Mohammad Ali Jinnah University

Department of Electrical and Computer

Engineering

Universal Input, 500-W CC/CV e-Bike

Charger Reference Design
Zeeshan Ali (FA20-BEEE-0003)
Shaikh Masood Khan (FA20-BEEE-0003)

Prof. Dr. Kashif Ishaque Professor and Dean Faculty of

Engineering

A project report submitted to the Department of Electrical

and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Mohammad Ali Jinnah University in partial fulfillment of the
degree of Bachelor of Electrical Engineering

Spring 2024
I would love to share my wholehearted appreciation to my outstanding parents
for their unlimited love and consistent support, which have been the
foundation of my educational course. I highly think that their generous acts
have played an important role in encouraging me to keep progressing, and
their words of inspiration have actually been a substantial resource of
inspiration. To the devoted faculty instructors, your support has actually
played a crucial role in shaping my understanding and cultivating my
scholastic growth. I such as to consider you as beacons of expertise,
brightening the path to success. Your vigorous efforts and informative
mentorship have actually been indispensable to my advancement. As I pen
down this devotion, I cannot aid however acknowledge that this success is a
cumulative one. I appreciate and am grateful for the duty both my parents and
teachers have actually played in my success. This dedication is a little token of
my immense appreciation and affection for those who have been my directing
lights.
 Statement of Originality

I hereby certify that the work embodied in this project report is the result of original results and
has not been submitted for a higher degree to another university or institution.

_______________
Date

Zeeshan Ali

Shaikh Masood Khan

Dr. Kashif Ishaque

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ii
 Acknowledgements

We extend my deepest gratitude to Prof. Dr. Kashif Ishaque, Professor and Dean of the Faculty
of Engineering at Mohammad Ali Jinnah University, for his invaluable guidance, insightful
critiques, and unwavering support throughout the duration of this project. I am also thankful
for the dedication and support of my project partner, Shaikh Masood Khan. Collaborating with
him on this challenging endeavor has been both enriching and inspiring. Special thanks to the
technical staff of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering for their assistance
in providing the necessary equipment and materials that were essential for the successful
completion of our project. I appreciate the contributions of all who supported me in any respect
during the completion of the project.

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iv
 Table of Contents

Statement of Originality................................................................................................................i

Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................................iii

Table of Contents.........................................................................................................................v

List of Tables............................................................................................................................viii

List of Figures..............................................................................................................................9

List of Abbreviations..................................................................................................................10

List of Symbols..........................................................................................................................11

Abstract......................................................................................................................................13

Introduction................................................................................................................................14

1.1. Background......................................................................................................................14

1.2. Motivation.......................................................................................................................15

1.3. Problem Statement...........................................................................................................15

1.4. Contributions...................................................................................................................16

1.5. Complex Engineering Problem.......................................................................................18

Literature Review.......................................................................................................................20

Methodology..............................................................................................................................24

3.1. Methodology................................................................................................................24

3.2 Hardware Components.................................................................................................26

3.3 Software Used:.............................................................................................................29

3.4 Mathematics of the Project...........................................................................................29

Results........................................................................................................................................31

Results....................................................................................................................................31

4.1. PFC pre regulator.........................................................................................................31

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 4.2. Auxiliary Flyback........................................................................................................36

4.3. LLC Converter.........................................................................................................39

Conclusion and Future Work.....................................................................................................41

5.1. Future Work.................................................................................................................41

5.2. PFC Section Enhancements.........................................................................................41

5.3. Maintaining the Auxiliary Flyback Converter.............................................................41

5.4 LLC Stage Optimization...............................................................................................41

References..................................................................................................................................43

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vii
 List of Tables

Table 1.1. Sustainable Development Goals

Table 1.2. Complex Engineering Problem Attributes

viii
 List of Figures

Fig 3.1. Project Workflow

Fig 3.2 DC-DC conversion Stage
Fig 3.3 PFC Circuit
Fig 3.4 High efficiency transformer
Fig 3.6 Flowchart
Fig 4.1 A Typical EMI Filter Action
Fig 4.2 Schematic Diagram of PFC Boost Stage
Fig 4.3 PCB Layout of PFC Boost Stage
Fig 4.4 3D Diagram of PFC Boost Stage
Fig 4.5 PFC Controller or Power Factor Correction Controller
Fig 4.6 Schematic Diagram of Auxiliary Flyback Stage
Fig 4.7 PCB Layout of Auxiliary Flyback Stage
Fig 4.8 3D Top view PCB Layout of Auxiliary Flyback Stage
Fig 4.9 3D Bottom view PCB Layout of Auxiliary Flyback Stage
Fig 4.10 Top view Assembled PCB Layout of Auxiliary Flyback Stage
Fig 4.11 Bottom view Assembled PCB Layout of Auxiliary Flyback Stage
Fig 4.12 Schematic Diagram of LLC Stage

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 List of Abbreviations

CC Constant Current / Constant Voltage

PFC Power Factor Correction
LLC Inductor-Inductor-Capacitor
VAC Volts Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
BMS Battery Management System
EV Electric Vehicle
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
IC Integrated Circuit
VDR Voltage Divider Resistor
MOSFET Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-
Effect Transistor
IoT Internet of Things
CSR Cold Storage Room
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
RMS Root Mean Square
PCB Printed Circuit Board
FET Field-Effect Transistor
SMPS Switch-Mode Power Supply
AC Alternating Current

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 List of Symbols
α Damping Ratio
η Noise
ℎ(n) Impulse Response
Vin Voltage Input
Vout Voltage Output
Iin Current Input
Iout Current Output
Pin Power Input
Pout Power Output
Z Impedance
R Resistance
C Capacitance
L Inductance
F Frequency
T Temperature
Φ Phase Angle
ω Angular Frequency
Ecap Capacitor Energy
Q Charge
Vth Threshold Voltage
Μ Mobility of Charge Carriers
ϵ Dielectric Constant

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 Abstract
The growing popularity of electric bikes known as e-bikes calls for the development of a
charging system with higher adaptability to the variable power supply. This project report
discusses the design, implementation and evaluation of the proposed universal input, 500
watt constant current and constant voltage (CC/CV) e-bike charging circuit that can cater
these requirements with advantages in terms of high performance and flexibility. The
conventional chargers for e-bikes contain some drawbacks of its efficacy and compatibility
depending on the levels of voltage inputs leading to slower charging and could harm the
battery beyond a certain extent. This charger is intended to address these issues by using
modern advancement to optimize performance while at the same time improving the
usability. The charger design assimilates two features, namely the PFC and the LLC resonant
converter. PFC is applied for correction of power factor ad reduction of harmonic distortion,
and therefore increasing the energy efficiency of circuits. The LLC resonant converter is
selected because this type of converter offers high efficiency and on the same time can offer
stable operation for different loads. All these features make it possible for the charger to
operate at a very wide range of input voltage of between 90 and 264VAC, to suit the different
world standards of power. The development process included simulations and tested the
charger capability with a real load and in different situations. In this design, simulation
techniques were used in order to mimic the charger and determine its performance behavior.
The fateful prototype is subjected then to further testing to determine its performance and
safety as well as its dependability. The charger was found to be having an efficiency which
ranged from 90.9% to 95.8% and this was considered to be much higher as compared to that
of the commercial e-bike chargers. Overvoltage, overcurrent and thermal protection circuits
are included to protect the charger besides protecting the battery against any threat in
conformity to safety standards. The findings of this project prove that the future of e-bike
charging systems lies in the applicability of contemporary power electronic solutions. The
findings derived from this project point to this project’s potential to inform future charges of
charge technology to advance sustainable and efficient transport systems.

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 1
Introduction
Following the raise of usage of electric bicycles (e-bikes) as an environmentally friendly
means of transportation, there has been a tremendous requirement for adequate and effective
charging solutions. To this need, this reference design offers a flexible and high efficiency
charging circuit for 500W constant current/constant voltage (CC/CV) e-bike charger. Having
flexible input voltage means that this charger can easily work in different countries of the
world making it very useful and versatile. It can accept power inputs from standard AC
outlets feasible in the global market, and with the 500-W power rating, it charges e-bike
batteries efficiently and most importantly within the shortest time possible. This charger uses
various power conversion techniques to serve efficiency and to shorten the charging period
thus benefiting the consumer. Its CC/CV charging profile is designed to deliver charging
safely and efficiently where charging is done at a constant current until the battery voltage
reaches a given voltage where it is charged at a constant voltage to avoid over charging. This
design does not only enhance the performance and durability of e-bike batteries, it also helps
in establishing a sustainable and effective system for e-bike charging. This gives this 500-W
CC/CV e-bike charger a great advancement in e-bike charging since it meets some of the
essential attributes that should be met in e-bike charging more so the efficiency, reliability,
and compatibility of the charger internationally.

1.1. Background
EVs can be considered as one of the most significant innovation in the transformation of shift
towards cleaner modes of transport with the ultimate goal of cutting emissions and earth’s
dependence on fossil fuels. This change, however, depends of proper, efficient, and fast
charging technologies that are on par with the advancement and popularization of EVs. With
more people buying EV’s such as electric bicycles, commonly referred to as e bikes, there is
a need to embrace the use of effective charging systems and solutions. E-bike chargers also
have to meet the required charging rates and safety standards of the world among which
adaptability to different power sources. This calls for designs that are not only globally
compatible with different power types, but also friendly designs with high efficiency. These
needs are met by the recent creation of universal input, 500-W CC/CV e-bike chargers. These

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chargers are provided to offer the best charging solution to e-bike as to improve the ease of
using e-bikes. They incorporate superior technologies in the power conversion they promote
high efficiency and short charging times of e-bikes towards the general achievement of the
green mobility policy.

1.2. Motivation
Present charging networks are usually inadequate to meet the requirement of modern electric
vehicles (EVs) in the aspect of efficiency and charging time. Conventional EV chargers can
entail considerable power losses, poor rate of charge, and poor versatility when it comes to
the demand of high power. These limitations are also the causes of increased use of energy
and charging time as well as added pressure on the electrical grid. As solar, wind and other
renewable energy sources are incorporated into the grid, the integration issues of current form
of EV charging technology come into the limelight. Non-efficient chargers are costly to
manage and much less efficient than other charging systems, and therefore would prove
cumbersome to manage supply and demand within the grid. Also, most chargers available in
the market are conventional chargers which are very slow to charge the EV battery, and this
hinders the target consumer and slows the advancement of the environment friendly
transportation method. To overcome these problems, there is a strong demand for new high
efficiency, short charge time, and accurate charging capable charging solutions. Such steps
have now been made in this direction where creation of a 500-W, CC/CV e-bike charger
universal input is an excellent example. It aims at increasing the efficiency of charging as
well as versatility, which in turn will lessen the pressure on the grid, decrease costs and
enhance the experience of such consumers as e-bike users.

1.3. Problem Statement

The enhancing popularity of Electric vehicles (EVs), especially electric bicycles (e-bikes),
makes it imperative to look at ways to charge the systems or batteries efficiently, faster and
with optimum reliability. Still, there are several issues that exist with the current charging
infrastructure the perception of which hinders the support of this growing demand. Most of
the first-generation chargers for EVs possess high energy losses, long charging times, and
low flexibility as regards the power supply and high-power capabilities. These issues lead to
the high energy usage, long charging times as well as added stress to the electric network.
Furthermore, with the growing roll out of renewable energy sources, current EV charging
technology integration issues are exacerbated as seen in the electrical grid. This also
complicates the issues of match with load and other acting characteristics that have

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significant implications on the macro level of the grid. The initial charging rates standing low
also reduce the chances of people opting for EVs hence slowing down the shift towards
cleaner transport systems. To solve such issues, it is high time to introduce high-performance
charging technologies that would provide better efficiency, shorter charging time, and
compatibility with different power supply. These issues are addressed in the development of a
500-W CC/CV e-bike charger with universal input as a solution for the increased e-bike
market demand and more efficient and resilient charging system.

1.4. Contributions
This research focuses on dissecting and improving a smart EV charger originally developed
by Texas Instruments, breaking it down into three main components: These are the Power
Factor Correction (PFC) pre-regulator, auxiliary flyback supply as well as the LLC converter.
These average current components will be improved through the proposed advanced power
converter topologies and control techniques to create future charging systems with better
charging performance capabilities. In this case, by enhancing the PFC pre-regulator, then the
research aims at attaining higher values of power factor and low levels of harmonic distortion
that will help to conserve energy as advocated for by almost all countries across the globe.
Improvements made to flyback auxiliary supply is designed to deliver more stable source of
power to the charger control circuits and other auxiliary uses. Objectives of LLC converter is
designed to possess high efficiency and dependable ZVS for minimizing energy losses and
maximizing the overall efficiency of the charger. In this way, the thesis is expected to make a
valuable and meaningful impact on the existing and timely improvement of the loading
structure that is more resilient, flexible, and highly productive. By offering solutions for these
critical issues, this research contributes to the growth of electric vehicles needed to enhance
the sustainability and network of the transportation system.

1.4.1. Relationship with Sustainable Development Goals

The United Nations created the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), commonly referred
to as the Global Goals, in 2015 as a collection of 17 interrelated goals to address some of the
most important issues facing humanity. These objectives highlight the significance of leaving
no one behind and safeguarding our planet for future generations, acting as a road map for a
brighter and fairer future for all. This project is mapped on four different Sustainable
Development Goals: ‘Technology Innovation and Infrastructure’ (goal # 9), ‘Sustainable
Cities and Communities’ (goal # 11), Responsible Consumption and Production’ (goal # 12).
As show in table 1.1.

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 Table 1.1 Sustainable Development Goals
SDG Description of SDG Target Relevance to Our Project
No
SDG 7 Ensure access to affordable, By 2030, increase substantially Our Project: Our project enhances the efficiency
reliable, sustainable, and the share of renewable energy in of EV chargers, optimizing the use of renewable
modern energy for all. the global energy mix. energy sources and reducing energy
consumption. This supports the transition to clean
energy by making electric mobility more
sustainable and affordable.

SDG 9 Build resilient infrastructure, By 2030, upgrade infrastructure Our Project: This work offers the opportunity to
promote inclusive and and retrofit industries to make improve the techniques that build the EV charger
sustainable industrialization, future, effective, reliable and sustainable. New
them sustainable, with increased
and foster innovation. approaches in charging structures enhance the
resource-use efficiency and utilization of electric cars in the market place, as a
greater adoption of clean and way of encouraging innovation towards
sustainable industrialization.
environmentally sound
technologies and industrial
processes.
SDG Make cities and human By 2030, provide access to safe, Our Project: When it comes to the adoption of
11 settlements inclusive, safe, affordable, accessible, and EVs, the reliability and performance of the EV
sustainable transport systems for
resilient, and sustainable. chargers are critical in the expansion of the
all, improving road safety,
notably by expanding public electric car industry, and to alleviate the air
transport. pollution and reliance on fossil fuels, especially
in urban areas. This work is helpful to the
development of improving urban sustainability
through provision transportation technologies.
SDG Take urgent action to Improve education, awareness- Our Project: By reducing energy losses and
12 combat climate change and raising, and human and improving the efficiency of EV chargers, our
institutional capacity on climate
its impacts. project helps lower greenhouse gas emissions.
change mitigation, adaptation,
impact reduction, and early This aligns with climate action efforts by
warning. promoting technologies that mitigate the
environmental impact of transportation,
supporting the broader goal of combating climate
change.

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 1.5. Complex Engineering Problem
The Universal Input, 500-W CC/CV e-Bike Charger is a complex engineering problem
because the development of the system comprises of several power conversion technologies
that need to be integrated efficiently, safely, and internationally. Some of the main design
issues are power factor correction, thermal control, and Electromagnetic Compatibility; all
the solutions should be cost-effective and safe for end users. Also, the charger should operate
on different input voltage, and often connect to renewable energy sources, control techniques
need to be introduced that can improve the charger reliability and capability during different
working conditions. As show in table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Complex Engineering Problem Attributes

WP/
Attribute Description
EA
WP1

Depth of Knowledge Understanding the design and integration of sophisticated algorithms for a charger that
Required supports both constant current (CC) and constant voltage (CV) modes.

WP2
Ranging of Conflicting Balancing the trade-offs between charger efficiency, charging speed, and battery
Requirements longevity in the e-bike charger design.

WP3 Analyzing electrical parameters to optimize the charger's output for different e-bike
Depth of Analysis Required
battery chemistries and capacities.

WP5
Designing the charger to be compatible with a wide range of e-bike batteries,
Scalability and Flexibility
accommodating different voltage and current requirements.

EA1

Efficiently managing the power electronics components to ensure the charger meets
Range of Resources
industry standards for safety and efficiency.

EA2

Evaluating the economic feasibility of integrating advanced features like universal

Cost-Benefit Analysis
input and high-efficiency components into the charger.

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EA3
Introducing innovative cooling and control mechanisms to enhance the charger's
Innovation
performance and lifespan.

EA7
Establishing processes for collecting user feedback and updating the charger design
Continuous Improvement
based on new technologies and standards.

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 2
Literature Review
In designing the battery charging systems for electric bicycles (e-bikes), one has to consider
quite a number of technical details to achieve effective and safe charging systems. The
charging method, configuration of the power supply, a type of semiconductor, correcting
power factors, and safety regulation are the main elements. This literature review examines
these aspects in depth making a considerable contribution to the existing knowledge on or
related to CC/CV charging, universal power supplies, emerging semiconductor-based
devices, PFC circuits and world safety regulation. Lithium-ion batteries are becoming the
standard batteries in electric bicycles owing to their light weight, high energy density and
long cycle life. This is because, their performance is quite high due to the utility in e-bikes
where portability, effectiveness and reliability are pivotal. The method applied in recharging
the battery has a direct effect on the performance and life span of the battery with the
Constant Current/Constant Voltage (CC/CV) method being the predominant approach for the
lithium ion cells. Chen and Chen (2017) note the two stages of CC/CV as constant current
stage and constant voltage stages. The charger in this stage provides currents to the battery in
a fixed magnitude until Once this voltage threshold is reached, the charger moves into the
constant voltage phase, where the limiting current slowly shrinks until the battery is reached
full charge. This method is particularly important in eliminating overcharging which may
cause diminished battery capacity, thermal runaway, among other safety problems [1]. There
is a unique approach to charging lithium-ion batteries called CC/CV charging which is
critical in protecting the batteries from overcharging. Periodically today’s battery
technologies find easier soaking up over-discharges of the battery cells, unlike lithium-ion
cells which can only do this at a high cost. Citing Chen and Chen (2017), overcharging
shortens the effective life span of the battery and leads to serious safety threats such as
haphazard combustion and explosions. Attention to the current reduction process during the
constant voltage phase enables safe switching for complete battery charging that comes with
CC/CV charging method of lithium cells battery [1]. For e-bikes the CC/CV charging method
offers the best of both worlds with charging speed and battery protection. The battery is

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charged quickly during the constant current phase since it is able to accept a lot of current. At
full charge, the battery performs a gradual transfer to constant voltage Electric Motor &
Control b Limping charges the battery only as much as its usable capacity in order to charge
up fast. In addition, it prevents excessive heating that is caused by prolonged charging of the
battery with high currents which assists in both improving the rate of charge acceptance and
protecting the battery from degradation. This is especially valuable in e-bikes, where frequent
charging cycles are required and lifespan of the battery becomes a concern. E-bike chargers,
especially those intended for overseas passive listening markets, should support broad ranges
of input voltage and frequency. Since different countries and regions have different electrical
standards, e-bikes chargers need to work well in this versatility. Jiang and Jiang (2018) note
that they consider universal input Power Source, which allows voltage ranges from 85V ~
265V AC to be quite relevant to the chargers designed for the export market. This type of
design offering a universal input cut across the challenges of heating elements having to be
used removing and constructing plugs from the specific regions saving time and costs in the
construction of the charging system [2]. The overarching concern in constructing pure
universal input power supplies is the ability to maintain good efficiency for all input voltage
ranges. Power Factor Correction (PFC) circuits are very important in designs facing this
limitation. According to Smith and Smith (2019), PFC circuits are designed for the purpose
of moving voltage and current in time the input current wave is adjusted to be in synchronism
with the input voltage wave. This in turn helps in the increase of the power factor and
minimization of energy losses. In a broad stroke, PFC circuits allow to utilize more part of
the input energy for conversion into a serviceable output as opposed to heating up or
electromagnetic interference [3]. Only active PFC circuits are used in e-bike chargers and
other equipment due to their high efficiency and adjustable power factor-measuring
capability. Active PFC, on the other hand, employs the use of electrical circuitry that
optimizes the shape of the input current waveform to as closely as possible reproduce the
input voltage waveform. This gives a fairly high value of the power factor thus reducing the
reactive power demand from the grid to a minimal level. The power factor close to one is
particularly desirable in high power devices such as e-bike chargers for regulatory and
operational purposes. Most states have power factor and harmonics distortion limits and
where these requirements are absent high permeance in chargers will declare them illegal
within these regions [3]. PFC circuits also bring the added benefit of lowering the overall
power consumption of the e-bike chargers. PFC circuits help to lessen the environmental
damage caused by e-bike charging systems due to wasted energy by going beyond the basic

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idea of just making the charger more efficient. This is of great relevance in cities where many
e-bikes could be on roads and energy usage could become a serious concern. Such universal
input chargers with PFC circuits embedded are both efficient and properly usable all ov6er
the world making them suitable for the e-bike market that is on the increase. The
performance of the e-bike chargers is affected by the kind of semiconductor materials
selected in the power conversion circuits. Traditional power electronics has always relied on
silicon-based semiconductors. However, new developments in materials science pave the
way for advanced types of semiconductor devices for power electronics that were never
envisaged. Of these materials, silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN) are proving to
be the most effective and the market for their application in efficient chargers is growing very
fast. Lee and Lee (2021) describe that semiconductor based on SiC and GaN have better
performance compared to other types of semiconductors for power electronics. Both
materials have superior efficiency and heat dissipation properties as compared to
conventional silicon devices, suitable for use in high power applications such as e-bike
chargers. SiC and GaN devices cannot function well at voltage and temperature limits as
Silicon does hence lending adaptability to relative compact and effective charger designs.
Also, these materials have higher frequency response which reduces the sizes of other passive
parts of the charger, such as capacitors and inductors, and improves the efficiency of the
charger as a whole.[4] One of the major advantages of SiC and GaN devices is that they can
achieve high power densities without the use of large or multiple cooling hardware systems.
In most high-power applications, traditional silicon-based chargers are often provided with
heat sinks or cooling fans to remove heat generated during charging. However, the
performance of SiC and GaN devices in electric power applications is far improved because
of the lesser heat production resulting from on-resistance and thermal conductivity being
better. This makes it possible to develop smaller and lighter chargers which makes it more
convenient for e-bike systems integration as well as easier transportation.[4] Despite that, one
more advantage the availability of SiC and GaN semiconductors permits the use of more than
conventional switching frequency which is a plus for enhancement and increasing the
efficiency of power conversion. The consequences of intra-systems interconnection
violations are more easily evaluated. High frequency thus makes power transfer more
efficient as less energy is wasted within each switching cycle. This is particularly the case in
e-bike chargers where efficiency determines the speed of charging and the energy wasted
during such efforts. By including SiC and GaN devices, charger manufacturers can obtain
better performance, improved heat management, and a smaller size [4] than usual. This

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aspect of the design is very important in the development of high power supplied chargers,
especially those meant for e-bikes where continuous use and very high ambient temperatures
can be a problem. However, many chargers when used continuously can be overwhelmed
particularly when efficient thermal management systems are not incorporated. Because of
these shortcomings different thermal management methods are applied in contemporary
charger designs. Concerning Lee & Lee (2021), one of the most conventional approaches for
thermal management is use of a heat sink which does not generate any power. Heat sink is
therefore an extra device in the charger system that does not operate itself but helps coven
heat from the internal devises to the outer environment. In high-power systems, heat sinks are
normally used along with cooling fans to facilitate the movement of air and thus encourage
heat removal. This way of installing the heat sink fan is especially advantageous in e-bike
chargers, which can be operated at high power density but leads to enormous heat built up
during the operation of the charger [4]. The other thermal control method, which was
explained in the work of Lee and Lee (2021), is related to the thermal shutdown mechanism
of the smart cord. These mechanisms work by sensing the heat on the charger and after a
certain temperature is reached, the mechanism works to disable the functionality of the
device. It serves this purpose and saves the charger from being spoiled as well and most
importantly prevents life-threatening incidents like fire or components of a system going bad
because of excessive heat. Smart thermal management systems are needed to maintain the
durability and safety of high-power e-charger within the longest usage period [4]. Finally, the
design of e-bike chargers should also be adequate concerning safety regulations practiced
worldwide and legal requirement in the country. Safety standards for battery chargers, and
particularly for battery charger types used for e-bike charging, recording shim, and inductive
type along, include IEC 60335-2-29, IEC 61558-2-16. These standards relate to the safety of
battery chargers. In particular, insulation, leakage current and EMI are considered. These
parameters are important in maintaining the safety of e-bike chargers regardless of location
and the conditions. Such issues regarding the electrical safety of battery chargers are outlined
in the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) rules and specifically in the IEC
60335-2-29, which includes measures against electric shocks, overcurrent, overheating, etc.
Adherence to these standards is basically meant to eliminate accidents and for the charger to
be dependable throughout its life span. In addition, such requirements are applicable for e-
bike chargers which are intended to be sold in global markets, and this is one of the important
aspects for the manufacturers [5]. Development of fast, safe and multifunctional e-bike
chargers requires harmonious combination of many technical features. The efficiency and

22
safety of lithium-ion battery charging are assured in the CC/CV mode of operation of the
batteries, whilst the performance of the chargers regardless of the input voltage source is
ensured by universal input power supplies and PFC circuits. There have also been
improvements in efficiency of the charger and thermal management with the help of
semiconductor materials such as SiC and GaN devices. Finally, worldwide safety regulations
also guarantee the safety and compliance of e-bike chargers in every market. These factors
provide the basis upon which modern e-bike charging systems rest and aid in the mass
proliferation of the electric bicycle across domestic and international markets.

23
 3
Methodology

3.1. Methodology
This project examines the methodology, which essentially involves designing and optimizing
a Universal Input, 500-W Constant Current/Constant Voltage (CC/CV) e-bike charger. It is
about having high level of efficiency, safety and generating products that conform to
international standards in the face of the complexity arising out of universal input and
fluctuating nature of power quality across the globe. PFC, smart thermal control and the use
of SiC and GaN materials and other sophisticated elements and features constitute this
project’s design goals to improve upon performance and durability. The charger is also able
to work at any input voltage, anywhere between 85V AC and 265V AC, thus is exportable.
As Show in Fig 3.1.

3.1.1. Key Design Components:

 Power Factor Correction (PFC): The charger circuit uses an active PFC to make it
meet the standard power quality standards across the world. PFC circuit helps in
correcting the power factor, reduces the harmonic distortion and enhances the
efficiency.

 CC/CV Charging Profile: A CC/CV charging profile is used in charging lithium-ion

batteries so as to effectively and safely charge them. The charger is constantly
charging at a constant current level throughout the initial charging cycle, but when the
voltage of battery is reached, the charging system changes to constant voltage
charging thereby making almost sure that it charges to completion without causing
any harm to the battery.

 Thermal Management: It is important to regulate the temperature properly especially

for the charger as this will have a great impact on the life span of the charger. The
design involves the incorporation of heat sink, Thermal Pillows, and Air Ventilation
passages to remove heat produced by the power electronics especially when at its full
load.

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  Safety and Compliance: The charger complies with the IEC 60335-2-29 that is a
safety standard from the International Electro technical Commission. Some of the
safety measures are OVP, OCP, SCP and the last is thermal shutdown or Which of
these safety measures is the best among all these safety measures Is difficult for me to
decide but if I have to select then I will go for the thermal shutdown.

3.1.2. Design Process:

1. Component Selection:

 Silicon Carbide (SiC) and Gallium Nitride (GaN) Semiconductors: SiC and GaN are
chosen due their high efficiency, high voltage rating also for their capability to work
at high temperatures as compared to silicon semiconductors.

 High-Efficiency Transformers and Inductors: Co-core magnetic components are

selected considering the application by offering low losses at high frequencies, thus
increasing operating efficiency.

2. Simulation and Prototyping:

 Software Simulations: The physical design starts with simulations employing

MATLAB/Simulink as well as PSpice models with higher resolution. These
simulations represent the electrical profile of the charger, thermal management as well
as its efficiency at different modes of operation.

 Prototyping: After the simulation, physical implementation of the charger through

construction of a prototype is done. The design of the prototype is checked and the
actual model is built in a lab setting to see if it can perform according to specification.

3. Testing and Validation:

 Efficiency Testing: The efficiency characteristics of the charger are determined at

different loads and input voltage. The intention is to strike 90% plus efficiency
numbers even at low input voltage levels.

 Thermal Testing: Thermal performance is evaluated under continuous operation at

full load to ensure that the charger operates within safe temperature limits.

 Compliance Testing: The charger is tested for compliance with international

standards, including electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), safety, and energy
efficiency standards.

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 4. Hardware Components:

 SiC and GaN Semiconductors: These are the principal materials used in the charger’s
power electronics to allow high efficiency and a compact design.

 Active PFC Circuit: Ensures the charger meets global power quality standards by
improving the power factor and reducing harmonics.

 High-Efficiency Transformer: A critical component for voltage conversion and

isolation, designed to minimize losses and handle high power levels.

Fig 3.1. Project Workflow

3.2 Hardware Components

3.2.1. SiC and GaN Semiconductors
SiC and GaN semiconductors are the crucial components of power electronics that determine
charging capabilities of the device. These materials provide better properties than
conventional silicon electronic device counterpart such as high efficiency and demonstrating
high voltage of operation and operating at lower temperature. SiC and GaN devices are
applied to the converter at PFC stage and DC-DC conversion stage in order to improve the
power conversion efficiency and reduce the power loss. As show in Fig 3.2.

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 Fig 3.2 DC-DC conversion stage

3.2.2. Active Power Factor Correction (PFC) Circuit

Among those, the PFC circuit used in the design of the charger is a significant component to
guarantee compliance with power quality standards across the globe. This corrects the input
current waveform to be in phase with the input voltage; in the process enhances the level of
power factor and also constrain harmonic distortion. This circuit is aimed to work at wide
input voltage to ensure that the charger is compatible to work in different region with
different voltage quality. As Show in Fig 3.3.

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 Fig 3.3 PFC Circuit

3.2.3. High-Efficiency Transformer

The transformer is required to work efficiently at high frequency so as to reduce the volume
and weight of charger. It delivers the required voltage transformation and electrical isolation
between the input and the output sections. The transformer utilizes the least core and copper
losses as part of a wider strategy to advance the efficiency of the charger. As show in Fig 3.4.

Fig 3.4 High efficiency transformer

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3.3 Software Used:
3.3.1. MATLAB/Simulink

Mainly used to model the charger’s electrical and thermal characteristics, respectively. This
software assists in the enhancement of design parameters with regard to efficiency and
reliability.

3.3.2. PSpice

Used for specific circuits’ modeling and analysis such as power factor correction circuit, DC-
DC converter as well as the protector circuits. Using PSpice, simulation performance is
obtained under certain conditions, before the actual prototyping, which can display flaws.

3.4 Mathematics of the Project

3.4.1 Power Factor Correction (PFC) Calculation
The PFC circuit’s performance is quantified using the power factor (PF), which is the ratio of
real power (P) to apparent power (S):

PF=SP=V × IV × I × cos (θ)=cos (θ)

Where:
 P is the real power in watts.
 S is the apparent power in volt-amperes.
 V is the RMS voltage.
 I is the RMS current.
 θ is the phase angle between voltage and current.
The desideratum is that the PFC circuit be designed in such a way as to make the cosine of
the phase angle ’θ’ approach 1, which states that the current waveform is in phase with the
voltage waveform with optimum power transfer.
3.4.2 Efficiency Calculation
The efficiency (η\etaη) of the charger is calculated as:
η=Pin/ Pout ×100 %
Where:
 Pout is the output power delivered to the battery.
 Pin is the input power drawn from the AC mains or 220VAC.

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Fig 3.6 Flowchart

4
30
 Results

Results
This chapter delves into the detailed implementation of the existing smart charger by [1],
which has been broken down into three critical components: Those are the PFC pre-regulator,
the auxiliary flyback supply, and the LLC converter. This chapter presents an organized
manner in which each part of the system under development is structurally described and
functionally defined, and simple measures of initial performance are given, all of which is the
first step in building an understanding of the current state of the system. In this way, the
detailed analysis of these components makes a basis for further research on the subject,
which aims at developing new and improved power converter topologies and effective
control techniques.

4.1. PFC pre regulator

The PFC (Power Factor Correction) pre-regulator, a crucial component of the smart EV
charger, is intricately divided into three key subsections to optimize its performance. These
include:
 Filter Stage
 Rectifier
 Boost Stage

4.1.1. Filter Stage:

This first subcircuit is for filtering out variations in the input power and thus minimizing
interference in addition to improving the quality of power supplied to subsequent phases. In
the design of the smart EV charger, emphasis is placed on the EMI filter which is very
important in making the device both effective and effective. This filter is designed to protect
against the complete mode and differential mode noise, which is very important in the
performance of the power system. The filter is composed by the inductors L2 and L3 and the
capacitors Cy1as, Cy2, C5 and C4. Coupling inductors L2 and L3 are very useful in filtering
common mode noise since it makes a high impedance path at the noise frequency and
therefore prevents the circulation of noise currents. On the other hand, capacitors Cy1 and
Cy2 acting as y-capacitance are connected between the power lines and the ground to waste
the noise to the ground without influencing the charger’s functional parts. For controlling the
differential mode noise, there are capacitors called x-capacitance, comprising of C5 and C4.

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It is in these power supply lines that these capacitors are soldered cross ways where they act
as voltage reservoirs ensuring that voltage is smoothed out any fluctuations. Coordinated
functioning of these components guarantees that the EMI filter eliminates the noise and
protect the device from disturbances originating from the outside, thereby improving the
dependability of the entire system. This technique of filtering EMI does not only enhance the
performance of the charger but also follows the laid down EMC standards which are
important.
Mainly used for the improvement of its operational safety and to meet some of its legal
requirements.

Fig 4.1 A Typical EMI Filter Action

4.1.2. Rectifier:
The second subsections rectify the AC input and transform it into DC output and thus pave
the way for further power conversion and processing. At the rectifier part of the smart EV
charger, Bridge D1 and capacitor C3 were coordinated for the principal rectification and
filtering role. This configuration is critical for rectifying the AC into a stable DC that is
required by the charger. Finally, bridge D1 rectifies the AC input and capacitive C3 reduces
the AC ripple thus improving the quality of the DC power.

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Also, diode D3 is operational in another significant capacity as a bypass diode. During the
initial startup it is before the boost stage is switched on hence D3 offers a direct path for the
rectified output to go to the output connector. This functionality is important mainly for the
first time of charging when system needs to start up and does not need to wait for the boost
converter. For safety reasons, mainly at start-up, the input capacitor connected to the output is
shorted through a fusible resistor of 47Ohm. This safety measure helps to keep any
overcharge away from the system as it can be dangerous and could lead to overvoltage state
in the system and this would make other components in the system endangered from
electrical stress hence increasing safety of the charger.

4.1.3. Boost Stage:

The last of the three stages of the PFC pre-regulator prepares the charger for precise voltage
augmentation to a level that downstream requires for power conversion, where by this stage
the charger has to work under a variety of load conditions. The main components present in
the boost stage of the smart EV charger are inductor L1, switch Q3 in the form of metal oxide
semiconductor field-effect transistor MOSFET and freewheeling diode D7. As show in Fig
4.2. These elements are very crucial in order to bring the voltage up to the required level and
in a proper manner. The operation is controlled by the transistors, Q1 and Q3 which are used
as the MOSFET gate drivers that are used for the Switching Control needed for Boost
Conversion. The most important part of this setup is the UCC28180DR PWM controller that
is responsible for power factor correction. It is designed particularly for utilization in
applications employ over 75W, meaning that the input current and input voltage are in phase
so as to attain a power factor of near zero. This controller can also be programmed to switch
at a frequency that is programmable at between 18 kHz and 250 kHz. This flexibility enables
the optimization of the related components for example transformers and filters in terms of
size, cost and performance. Basic functions such as voltage and current are incorporated to
regulate the duty cycle thus offering a steady output voltage and improving on the PFC. As
show in Fig 4.5. Further, there are already protection mechanisms like overcurrent and soft
start that protect the system from lawsuits because of surge or sudden power fluctuation.
Under the no VC input and boost function off condition, during the initial startup period
where VCC is nonexistent the bridge output is connected directly to the auxiliary flyback
supply. VCC is produced across the auxiliary winding of the flyback and is then converted to
the LLC controller IC. An LDO is internal for converting VCC to RVCC which in turn is
connected to the PFC. The RVCC facilitates the kick-in of the PFC controller IC thus

33
enabling the boost converter. Therefore, the output voltage is fixed to 390V for the regulation
of the both the LLC converter and the auxiliary flyback converter. Also, during start up, an
SMD MOSFET Q4 connect the output capacitor to the ground through PFC to increase safety
of the circuit as the boost converter becomes active. Such complex designs guarantee that the
charger works safely and is as energy efficient as required for the regulatory and international
standards, which apply to consumer electronics, industrial appliances, and telecommunication
gadgets and equipment. Fig 2 to 6 depicts the schematic diagram of the proposed topology,
the physical layout of the PCBs, the three dimensions, the top and bottom views of the
developed PCBs. As show in Fig 4.3 and Fig 4.4.

Fig 4.2 Schematic Diagram of PFC Boost Stage

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Fig 4.3 PCB Layout of PFC Boost Stage

Fig 4.4 3D Diagram of PFC Boost Stage

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 Fig 4.5 PFC Controller or Power Factor Correction Controller

4.2. Auxiliary Flyback

The auxiliary flyback converter is most important in the design of smart EV charger
since it provides all essential voltages to all the active components in the three-stage
system. Employing the UCC28910DR, a flyback switcher IC that exhibits high
degrees of efficiency as developed by [1], the stability of this stage dictates the readout
performance. The UCC28910DR is well suited for the slim isolated power supply
applications and also utilizes primary sided control that the designer does not need
secondary side feedback loop, which reduces complexity of the circuit. As show in Fig
4.6. The SCR of this controller IC is a 700V power FET, and the system uses a
conversion frequency of up to 700kHz. It creates the opportunity to employ small and
cheap transformers and passive elements dramatically lowering the cost of the system
and increasing design freedom. It also provides the UCC28910DR each additional
protection to control the output voltage and current with the high accuracy in-order to
ensure that all the loading circuit components are at their appropriate operating

36
conditions. Also, it incorporates over current, over voltage, and thermal shutdown
protection for the UCC28910DR. All these features are critical in improving the
charger’s safety for various applications and it can be used in smart meters and
appliances controls. In the startup phase, the auxiliary flyback converter is used to
rectifying high voltages from the DC rail and they are then floated through the primary
winding and then to the drain pin of the IC. These voltages are internally connected to
the VDD pin to charge an external capacitor, C48 to start the power supply operation.
In the system as it advances, VDD is supplied externally by the auxiliary winding of
the transformer, and the aforementioned unregulated voltages are then regulated by the
LLC controller IC. In addition, the secondary circuit of the flyback is capable of
delivering 12VDC, which is mainly used to power a cooling fan; the LLC also
configures the output voltage, which can be 10VDC and 5VDC for other uses. The
operational status of the fan is dependent on thermal loads that are needed and
therefore, thermal loads within the charger are well managed. This fine control of
voltages and thermal conditions clearly points towards the added value of the auxiliary
flyback converter for the operation of the entire charging system. As show in Fig 4.7,
Fig 4.8, Fig 4.9, Fig 4.10 and Fig 4.11.

Fig 4.6 Schematic Diagram of Auxiliary Flyback Stage

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 Fig 4.7 PCB Layout of Auxiliary Flyback Stage

Fig 4.8 3D Top view PCB Layout of Auxiliary Flyback Stage

Fig 4.9 3D Bottom view PCB Layout of Auxiliary Flyback Stage

Fig 4.10 Top view Assembled PCB Layout of Auxiliary Flyback Stage

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 Fig 4.11 Bottom view Assembled PCB Layout of Auxiliary Flyback Stage

4.3. LLC Converter

The last constituent of the smart EV charger is the incorporating of the LLC converter;
this component is well-known for its high efficiency and power management abilities.
This stage uses an LLC resonant power converter that uses a resonant tank circuit
consisting of two inductors and one capacitor. This configuration is selected deliberately
to promote ZVS, a switching technique that is successful in reducing switching losses
and enhancing the efficiency that is commonly more than 90%. The LLC converter
presents good performances in various input voltage levels and displays low output
fluctuations a good load and line regulation. In addition, this capability improves
performance and cuts down voltage and current stresses on system parts, increasing
durability and reliability in high power and switching applications. The most
fundamental component of the LLC converter is the PWM controller IC – the
UCC256403DDBR which has been manufactured by Texas Instruments. This book
defines this controller as being meant for applications that require high efficiency and
accurate control. It has enhanced burst mode control that proactively regulates efficiency
under low load status through the minimization of switching loss. Besides, it features
built-in high-side/ low-side gate drivers for proper MOSFET control and adjustable
operating frequencies, making the design of the system very versatile depending on the
requirements of efficiency against component dimension. For enhancing the system
reliability and safety the UCC256403DDBR consists of the necessary protection
capabilities such as overcurrent, overvoltage and thermal shut down. It also guaranteed
an easy beginning since it supports a soft-start and also means, the continuous operation
since it has the function for a fault restart, once the existing fault conditions are
addressed. Moreover, the regulated voltage converter circuit (RVCC) derived from the
auxiliary flyback converter is incorporated here without transition. The inherent LDO in

39
the auxiliary flyback stage controls VCC that is forwarded to the PFC stage to
synchronize for boost regulation. This integration explains the architectural ingenuity and
tactical structural integration that define the smart EV chargers perfectly planned and
optimally coordinated power management system. As show in Fig 4.12.

Fig 4.12 Schematic Diagram of LLC Stage

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 5
Conclusion and Future Work

5.1. Future Work

In Future work, the future development of the smart EV charger design is proposed to follow
the process of continuous improvement of the structure and function of specific components.
Those changes are paramount for it to not only address the current technological needs, but
also to be a blueprint for the enhancements in EV charging systems in the future.

5.2. PFC Section Enhancements

The next area of the activity will also be devoted to PFC section where it will be precisely
interesting to continue the work. The major improvement will therefore consist in
incorporating a new protective relay into the present configuration to avoid loading the
system in an inadvertent manner when the auxiliary supply is unavailable. This improvement
will be carried out using a microcontroller that will be used in monitoring the state of the
system and switch on/off the PFC operation. This shall initiate the drawing of the power only
when all the system parameters are correctly positioned so as to eliminate main functions or
harms due to loading circumstances that are not expected.

5.3. Maintaining the Auxiliary Flyback Converter

The auxiliary flyback converter will remain same. It operates as expected at this time within
the tolerances necessary for the circuit; the requisite voltages are fed to all active elements in
the design with very little inefficiency. This decision enables us to dedicate the improvements
to other aspects of the charger which experience higher value from better control and safety
systems.
5.4 LLC Stage Optimization
In the LLC converter stage, we are assuming to incorporate a digital controller with a proper
control algorithm. This improvement is targeted at improving on the quality and speed of the
converter. Digital controller will help in enhancing the control of the power conversion
process since it will be able to respond to the dynamic changes of the load and input voltage.
This flexibility will enhance the efficiency of the charger and guarantee the best results

41
irrespective of the conditions under which it will be operating. These planned improvements
are believed to greatly improve the performance and reliability of the smart EV charger in
order to catch up with the current technological advancement and better address the future
requirement for the EV charging station.

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 6
References

[1] Y. &. Z. H. Chen, "Lithium-Ion Battery Management Systems and Charging

Techniques.," Springer, New York, 2017.
[2] C. &. W. Z. Jiang, "Power Factor Correction Circuits for Universal Input Power
Supplies," IEEE Press, Piscataway., 2018.
[3] R. &. B. T. Smith, " Designing High-Efficiency Power Supplies for Universal Input
Applications," Wiley, Hoboken, 2019.
[4] K. &. P. J. Lee, "Emerging Trends in Power Semiconductor Devices for Charger
Applications," McGraw-Hill, New York, 2021.
[5] I. E. C. (IEC), "IEC 60335-2-29: Standard for Battery Chargers.," IEC, Geneva, 2021.

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