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Lecture 1a - Basics of Thermodynamics

1) Thermodynamics models matter as a continuum for engineering purposes rather than at a microscopic level due to the large amount of information. 2) A system exchanges either matter and energy (open) or just energy (closed) with its environment, or neither (isolated). Properties define a state and can be extensive (additive) or intensive (doesn't depend on quantity). 3) Equilibrium exists when properties are unchanged, and a process is a change in state. Quasi-equilibrium processes occur slowly enough for properties to be well-defined between states.

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54 views

Lecture 1a - Basics of Thermodynamics

1) Thermodynamics models matter as a continuum for engineering purposes rather than at a microscopic level due to the large amount of information. 2) A system exchanges either matter and energy (open) or just energy (closed) with its environment, or neither (isolated). Properties define a state and can be extensive (additive) or intensive (doesn't depend on quantity). 3) Equilibrium exists when properties are unchanged, and a process is a change in state. Quasi-equilibrium processes occur slowly enough for properties to be well-defined between states.

Uploaded by

Muhammad Usman Saifullah Khan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Page 1 of 4

Lecture 1a

Lecture 1a: Basic of Thermodynamics


Thermodynamics is concerned with the mathematical modelling of the real world. In order
that the mathematical deductions are consistent, we need some precise definitions of the basic
concepts.

The Continuum Model


Matter may be described at a molecular (or microscopic) level using the techniques of
statistical mechanics and kinetic theory. For engineering purposes, however, we want
“averaged” information, i.e., a macroscopic, not a microscopic, description.

Microscopic description of an engineering device may produce too much information to


manage. For example, 1 mm3 of air at standard temperature and pressure contains 1016
molecules, each of which has a position and a velocity. Typical engineering applications
involve more than 1020 molecules.

Second, and more importantly, microscopic positions and velocities are generally not useful
for determining how macroscopic systems will act or react unless, for instance, their total
effect is integrated.

model matter from the start as a smoothed-out continuum. Classical thermodynamics is


concerned only with continua.

The Concept of a “System”


Open systems (control volume) can exchange
both matter and energy with the environment.
Piston (boundary) and gas (system)
Closed systems (control mass) exchange energy
but not matter with the environment.

Isolated systems can exchange neither energy


nor matter with the environment.

Boundary around x motor (system)

Sample control volume


Page 2 of 4
Lecture 1a

The Concept of a “State”


Defined by specifying values of a set of measurable properties sufficient to determine all
other properties.

For fluid systems, typical properties are pressure, volume and temperature.
More complex systems may require the specification of more unusual properties. As an
example, the state of an electric battery requires the specification of the amount of electric
charge it contains.

Properties may be extensive or intensive.

 Extensive properties are additive. Thus, if the system is divided into a number of sub-
systems, the value of the property for the whole system is equal to the sum of the
values for the parts. Volume is an extensive property.
 Intensive properties do not depend on the quantity of matter present. Temperature and
pressure are intensive properties.

Specific properties are extensive properties per unit mass and are denoted by lower case
V
letters. For example: specific volume= =v
m

Specific properties are intensive because they do not depend on the mass of the system.

The properties of a simple system are uniform throughout. In general, however, the properties
of a system can vary from point to point. We can usually analyze a general system by sub-
dividing it (either conceptually or in practice) into a number of simple systems in each of
which the properties are assumed to be uniform.

It is important to note that properties describe states only when the system is in equilibrium.

The Concept of “Equilibrium”


The state of a system in which properties have definite, unchanged values as long as external
conditions are unchanged is called an equilibrium state.

Mechanical Equilibrium Thermal Equilibrium

Figure: Equilibrium

A system in thermodynamic equilibrium satisfies:


Page 3 of 4
Lecture 1a

 Mechanical equilibrium (no unbalanced forces)


 Thermal equilibrium (no temperature differences)
 Chemical equilibrium.

The Concept of a “Process”


 If the state of a system changes, then it is undergoing a process.
 The succession of states through which the system passes defines the path of the
process.
 If, at the end of the process, the properties have returned to their original values, the
system has undergone a cyclic process or a cycle.

Note that even if a system has returned to its original state and completed a cycle, the state of
the surroundings may have changed.

Quasi-Equilibrium Processes
We are often interested in charting thermodynamic processes between states on
thermodynamic coordinates.

Quasi-static (quasi-equilibrium) processes – sufficiently slow processes, any intermediate


state can be considered as an equilibrium state (the macro parameters are well-defined for all
intermediate states).

Advantage: the state of a system that participates in a quasi-equilibrium process can be


described with the same (small) number of macro parameters as for a system in equilibrium
(e.g., for an ideal gas in quasi-equilibrium processes, this could be T and P). By contrast, for
non-equilibrium processes (e.g. turbulent flow of gas), we need a huge number of macro
parameters

Examples of quasi-equilibrium processes: For quasi-equilibrium processes, P,


V, T are well-defined – the “path”
o isochoric: V = const between two states is a
o isobaric: P = const
o isothermal: T = const
o adiabatic: Q=0

(a) p−vdiagram (b) p−T diagram (c) T −vdiagram


Figure: Thermodynamics coordinates and isolines for an ideal gas
Page 4 of 4
Lecture 1a

Equations of state of Ideal Gases


Two properties are needed to define the state of any pure substance in equilibrium or
undergoing a steady or quasi-steady process

Thus for a simple compressible gas like air,

P=P ( v , T ) ,∨v =v ( P , T ) ,∨T =T (P , v)

If we know v and T we know P, etc.

Any of these is equivalent to an equationf ( P , v , T ) =0, which is known as an equation of


state. The equation of state for an ideal gas, which is a very good approximation to real gases
at conditions that are typically of interest for aerospace application, is
o
P v=R T

o KJ
where v is the volume per mol of gas and R is the “Universal Gas Constant,” 8.31 −K .
Kmol

A form of this equation which is more useful in fluid flow problems is obtained if we divide
by the molecular weight, M:

Pv=RT ,∨P=ρRT
o

where R is R , which has a different value for different gases due to the different molecular
M
weights.

P – pressure [Newtons/m2]
V – volume [m3]
n – number of moles of gas [mol]
T – the temperature in Kelvins [K]
o
R – a universal constant

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