Example 1

●A PMMC instrument has a three-resistor Ayrton shunt connected across

it to make an ammeter. The resistance values are 𝑅1 = 0.05 Ω, 𝑅2 =
0.45 Ω and 𝑅3 = 4.5 Ω. The meter has 𝑅𝑚 = 1 kΩ and FSD = 50 μA.
Calculate the three ranges of the ammeter.
●Solution:
●Switch at contact B: 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 = 50 μA × 1 kΩ = 50 mV
𝑉𝑠 50 mV
●𝐼𝑠 = = = 10 mA
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 0.05 Ω+0.45 Ω+4.5 Ω
●𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 + 𝐼𝑠 = 50 μA+10 mA =10.05 mA
●Ammeter range ≈ 10 mA

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 5

Example 1: solution
●Switch at contact C: 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅3 = 50 μA × 1 kΩ + 4.5 Ω ≈ 50 mV
𝑉𝑠 50 mV
●𝐼𝑠 = = = 100 mA
𝑅1 +𝑅2 0.05 Ω+0.45 Ω
●𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 + 𝐼𝑠 = 50 μA+100 mA =100.05 mA
●Ammeter range ≈ 100 mA
●Switch at contact D: 𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 50 μA × 1 kΩ + 0.45 Ω +

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 6

Example 2
●Given 𝑅1 = 2 kΩ, 𝑅2 = 2 kΩ with voltage of 2V. By measuring the current flow through 𝑅3 with a dc
ammeter with internal resistance of 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 100 Ω , calculate percentage of accuracy and percentage
of error.
𝑅3 = 1 k
●Solution
● 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅1 ∕∕ 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 2 kΩ
𝐸 2𝑉
● 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 𝑅2 = × 2 𝑘Ω = 1 𝑉
𝑅1 +𝑅2 2 𝑘Ω+2 𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑇ℎ 1𝑉
● 𝐼𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ
= 2 𝑘Ω
= 500 𝜇𝐴

𝑉𝑇ℎ 1𝑉
●𝐼𝑚 = = = 476.19 𝜇𝐴
𝑅𝑚 +𝑅𝑇ℎ 100Ω+2 𝑘Ω
𝐼𝑚 476.19 𝜇𝐴
●Loading effect: × 100% = × 100% = 95.24%
𝐼𝑇 500 𝜇𝐴
●Percentage error: 4.76 %

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 8

Example 3
●A PMMC instrument with FSD of 100 µA and a coil resistance of 1kΩ is to be
converted into a voltmeter. Determine the required multiplier resistance if the
voltmeter is to measure 50 V at full scale and Voltmeter sensitivity. Also
calculate the applied voltage when the instrument indicate 0.8, 0.5, and 0.2 of
FSD.
●Solution
●𝑉 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑣 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑠 + 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚
𝑉
●𝑅𝑠 = − 𝑅𝑚
𝐼𝑚
●For 𝑉 = 50 V FSD, 𝐼𝑚 = 100 μA
𝑉 50 V
●𝑅𝑠 = − 𝑅𝑚 = − 1 kΩ = 499 kΩ
𝐼𝑚 100 μA

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 12

Example 3: solution
●At 0.8 FSD, 𝐼𝑚 = 0.8 × 100 μA = 80 μA
●𝑉 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚 = 80 μA × 499 kΩ + 1 kΩ = 40 V
●At 0.5 FSD, 𝐼𝑚 = 0.5 × 100 μA = 50 μA
●𝑉 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚 = 50 μA × 499 kΩ + 1 kΩ = 25 V
●At 0.2 FSD, 𝐼𝑚 = 0.2 × 100 μA = 20 μA
●𝑉 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚 = 20 μA × 499 kΩ + 1 kΩ = 10 V

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 13

Example 4
●A PMMC instrument with FSD = 50 µA and Rm = 1700 Ω is to be
employed as a voltmeter with ranges of 10 V, 50 V, and 100 V. Calculate
the required values of multiplier resistors for the two circuits.
●Solution
𝑉 10 V
●𝑅1 = − 𝑅𝑚 = − 1700 Ω = 198.3 kΩ
𝐼𝑚 50 μA
50 V
●𝑅2 = − 1700 Ω = 998.3 kΩ
50 μA
100 V
●𝑅3 = − 1700 Ω = 1.9983 MΩ
50 μA

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 17

Example 4: solution
𝑉 10 V
●𝑅1 = − 𝑅𝑚 = − 1700 Ω =
𝐼𝑚 50 μA
198.3 kΩ
𝑉 50 V
●𝑅2 = − 𝑅1 − 𝑅𝑚 = −
𝐼𝑚 50 μA
198.3 kΩ − 1700 Ω = 800 kΩ
𝑉 100 V
●𝑅3 = − 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 − 𝑅𝑚 = −
𝐼𝑚 50 μA
800 kΩ − 198.3 kΩ − 1700 Ω = 1 MΩ

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 18

Example 5
●A voltmeter with sensitivity of 20 kΩ/V is used for measuring a
voltage across R2 with range of 50 V. Calculate a) reading voltage, b)
accuracy of measurement, and c) error of measurement
●Solution:
𝑅2 200 𝑘Ω
● 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸 𝑅 = 100 V 200 𝑘Ω+200 𝑘Ω = 50 V
1 +𝑅2
● 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅1 ∕ 𝑅2 = 200kΩ ∕∕ 200kΩ = 100 kΩ
20 kΩ
● 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆 × FSD = 𝑉 × 50 V = 1 MΩ
𝑅𝑖𝑛 1 MΩ
● (a) 𝑉𝑚 = 𝑉𝑇ℎ 𝑅 +𝑅 = 50 V = 45.45 V
𝑖𝑛 𝑇ℎ 1 MΩ +100 kΩ
𝑉
● (b) Loading effect accuracy: 𝑉𝑚 × 100% = 90.9%
𝑇
● (c) Error percentage: 9.1%

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 21

Example 6
●The series ohmmeter is made up of a 1.5 V battery, a 100 μA meter, and
a resistance R1 which makes (R1 + Rm) =15kΩ.
●a) Determine the instrument indication when Rx = 0.
●b) Determine how the resistance scale should be marked at 0.75 FSD, 0.5 FSD and
0.25 FSD
●Solution
●(a) 𝑅𝑥 = 0
𝐸𝑏 1.5 V
●𝐼𝑚 = = = 100 μA FSD)
𝑅𝑥 +𝑅1 +𝑅𝑚 0+15 kΩ

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 24

Example 6: solution
●(b) 0.5 FSD: 𝐼𝑚 = 50 μA
𝐸𝑏 1.5 V
●𝑅𝑥 = − 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑚 = − 15 kΩ = 15 kΩ
𝐼𝑚 50 μA

●0.25 FSD: 𝐼𝑚 = 25 μA
𝐸𝑏 1.5 V
●𝑅𝑥 = − 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑚 = − 15 kΩ = 45 kΩ
𝐼𝑚 25 μA

● 0.75 FSD: 𝐼𝑚 = 75 μA
𝐸𝑏 1.5 V
●𝑅𝑥 = − 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑚 = − 15 kΩ = 5 kΩ
𝐼𝑚 75 μA

●The ohmmeter scale is not linear.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 25

Example 7
●An ohmmeter has 𝐸𝑏 = 1.5 V, 𝑅1 = 15 kΩ, 𝑅𝑚 = 𝑅2 = 50 Ω and meter FSD =
50 μA. Calculate, (a) the ohmmeter scale reading (Rx) at 0.5 FSD, (b) when 𝐸𝑏 = 1.3
V, What is the new resistance value that R2 must be adjusted to get FSD. What is the
value of Rx at half scale when 𝐸𝑏 = 1.3 V.
●Solution
● At 0.5 FSD, with 𝐸𝑏 = 1.5 V,
● 𝑉𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 = 25 μA × 50 Ω = 1.25 mV
𝑉𝑚 1.25 mV
● 𝐼2 = = = 25 μA
𝑅2 50 Ω
● 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑚 = 25 μA + 25 μA = 50μA
𝐸 1.5 V
● 𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ||𝑅𝑚 = 𝑏 = = 30 kΩ
𝐼𝑏 50 μA
● 𝑅𝑥 = 30 kΩ − 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 ||𝑅𝑚 ≈ 15kΩ

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 29

Example 7: solution
●With 𝑅𝑥 = 0 and 𝐸𝑏 = 1.3 V ● At 0.5 FSD, with 𝐸𝑏 = 1.3 V,
𝐸𝑏 1.3 V ● 𝑉𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚 = 25 μA × 50 Ω =
●𝐼𝑏 = ≈ = 86.67 μA 1.25 mV
𝑅𝑥 +𝑅1 +𝑅2 ||𝑅𝑚 0+15kΩ
𝑉 1.25 mV
●𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑏 − 𝐼𝑚 𝐹𝑆𝐷 = 86.67 μA − 50 μA = ● 𝐼2 = 𝑚 = = 18.33 μA
𝑅2 68.18 Ω
36.67μA ● 𝐼𝑏 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑚 = 18.33 μA +
●𝑉𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 𝐹𝑆𝐷 𝑅𝑚 = 50 μA × 50 Ω = 25 μA = 43.33 μA
2.5 mV 𝐸
● 𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ||𝑅𝑚 = 𝑏 =
𝑉𝑚 2.5mV 𝐼𝑏
●𝑅2 = = = 68.18 Ω 1.3 V
𝐼2 36.67μA = 30 kΩ
43.33 μA
● 𝑅𝑥 = 30 kΩ − 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 ||𝑅𝑚 ≈
15kΩ

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 30

Example 8
●Calculate the meter current and indicated resistance for the ohmmeter on its
R × 1 range when (a) 𝑅𝑥 = 0 and 𝑅𝑥 = 24 Ω.
●Solution:
●When 𝑅𝑥 = 0 Ω
●Battery current:
1.5 𝑉
● 𝐼𝑏 =
14 Ω+ 10 Ω|| 9.99 kΩ +2.875 kΩ +3.82 kΩ
1.5 𝑉
● 𝐼𝑏 = = 62.516 mA
14 Ω+ 10 Ω||16.875 kΩ
●Using the current divider rule:
10 Ω
● The meter current: 𝐼𝑚 = 62.516 mA × 10 Ω+16.685 kΩ
● 𝐼𝑚 = 37.5μA (full scale= 0 Ω)

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 33

Example 8: solution
●When 𝑅𝑥 = 24 Ω
●Battery current:
1.5 𝑉
●𝐼𝑏 = = 31.254 mA
24 Ω+14 Ω+ 10 Ω||16.875 kΩ

●Using the current divider rule:

10 Ω
●The meter current: 𝐼𝑚 = 31.254 mA ×
10 Ω+16.685 kΩ
●𝐼𝑚 = 18.72 μA (half scale= 24 Ω)

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 34

Example 9: Ohmmeter accuracy
●Analyze the accuracy of the ohmmeter when the pointer is at 0.8 FSD if the
meter used has 1% accuracy. Assume that 𝑅𝑚 ≪ 𝑅1 .
●Solution:
𝐸𝑏
●At 0.8 FSD: 𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 =
0.8 𝐼𝐹𝑆𝐷
𝐸𝑏
●At FSD: 𝑅1 =
0.8 𝐼𝐹𝑆𝐷
𝑅
●Then: 𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 = 1 = 1.25𝑅1
0.8
●𝑅1 = 4𝑅𝑥
●Total error = 1% of FSD = 1%/0.8 of the pointer indication.
●Total error =1.25% of the pointer indication
●Total 𝑅𝑥 error = 1.25% of (𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅1 )=1.25% of (4𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅𝑥 )
●Total 𝑅𝑥 error = 6.25% of 𝑅𝑥

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 36

Example 1
●A resistance is measured by the ammeter and voltmeter circuit. The measured
current is 0.5 A, and the voltmeter indication is 500 V. The ammeter internal
resistance is 10 Ω. The voltmeter sensitivity is 10 𝑘Ω/𝑉. Determine the true value of
the resistance and the error percentage.
●Solution
𝑘Ω
● 𝑅𝑣 = 1000 𝑉 × 10 = 10 𝑀Ω.
𝑉
● Voltmeter reading: 𝐸𝑅 = 500 𝑉
● Ammeter reading: 𝐼 + 𝐼𝑣 = 0.5 𝐴
𝐸𝑅 500 𝑉 𝑅𝑅𝑣
● 𝑅||𝑅𝑣 = = = 1000 Ω =
𝐼+𝐼𝑣 0.5 𝐴 𝑅+𝑅𝑣
● True value of the resistance 𝑅 = 1.0001 𝑘Ω
● Measured value of the resistance: 1 𝑘Ω
1.0001−1
● Reading error percentage: × 100 ≈ 0.01%
1.0001

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 4

Example 2
●A resistance is measured by the ammeter and voltmeter circuit. The
measured current is 0.5 A, and the voltmeter indication is 500 V. The ammeter
internal resistance is 10 Ω. The voltmeter sensitivity is 10 𝑘Ω/𝑉. Determine
the true value of the resistance and the error percentage.
●Solution
●Voltmeter reading: 𝐸 = 500 𝑉
●Ammeter reading: 𝐼 = 0.5 𝐴
𝐸 500 𝑉
●𝑅 + 𝑅𝐴 = = = 1000 Ω
𝐼 0.5 𝐴
●True value of the resistance 𝑅 = 990 Ω
●Measured value of the resistance: 1 𝑘Ω
990−1000
●Reading error percentage: × 100 ≈ 1%
990

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 6

Example 3
●A Wheatstone bridge has 𝑃 = 3.5 𝑘Ω, 𝑄 = 7 𝑘Ω, and the deflection
meter null is obtained when 𝑆 = 5.51 𝑘Ω. (a) Calculate the resistance of
𝑅. (b) Determine the resistance measurement range for the bridge if 𝑆 is
adjustable from 1 𝑘Ω and 8 𝑘Ω.
●Solution
𝑆𝑃 5.51 𝑘Ω × 3.5 𝑘Ω
●𝑅 = = = 2. 755 𝑘Ω.
𝑄 7 𝑘Ω
1 𝑘Ω × 3.5 𝑘Ω
●When 𝑆 = 1 𝑘Ω, 𝑅 = = 500 Ω.
7 𝑘Ω
8 𝑘Ω × 3.5 𝑘Ω
●When 𝑆 = 8 𝑘Ω, 𝑅 = = 4 𝑘Ω.
7 𝑘Ω
●The measurement range is 500 Ω to 4 𝑘Ω.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 11

Example 4
●Refer to example 3, assume that 𝑃 and 𝑄 have accuracies of ±0.05%,
and 𝑆 has ±0.1% accuracy. Calculate the accuracy of the measured
resistance and its upper and lower limits for the 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑆 values.
●Solution
●Maximum error percentage in 𝑅 = 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑃 +
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑄 + 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑆
●Maximum error percentage in 𝑅 = ± 0.05% + 0.05% + 0.1% = ±0.2%
●𝑅 = 2. 755 𝑘Ω ± 0.2% = 2.755 𝑘Ω ± 5.5Ω
●𝑅 = 2.7495 𝑘Ω to 2.7605 𝑘Ω

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 13

Example 5
●A Wheatstone bridge has 𝑃 = 3.5 𝑘Ω, 𝑄 = 7 𝑘Ω and 𝑆 = 4 𝑘Ω when
𝑅 = 2 𝑘Ω. The supply voltage is 𝐸𝐵 = 10 V, the deflection meter has a
current sensitivity 1 𝜇𝐴 and a resistance 𝑟𝐺 = 2.5 𝑘Ω. Calculate the
minimum change in 𝑅 which is detectable by the bridge.
●Solution
●𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑟 = 𝑃 𝑅 + 𝑄 𝑆 = 3.5 𝑘Ω 2 𝑘Ω + 7 𝑘Ω 4 𝑘Ω = 3.82 𝑘Ω
●𝑉𝑅 − 𝑉𝑆 = 𝐼𝐺 × 𝑟 + 𝑟𝐺 = 1 𝜇𝐴 × 3.82 𝑘Ω + 2.5 𝑘Ω = 6.32 𝑚𝑉
●When the bridge is balanced,
𝐸𝐵 𝑅 10 𝑉×2 𝑘Ω
● 𝑉𝑅 = = = 3.636 𝑉
𝑅+𝑃 3.5 𝑘Ω+2 𝑘Ω

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 16

Example 5: solution
●When the deflection meter voltage is 6.32 𝑚𝑉,
●𝑉𝑅 + Δ𝑉𝑅 = 3.636 𝑉 + 6.32 𝑚𝑉 = 3.642 𝑉
●𝑉𝑃 = 𝐸𝐵 − 𝑉𝑅 + Δ𝑉𝑅 = 10𝑉 − 3.642 𝑉 = 6.358 𝑉
𝑉𝑝 6.358 𝑉
●𝐼𝑝 = = = 1.816 𝑚𝐴
𝑃 3.5 𝑘Ω
𝑉 +Δ𝑉𝑅 3.642 𝑉 3.642 𝑉
●𝑅 + Δ𝑅 = 𝑅 = = = 2.006𝑘Ω
𝐼𝑅 𝐼𝑝 −𝐼𝐺 1.816 𝑚𝐴−1 𝜇𝐴
●Δ𝑅 = 6 Ω.
●The bridge sensitivity can be improved by:
●Increasing 𝐸𝐵
●Using a more sensitive deflection meter

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 17

Example 6
●The standard capacitance value is 𝐶1 = 0.1 𝜇𝐹, and 𝑅3 𝑅4 can be set to
any ratio between 100:1 and 1:100. Calculate the range of
measurements of the unknown capacitance 𝐶𝑥 .
●Solution
100
●For 𝑅3 𝑅4 = 100: 1, 𝐶𝑥 = 0.1 𝜇𝐹 × = 10 𝜇𝐹
1
1
●For 𝑅3 𝑅4 = 1: 100, 𝐶𝑥 = 0.1 𝜇𝐹 × = 0.001 𝜇𝐹
100
●The above analysis of the simple capacitance bridge assumes that the capacitors
are absolutely pure, with effectively zero leakage current through the dielectric.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 22

Example 7
●A series-resistance capacitance bridge has a 0.1 𝜇𝐹 standard capacitor
for 𝐶1 , and 𝑅3 = 10 𝑘Ω. Balance is achieved with a 100 Hz supply
frequency when 𝑅1 = 125 Ω and 𝑅4 = 14.7 𝑘Ω. Calculate the resistive
and capacitive components of the measured capacitor.
●Solution
𝐶1 𝑅3 0.1 𝜇𝐹×10 𝑘Ω
● 𝐶𝑠 = = = 0.068 𝜇𝐹
𝑅4 14.7 𝑘Ω
𝑅 𝑅 125 Ω×14.7 𝑘Ω
●𝑅𝑠 = 1 4 = = 183.8 Ω
𝑅3 10 𝑘Ω

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 24

Example 8
●A parallel-resistance capacitance bridge has a 0.1 𝜇𝐹 standard capacitor for
𝐶1 , and 𝑅3 = 10 𝑘Ω. Balance is achieved with a 100 Hz supply frequency
when 𝑅1 = 375 𝑘Ω and 𝑅4 = 14.7 𝑘Ω. Calculate the resistive and capacitive
components of the measured capacitor.
●Solution
𝐶1 𝑅3 0.1 𝜇𝐹×10 𝑘Ω
●𝐶𝑝 = = = 0.068 𝜇𝐹
𝑅4 14.7 𝑘Ω
𝑅 𝑅 375 𝑘Ω×14.7 𝑘Ω
●𝑅𝑝 = 1 4 = = 551.3 𝑘Ω
𝑅3 10 𝑘Ω
●Hint: Capacitors that have neither a very high nor a very low leakage resistance are best
measured as parallel RC circuit. The parallel equivalent circuit gives a direct indication of
the capacitor leakage current.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 26

Example 1
●Assume 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is 0.7 V and 𝑉𝐶𝐸(𝑠𝑎𝑡) is 0.2 V for the
on transistor. Calculate the collector and base
voltages for the off transistor in the flip-flop.
Determine the voltages across capacitors 𝐶1 and
𝐶2 .
●Solution
●With 𝑄2 on 𝑽𝑹𝟏𝑹𝟐 𝑽𝑪𝑬𝟐
● 𝑉𝐶𝐸2 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸(𝑠𝑎𝑡) = 0.2 V
● 𝑽𝑹𝟏𝑹𝟐 = 𝑽𝑪𝑬 − 𝑽𝑩𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝐕 − −𝟓 𝐕 = 𝟓. 𝟐 𝐕 𝑽𝑩𝟏
𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝟓 𝒌𝜴
● 𝑽𝑹𝟏 = 𝑽𝑹𝟏𝑹𝟐 × 𝑹 = 𝟓. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟓 𝒌𝜴+𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝜴 = 𝟏. 𝟗 𝐕
𝟏 +𝑹𝟐
● 𝑽𝑩𝟏 = 𝑽𝑪𝑬𝟐 − 𝑽𝑹𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝐕 − 𝟏. 𝟗 𝐕 = −𝟏. 𝟕 𝐕

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 4

Example 1: solution
●With 𝑄1 off
𝑹𝒄𝟏
●𝑽𝑹𝒄𝟏 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑽𝑩𝟐 × = 𝟓 V − 𝟎. 𝟕 V ×
𝑹𝒄𝟏 +𝑹′𝟏
𝟐.𝟕 𝒌𝜴
= 𝟎. 𝟕 V
𝟐.𝟕 𝒌𝜴+𝟏𝟓 𝒌𝜴
●𝑽𝑪𝑬𝟏 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑽𝑹𝒄𝟏 = 𝟓 𝑽 − 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑽 = 𝟒. 𝟑 𝐕
●𝑉𝐶1 = 𝑉𝑅1 = 1.9 V
●𝑽𝑪𝟐 = 𝑽𝑪𝑬𝟏 − 𝑽𝑩𝑬𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟑 𝑽 − 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑽 = 𝟑. 𝟔 𝐕
𝑽𝑩𝟐

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 5

Example 2
●A 500 mV level is to be converted into 7-bit digital code. Determine the
resolution of the conversion, and the analog levels represented by the
LSB and the MSB, and calculate the analog level represented by
1111111.
●Solution
●LSB = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝑛 = 500 𝑚𝑉/ 27 = 3.9 mV
●MSB = 2𝑛−1 × LSB = 27−1 × 3.9 mV= 250 mV
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 mV
●Or MSB = = 500 = 250 mV
2 2
●𝑉𝐹𝑆 = 1111111 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − LSB = 500 mV − 3.9 mV = 496.1 mV

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 27

Example 3
●A linear-ramp ADC uses 10-bit counter and a 15 kHz clock frequency.
The counter output is to be 1111111111 when the input voltage is 100
mV. Calculate the required ramp rate-of-change and the ADC conversion
time.
●Solution
●Maximum number of clock pulses: 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑛 − 1 = 210 − 1 = 1023 (one more
pulse would return the display to all zeros).
●𝑡1 = 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝑇𝑐 = 1023 × 1 𝑓𝑐 = 1023/15 kHz = 68.2 ms.
●Rate-of-change of 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝑎𝑥) /𝑡1 = 100 mV / 68.2 ms = 1.466 V/s
●Conversion time= 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 ≈ 1.1𝑡1 = 1.1 × 68.2 ms≈ 75 ms.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 32

Example 4
●If the 𝑅-2𝑅 DAC circuit is expanded into a 5-bit DAC, calculate the analog output
voltage when the input is (a) 00001, (b) 10000, and (c) 11111.
●Solution:
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 𝑑4 𝑑𝑛
● 𝑉𝑜 = − + + + + ⋯ +
𝑅 21 22 23 24 2𝑛
10 𝑉×5 kΩ 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 𝑑4 𝑑5
● 𝑉𝑜 = − + + + +
5 kΩ 21 22 23 24 25
10 𝑉×5 kΩ 0 0 0 0 1
● (a) 𝑉𝑜 = − + + + + = −312.5 mV = LSB
5 kΩ 21 22 23 24 25
10 𝑉×5 kΩ 1 0 0 0 0
● (b) 𝑉𝑜 = − + + + + = −5 V = MSB
5 kΩ 21 22 23 24 25
10 𝑉×5 kΩ 1 1 1 1 1
● (b) 𝑉𝑜 = − + + + + = −9.6875 V
5 kΩ 21 22 23 24 25
𝑛
● 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =LSB × 2 = 312.5 mV × 2 = 10 V 5

● 𝑉𝐹𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 10 𝑉 − 312.5 mV = 9.6875 V.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 12

Example 1
●Calculate the maximum counting time (𝑡1 ) for the DVM, if the clock generator
frequency is 1.5 MHz . Suggest a suitable frequency for the ramp generator.
●Solution
●Maximum pulses counted: 𝑁 = 1999
●Clock time period = 1 𝑓
●𝑡1 = 𝑁 × 1 𝑓 = 1999 × 1 1.5 MHz= 1.33 ms
●𝑡2 = 0.25𝑡1 = 0.25 × 1.33 ≈ 0.33 ms
●𝑡1 + 𝑡2 = 1.33 ms+0.33 ms= 1.66 ms
1 1
●Ramp generator frequency: 𝑓𝑅 = = ≈ 600 Hz
𝑡1 +𝑡2 1.66 ms

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 12

Effect of Rc aging
𝑉𝑅
●𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑛, where 𝑇𝑐 is the clock period, and 𝑛 is the number of clocks.
𝑅𝑐 𝑐
𝑉𝑅
● If 𝑇 = 1/1000, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑛/1000.
𝑅𝑐 𝑐

●E.g. If 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1 V, 𝑛 = 1000. 𝑇𝑐

●For 3 1 2 display, It will be 1.000 V. 𝑉𝑅

𝑣𝑅 𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑡
𝑅𝑐 1
●𝑅𝑐 becomes 0.8 of the initial value.
1
● The true value is: 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1 = 𝑛 , and 𝑛1 = 800. 𝑉𝑖𝑛
0.8×1000 1
1 𝑡
● The displayed value is: 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = × 800 = 0.8 V. The display is 0.800 V. 𝑇
1000 𝑡1

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 13

Example 1: solution
●Digital instrument:
●For 20 V indicated on a 3 1 2-digital display,
●𝑉 = 20.0 V
0.6
●± 0.6% rdg = ± × 20 V = ±0.12 V
100
●After rounding to the same number of digits after the decimal point: We have one
digit. Then, ±0.1 V.
●1 d = 0.1 V
●Voltage error = ± 0.6% of 20 V + 0.1 V = ±(0.1 V + 0.1 V) = ±0.2 V
0.2 V
●Voltage error = ± × 100% = ±1%
20 V

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 18

Digital frequency meter: Basic configuration
Input signal Amplifier or attenuator

Wave shaping circuit

𝑸
Flip-flop
𝑸 AND gate

Decade counters
Time
base Latch
BCD-to-7-
segment drivers
1999 Hz

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 19

Example 2
●A digital frequency meter with a 3 1 2-digit display has a time base derived from 1
MHz clock generator frequency divided by decade (10 scale) counters. Determine
the measured frequency when a 1.512 KHz sine wave is applied and the time base
uses (a) six decade counters and (b) four decade counters.
●Solution
● (a) Using six decade counters
1 MHz
● Time base frequency: 𝑓1 = = 1 Hz
106
1
● Counting time: 𝑡1 = =1s
1 Hz
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
● Cycles counted: 𝑛1 = = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 ×
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 1512 𝐻𝑧 × 𝑡1 = 1512 cycles.
● Measured frequency: 𝑓 = 1.512 kHz

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 24

Example 2: Solution
●(b) Using four decade counters
●Time base frequency: 𝑓2 =
1 MHz
4 = 100 Hz
10
19 9 9
1
●Counting time: 𝑡1 = = 10 ms
100 Hz
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
015
●Cycles counted: 𝑛1 = =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 × 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 1512 𝐻𝑧 × 𝑡1 = 15 cycles.
●Measured frequency: 𝑓 = 01.5 kHz
●The first digit (1) of the 3 1 2-digit display is off when the count is less than 1000
cycles of the input signal.
●The second digit indicates 0 when the count is less than 100 cycles.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 25

Example 3
●A digital frequency meter with an 8 1 2-digit display and an accuracy of
± 1 𝐿𝑆𝐷 + 1 × 10−5 is employed to measure frequency of 100 Hz,
100 kHz and 100 MHz . Calculate the percentage measurement error in
each case.
●Solution
●At 𝑓 = 100 Hz, Display is 100 Hz
●Error= ± 1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 + 100 Hz × 10−5 ≈ ±1 Hz
1 Hz
●%error= ± × 100% = ±1%
100 Hz

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 28

Example 3: Solution
●At 𝑓 = 100 kHz, Display is 100000 Hz
●Error= ± 1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 + 100 kHz × 10−5 ≈ ±2 Hz
2 Hz
●%error= ± × 100% = ± 2 × 10−3 %
100 kHz

●At 𝑓 = 100 MHz, Display is 100000000 Hz

●Error= ± 1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 + 100 MHz × 10−5 ≈ ±1 kHz
1 kHz
●%error= ± × 100% = ± 1 × 10−3 %
100 MHz

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 29

Example 1
●A ±40 V, 500 Hz triangular wave is applied to the vertical deflecting
plates of a CRT, ±50 V, 250 Hz sawtooth wave is applied to the
horizontal deflecting plates. The CRT has a 0.1 cm/V vertical deflection
sensitivity and a 0.08 cm/V horizontal deflection sensitivity. Assuming
that the two inputs are synchronized, construct the waveform displayed
on the screen.
●Solution
1 1
●For the triangular wave, 𝑇 = = = 2 ms
𝑓 500 Hz
1 1
●For the sawtooth wave, 𝑇 = = = 4 ms
𝑓 250 Hz

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 20

Example 1: solution
●At 𝑡 = 0:
●Vertical voltage = 0 V
●Horizontal voltage = −50 V
●Horizontal deflection =voltage × deflection
sensitivity= −50 V × 0.08 cm/V= −4 cm
(4 cm left from the center).
●Point 1 on the CRT screen is at:
●Vertical deflection = 0
●Horizontal deflection=4 cm left from the
center.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 21

Example 1: solution (cont’d)
●At 𝑡 = 0.5 ms:
● Vertical voltage = +40 V.
● Horizontal voltage = −37.5 V.
●Point 2 on the CRT screen is at:
● Vertical deflection= +40 V × 0.1 cm/V = +4 cm.
● Horizontal deflection = −37.5 V × 0.08 cm/V= −3 cm.
●At 𝑡 = 1 ms (point 3):
● Vertical deflection = 0
● Horizontal deflection = −25 V × 0.08 cm/V = −2 cm.
●At 𝑡 = 1.5 ms (point 4):
● Vertical deflection = −40 V × 0.1 cm/V = −4 cm.
● Horizontal deflection = −12.5 V × 0.08 cm/V = −1 cm.
●At 𝑡 = 2 ms (point 5):
● Vertical deflection = 0
● Horizontal deflection = 0

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 22

Example 2
●The sweep generator has 𝑅3 = 4.2 kΩ, 𝐶1 = 0.25 µF, 𝑉𝐵1 = 4.9 V, and
the trigger level of the Schmitt are ±2 V. Calculate peak –to– peak
amplitude and the time period of the ramp waveform.
●Solution
●∆𝑉 = 𝑈𝑇𝑃 − 𝐿𝑇𝑃 = 2 − −2 V= 4 V peak –to– peak
𝑉𝐵1 −𝑉𝐵𝐸 4.9 V−0.7 V
●𝐼1 ≈ = = 1 mA
𝑅3 4.2 kΩ
Δ𝑉𝐶1 4 V−0.25 µF
●𝑇 = = = 1 ms
𝐼1 1 mA

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 31

 Measurement of Voltage (cont’d)
● Waveform A has a peak-to-peak
amplitude of 4.6 vertical divisions
on the screen,
● Waveform B has 2 vertical divisions
peak-to-peak.
● Peak to peak voltage = (vertical p-to-p
divisions) x (VOLTS/DIV)

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 21

 Frequency Determination
o The time period of a sine wave is determined by measuring the time
for one cycle in horizontal divisions and multiplying by the setting
of the TIME/DIV control:
o The time period T = (horizontal divisions/cycle) x (TIMEIDIV)
8.8 divisions ×0.5 ms
o Wave A: 𝑇 = = 2.2 ms
2 cycles
1
o 𝑓 = 2.2 ms ≅ 455 Hz
8.8 divisions ×0.5 ms
o Wave A: 𝑇 = = 0.73 ms
6 cycles
1
o 𝑓 = 0.73 ms ≅ 1. 36 kHz

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 22

Phase Measurement
●The phase difference between ‘two waveforms is
measured by the method illustrated in the following
Figure.
●Each wave has a time period of 8 horizontal divisions,
and the time between commencement of each cycle is
1.4 divisions.
●One cycle = 360°. Therefore, 8 div = 360°.
360𝑜
●1 div = = 45𝑜
8
●The, the phase difference is: 𝜑 = 1.4 div × 45𝑜 div = 63𝑜
●𝜑 = phase difference in divisions × degrees div

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 23

Resistive transducer equations
𝜌𝑙
●𝑅 = where 𝜌 is the specific resistance of the wire in Ωm, 𝑙 is the total
,
𝐴
length in m, 𝐴 is the wire cross-sectional area in m2: 𝐴 = 𝜋 𝑑 2 4, where 𝑑 is
the wire diameter in m.
●When the resistance wire is strained positively, its length is increased and its
diameter is decreased, and both of these effects cause the wire resistance to
be increased.
●The new length is: 𝑙 + Δ𝑙.
●The new diameter is: 𝑑 − Δ𝑑.
●The increased resistance is: 𝑅 + Δ𝑅.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 8

Resistive transducer equations (cont’d)
●The ratio of Δ𝑅 to 𝑅 divided by the ratio of Δ𝑙 to 𝑙 is known as the gauge
factor (𝐺𝐹).
Δ𝑅 𝑅
●𝐺𝐹 =
Δ𝑙 𝑙

●The ratio of Δ𝑑 to 𝑑 divided by the ratio of Δ𝑙 to 𝑙 is referred as the Poisson’s

ratio (𝜇).
Δ𝑑 𝑑
●𝜇 =
Δ𝑙 𝑙

●The relationship between 𝐺𝐹 and 𝜇 can be known to be:

●𝐺𝐹 = 1 + 2𝜇
𝜌 𝑙+Δ𝑙
●The increased resistance is: 𝑅 + Δ𝑅 =
𝜋 4 𝑑−Δ𝑑 2

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 9

Capacitive transducers: Capacitive
displacement transducer
●The capacitance between plates separated by air or another dielectric
is:
𝜖 𝜖 𝐴
●𝐶 = 𝑜 𝑟 , where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the plates in m2, and 𝑑 is the
𝑑
distance between the plates in m.
●Adjustment of the distance (𝑑) between the plates gives a capacitance
variation Δ𝐶 inversely proportion to Δ𝑑.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 15

Capacitive transducers: Capacitive
displacement transducer (cont’d)
●Adjustment of the face plate area gives Δ𝐶 proportional to Δ𝐴.
●A movable dielectric between the two plates gives two separate plate
areas: 𝐴1 with an air dielectric, and 𝐴2 with an a solid dielectric.
●There are two different capacitors in parallel. Increasing the area of one reduces
the area of the other. Δ𝐶 is proportional to Δ𝐴.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 16

Capacitive transducers: Capacitive
displacement transducer (cont’d)
●When a capacitive displacement transducer, which varies the distance
between the plates Δ𝑑, the sensitivity is Δ𝐶 Δ𝑑.
●For a transducer, which varies the capacitor area, the sensitivity is
Δ𝐶 Δ𝐴, and this can be further reduced to Δ𝐶 Δ𝑙.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 18

Optoelectronic transducers: Photodiodes
(cont’d)
●At an illumination level: 𝐻 = 5 mW/cm2, 𝐼𝑅 is approximately 2.2 mA.
●At an illumination level: 𝐻 = 20 mW/cm2, 𝐼𝑅 is approximately 10 mA.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 25

Swept superhetrodyne spectrum analyzer
(cont’d)
●Sweep generator: it produces a linear ramp waveform, which provides
the horizontal deflection voltage for the CRT.
●The ramp is also applied to the VTO to produce a VTO output frequency that
sweeps from a minimum (𝑓1 ) to a maximum (𝑓2 ) .
●The VTO is applied to one input terminal of the mixer, and the other
mixer input receives the signal to be analyzed.
●If the signal frequency is 𝑓𝑠 , and the VTO frequency is 𝑓𝑜 , the mixer
output is: 𝑓𝑚 = 𝑓𝑜 ± 𝑓𝑠 .
●The IF amplifier will pass and amplify only 𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑠 .

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 8

Swept superhetrodyne spectrum analyzer:
an example
●Assume IF amplifier passes only a 100 kHz output frequency component
from mixer and that the VTO frequency 𝑓𝑜 sweeps 100 kHz to 200 kHz.
●If the signal frequency is 𝑓𝑠 = 50 kHz, the mixer output when 𝑓𝑜 = 100
kHz will be:
●𝑓𝑚 = 100 kHz − 50 kHz = 50 kHz. This frequency will not pass from the IF
amplifier.
●The mixer output when 𝑓𝑜 = 200 kHz will be: 𝑓𝑚 = 200 kHz − 50 kHz = 150 kHz.
Also, this frequency will not pass from the IF amplifier.
●The mixer output when 𝑓𝑜 = 150 kHz will be: 𝑓𝑚 = 150 kHz − 50 kHz = 100 kHz.
Also, this frequency will pass and be amplified.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 9

Swept superhetrodyne spectrum analyzer:
an example (cont’d)
●The VTO frequency is exactly half way, when
the mixer output is amplified.
●The vertical impulse representing 𝑓𝑠 = 50 kHz
occurs at the center of the CRT screen.
●When 𝑓𝑠 = 25 kHz, the mixer output is
amplified at 𝑓𝑜 = 125 kHz.
●When 𝑓𝑠 = 75 kHz, the mixer output is
amplified at 𝑓𝑜 = 175 kHz.
●A change of the VTO frequency range will
change the range of the signal frequencies
that may be displayed.

DR. HUSSEIN KOTB 10