAPTER 4

CONTROL LOOP DESIGN

This chapter explains closed loop stability of the power supply. It gives the detailed
description about TL431, optocoupler, compensator design, how to get overall transfer
function of the system. At the end it also bode plots of the transfer function.

4.1 TL431

TL431 three terminal adjustable shunt regulator which VREF as 2.5V. It has good
thermal stability. Output voltage can be set between 2.5V to 36V. In some application
TL431 works beter than zener. Fig. 4.1 gives the pin detail. Fig. 4.2 shows how
internal structure of TL431.In the diagram inverting pin connected to internal
reference which is 2.5 V and non-inverting pin connected to output reference.
Whenver reference voltage increases output voltage decreases because it is connected
base of the transistor so its works like a opamp with negative feedback[24].

Fig. 4.1 TL431 top view SOT23 package

Fig. 4.2 TL431 internal structure

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4.2 Type 2 Compensator

TL431 need compensation to give desired response. Type 2 give good transient
response. VOUT is compared with reference voltage and this goes to error amplifier.
Error amplifier needed to give proper negative feedback. In this work
optocouplar(VO615A) used to give proper feedback. Fig. 4.3 and Fig. 4.4 shows
connection of type 2 compensator[10].

Fig. 4.3 Type2 compensator

Fig. 4.4 Type2 compensator in actcual circuit

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4.3 Calculation of transfer function

In this work UCC28600 IC is used and it operates in DCM mode. Small signal model
is used in this work to obtain trasfe function of the whole system. It consists of three
part.

 Duty production transfer function

 Filter circuit transfer function
 Compensation network transfer function

Duty production transfer function is given by equation 4.1

Vcomp (s) 5  R cs
 (4.1)
Is (s)  D

Filter circuit tranfer function given by equation 4.2

1
(R 01  )  RL
Vo (s) sCout 2
 (4.2)
is (s) R  (R  1 )
L 01
sCout 2

Where RL is load and R01 is equivalent series resistance of capacitor.

Open loop transfer function can be obtained by above two equations. Equation 4.3
gives open loop transfer function

1
(R 01  )  RL
Vo (s) Vo (s) is (s) sCout 2  D
   
Vcomp (s) is (s) V(s) R  (R  1 ) 5  R cs (4.3)
L 01
sCout 2

By substituting the values obtained from calculation we get below transfer function.

1.382  e06s2  0.009545s

T (4.4)
1.168  e05s2  0.00044s

Compensator transfer function is given by equation

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Vcomp (s) sR 2C2  1) 1 R  CTR

 ( )( )  pullup (4.5)
Vo (s) sR1C2 (sR 2C1  1) 1  sR pullup (C3  Copto ) R LED

4.4 Calculation of compensator elements

1.382  e06s2  0.009545s

T (4.6)
1.168  e05s2  0.00044s

Above transfer function has zero at 38Hz and compensator must cancel it.

In order to get values of C2, C1, R2 calculation of RLED is important. RLED plays
important role. If RLED value is very high TL431 can’t work properly and also reduces
signal dynamic feature.

(Vout  Vf  VTL431min )  (CTR  R pullup )

R Led  (4.7)
(Vdd  VCEsat  (IBias  CTR min  R pullup ))

R≤ 14.85KΩ

Assume RLOWER value to be 3KΩ

30  R lower
2.5  (4.8)
(R1  R lower )

R1= 33.3KΩ

RLED taken as 2KΩ.

From bode plot, in order to have crossover frequency of 3KHz, we need 18dB gain.

(Gmid  R1  R LED )
R2  (4.9)
(R pullup  CTR)

R2 = 87.37KΩ

1
C1  (4.10)
(2   Fp1  R 2 )

1
C2  (4.11)
(2   Fz  R 2 )

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1
C3  (4.12)
(2   Fp2  R pullup )

Zero frequency is compensate the open loop. One pole frequency determines the
crossover frequency. Other pole frequency for attenuate high frequency noise. Below
are the chosen values of zero and pole.

Fz= 38Hz

Fp1= 2KHz

Fp2= 40KHz

C1= 1nF

C2= 47nF

C3= 198pF

4.5 MATLAB RESULTS

Fig. 4.5 gives the bode plot of filter circuit whose zero must be cancelled by
compensator transfer function.

Fig. 4.5 Bode plot of filter circuit transfer function

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Fig. 4.6 shows compensator transfer function which shows high cross over frequency
which must be redued and phase margin must be increased.

Fig. 4.6 Bode plot of comensator transfer function

Fig. 4.7 shows overall transfer function which has phase margin of 88.1 degree and
cross over frequency of 2.23KHz. Gain margin is infinity so closed loop system is
stable.

Fig. 4.7 Bode plot of system’s transfer function

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CHAPTER 5

HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION

This chapter explains PCB designing, construction of the hardware, simulation results
using TINA-TI. It also has waveform of snubber, rectifier output, reflected voltage,
voltage across all pin of UCC28600 and output voltage. Thus, this chapter covers
information about the performances of integrated system, cost and comparison
between the proposed prototype and commercially available one.

5.1 PCB Design

PCB(Printed circuit board) design done using Altium software. Altium Designer is
a PCB and electronic design automation software package for printed circuit boards.
In this work double layer is constructed. Fig. 5.3 and 5.4 shows PCB top and bottom
layer respectively. There are few consideration to be made before designing the PCB.

 Earth path must be smallest to eliminate noise.

 All components of near UCC28600 must have less trace.
 Snubber on both sides must be very near to the transformer.
 Drain pin must be close to the transformer.
 Feedback path must be very small.

And in order to separate primary and secondary side there must be small creepage
distance. By considering all the above information PCB is designed. Before designing
the PCB all the information of the components must be known. Using Altium software
schematic of the circuit must be drawn. Once the schematic is done updating of the
PCB done using the option. All the components must be placed on the board according
to the creepage, clearance and based on system requirements. Creepage is the shortest
distance along the surface of a insulating material between two conductive parts.
Clearance is the shortest distance in air between two conducting parts. Once all the
components are placed routing must be done. Once all the components are routed
3dimensional PCB can be seen by pressing 3. In order to fabricate PCB gerber file
must be generated. Fig. 5.1 shows the schematic of the circuit. Fig. 5.2 shows PCB
update from the schematic[11].

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Fig. 5.1 Schematic of circuit diagram

Fig. 5.2 PCB update

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Fig. 5.3 PCB top layer

Fig. 5.4 PCB bottom layer

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5.2 Simulation results using TINA- TI

TINA- TI is free software by Texas instrument to design and simulate analog circuits.
Flyback converter is simulated using TINA-TI results are shown below. Fig. 5.5
shows circuit diagram of SMPS.

Fig. 5.5 Circuit diagram of SMPS Flyback converter

Fig. 5.6 Simulation results

Fig. 5.6 shows simulation results shows pulses at out pin, current sense pin, feedback
pin and overvoltage protection pin for 85VAC input. Soft start saturates at 6V. Output
increases till desired output voltage. Drain pin have voltage of input and reflected
voltage. VM2 shows voltage at bulk capacitor.

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5.3 Experimental setup

Experimental setup to implement flyback converter is shown in Fig.5.7 consists of

 Supply(85VAC to 265VAC)
 Switched Mode Power Supply(SMPS)
 Digital storage oscilloscope
 Multimeter
 Multimeter probes
 Oscilloscope Probes
 Load

Multimeter

Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Load

Multimeter Probes
Multimeter

Multimeter Probes
SMPS

Oscilloscope Probes

Supply

Fig. 5.7 Experimental setup for flyback converter

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5.4 Results

Results include all the waveform, efficiency at every load and input condition.

5.4.1 Wave form of SMPS at 85VAC input at lightly loaded condition

The waveform at drain and primary side snubber is shown in Fig. 5.8. At drain when
MOSFET is in off condition voltage must be input plus reflected voltage.

Fig. 5.8 Waveform at Drain and snubber

Fig.5.9 shows 16V at IC’s supply pin. Minimum supply needed for IC is 8V

Fig.
5.9 Waveform at supply pin of the IC

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Fig.5.10 shows output waveform at transformer pin 7 which is 30V.

Fig. 5.10 Waveform at transformer pin 7

Fig. 5.11 shows output waveform at transformer pin 10 which is 50V.

Fig. 5.11 Waveform at transformer pin 10

Table shows 5.1 shows efficiency at various loads, input voltages and ripple in each
situation. Table 5.2 shows comparison between theoretical and practical value and
table.

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TABLE 5.1 EFFICIENCY OF SMPS AT VARIOUS LOAD AND INPUT CONDITION

Load Input 85VAC Input 160VAC Input 240VAC Max Ripple at

Condition each condition
No Load 86% efficiency 87% efficiency 89% efficiency 3mV
Lightly Load 83% efficiency 86% efficiency 88% efficiency 1mV
Full load 80% efficiency 85% efficiency 87% efficiency 0.5mV

TABLE 5.2 COMPARISON BETWEEN THEORETICAL VALUE AND PRACTICAL VALUE

Parameter Theoretical value Measured value

IC supply 16V 16V
Tl431 reference 2.5V 2.5V
Transformer pin 7 30V 30V
Transformer pin 10 50V 50V

Fig. 5.12 shows how efficiency varies with various condition. Efficiency is difficult
increase beyond 93% so based on the application tade off must be done.

Efficiency curves
99
96
93
Efficiency

90 88
87 86

84 83

81
78
75
Input 85Vac Input 160Vac Input 240Vac
Input Voltage

No load Light Load Full load

Fig. 5.12 Effciency curves of SMPS

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Fig. 5.3 shows expenditure of the project to build 10 similar SMPS. So in mass
production cost comes down to below 100Rs.

TABLE 5.3 COST ANALYSIS OF THE SMPS

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CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

The proposed prototype is competitive in both performance and cost. However, there
is still scope for improvisation. This chapter concludes this project and also discusses
about areas which can be improvised further.

6.1 Conclusion

This project has three stages.

 Calculation of the component based on specification

 Transformer design
 PCB design and hardware implementation

Every power supply need to have high efficiency, long life and good performance.
Switched mode power supply is the heart of any electric meter. In this project
universal input is taken and it is shown that it can work satisfactorily in any condition.
Every flyback converter has transformer which contributes more losses. In order to
reduce losses sandwiched winding is done to reduce leakage inductance. Selection of
proper wire gauges based on skin and proximity effect, in order to reduce the
transformer losses. MOSFET switching losses reduced by using the quasi resonant
mode operation. Selection of proper value of diode, resistor and capacitor in order to
increase the efficiency. In this all the above mentioned points are implanted in order to
increase the efficiency.

To get better dynamic response type 2 compensator is used. Ripple is reduced. PCB
design is done based on the consideration of parasitic and to reduce unwanted noise.
For all condition from light load to full load tight regulation is achieved by closed loop
system and emitter follower configuration. In order to protect circuit from surges
Metal Oxide Varistor(MOV) is connected parallel to the input. At the input side to
limit inrush current two negative temperature coefficient(NTC) thermistor are applied.
These above techniques increases the efficiency, achieve tight load regulation, less
ripple and gives stable response.

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6.2 Future Scope

The successful working of the proposed prototype has an efficiency of about 85%, is
cost effective and competitive to its commercial counterparts and sustainable. But it
still needs improvement.

The scopes of this project in the future are as follows.

1. Adding PFC circuit to the existing circuit in order to improve the power
quality.
2. Reducing the standby power of SMPS to increase the efficiency at no load.
3. On the secondary side implementing synchronous rectifier efficiency can be
increased further.
4. Four layer PCB design for reducing the emission and noise.
5. Implementing CCM, peak current reduces and efficiency can be increased.
6. Development of primary side sensing in order to reduce BoM.

6.3 Mapping of COs, POs, PSOs

Course Outcomes

 Successful understanding of literature review, work done in the field and

problem definition.
 Successful implementation of a methodology using tools like PExprt, Altium
and TINA- TI.
 Successful designing and developing the model and interpreting the desired
results.
 Learnt preparing quality document of project work for publications, patenting
and final thesis.

Design and Implementation of Flyback Converter

POs and PSOs
PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 3

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REFERENCES

[1].Brown, Marty, “Power Supply Cookbook”, Woburn, Massachusetts, Second

Edition, Newnes, 2001.

[2].S. Howimanporn; C. Bunlaksananusorn "Performance comparison of continuous

conduction mode (CCM) and discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) flyback
converters" in Proc. IEEE Power Electronics and Drive Systems Conf. 2003 Vol.2 pp.
1434 - 1438.

[3].Jean Picard, “Under the Hood of Flyback SMPS Designs”, 2010-2011 Texas
Instruments Power Supply Design Seminar 2010-11, Texas, Topic 1 TI Literature
Number: SLUP3303.

[4].T-Y Ho M-S chen, C-Hsien Lin D &amp, A C-W chang "The design of a flyback
converter based on simulation" IEEE on Power Electronics 2011.

[5].Lisa Dinwoodie, “Exposing the Inner Behaviour of a Quasi-Resonant Flyback

Converter”, 2012 Texas Instruments Power Supply Design Seminar SEM2000, Texas,
Topic 3 TI Literature Number: SLUP302.

[6].Colonel Wm. T. McLyman, “Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook”, CRC

Press, Fourth Edition-2011.

[7].Ray Ridley, “Snubber Design”, Switching Power supply journal, Part XII, 2005.

[8].M. Milanovic J. Korelic A. Hren F. Mihalic P. Slibar "The RC-RCD clamp circuit
for fly-back converter" in Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on
Industrial Electronics 2005 Vol. 2 pp. 547- 552.

[9].Laszlo Balogh, “Fundamentals of MOSFET and IGBT Gate Driver Circuits”,

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[11].Pressman, Abraham I. “Switching Power Supply Design”, New York: McGraw-

Hill, Inc., fourth edition 2006.

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 R. V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru-59

[12].Basso, Christophe. “The Dark Side of Flyback Converters”, APEC 2011.

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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, 2017-2018 Page 64

 R. V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru-59

APPENDIX

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 R. V. College of Engineering, Bengaluru-59

APPENDIX 1

MATLAB CODE

Rcs = 0.875;

D = 0.507;

n = 3.12;

RL = 60;

C = 440e-6;

Resr = 329e-3;

R2 = 87370;

C2 = 47e-9;

R1 = 33000;

C1 = 1500e-12;

Rpullup =20000;

C3 = 198e-12;

Copto = 10e-12;

Rled = 1000;

CTR =.3;

s = tf('s');
M =(n*D)/(5*Rcs);
A = (((M)*RL*(Resr+(1/(s*C))))/(RL+Resr+(1/(s*C))));
bode(A)
margin(A)
hold on
B=((s*R1*C2)*((s*R2*C1)+1))*(1+(s*Rpullup*(C3+Copto)))*Rled;
F = (((s*R2*C2)+1)*Rpullup*CTR);
bode(F/B)
margin(F/B)
hold on
H =(A*F)/B;
bode(H)
hold on
margin(H)

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Flyback Converter
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4
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5
U. Suprabha Padiyar, Vedavyasa Kamath.
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6
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D.D.C. Lu, D.K.W. Cheng, Y.S. Lee. "A single-
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