Elementary statistics and

probability

MODULE N0. 1
SECOND Introduction and
SEMESTER Basic concepts in
SY 2020 - 2021
Statistics

MISS CARMENCITA T. ANDRES

INSTRUCTOR
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SUBJECT: ELEMENTARY STATISTICS AND PROBABLILITY

BSED 2 MATHEMATICS

Module No. 1

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS IN

STATISTICS

A. INTRODUCTION

Everyday, we are faced with situations where statistics can be

applied. Statistics is everywhere. News reports, poll/election results,
Game standings, unemployment rates, business trends, forecasts, and
many more indicate the presence of statistics in many areas.
It is a tool to predict trends in this world where change is
constant and can track this changes. Statistics plays a vital role in
every field of human activity.
B. LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this module, you are expected to –
• Define Statistics, Descriptive and Inferential Statistics,
• Name and Illustrate the methods of Collecting Data, and Ways
of Presenting Data
• Differentiate between Population and Sample
• Define Variables and different types of variables
• Define Percentage and how to get percentages
• Define Summation and its properties

C. LEARNING EXPERIENCES AND SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

CHAPTER 1 – Introduction and Basic Concepts in Statistics
Lesson 1
Definition:
STATISTICS – deals with the collection, organization, presentation, analysis,
and interpretation of numerical data used as information for decision making.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS – field of statistics that does not involve any
generalizations.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS – makes use of generalizations, predictions,
estimations or approximations in the face of uncertainty

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Methods of Collecting Data:

1. Direct Method – interviews, personally talks to the subject
2. Indirect Method – Data is collected through the use of questionnaires
3. Observations – simply observing and giving reports
4. Experimentation – data gathered through experiments in laboratories
and classrooms
5. Registration – data acquired from private/government agencies like NSA,
School Registrars, Comelec
Ways of Presenting Data:
1. Textual Form – in paragraph or narrative form
2. Tabular Form – tables (rows or columns)
3. Graphical form – Charts, graphs, pictures

The above is an illustration of Textual Form in presenting data. Description of

data is in paragraph / narrative form.

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Another example in textual form where scores are enumerated in table form.

The figure below shows three different forms of presentation in one. The line
graph, bar graph and the pie chart.

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THE BAR GRAPH

THE PIE CHART

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Lesson 2 – POPULATION AND SAMPLE

Definition:
A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions
about.
A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size
of the sample is always less than the total size of the population.
In research, a population doesn't always refer to people.14 May
2020

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Lesson 3 - VARIABLES

All experiments examine some kind of variable(s). A variable is not only

something that we measure, but also something that we can manipulate and
something we can control for.

To understand the characteristics of variables and how we use them in

research, this guide is divided into three main sections.

First, we illustrate the role of dependent and independent variables.

Second, we discuss the difference between experimental and non-

experimental research.

Finally, we explain how variables can be characterized as either categorical or

continuous.

3.1 DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

An independent variable, sometimes called an experimental or

predictor variable, is a variable that is being manipulated in an experiment in
order to observe the effect on a dependent variable, sometimes called
an outcome variable.

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Imagine that a tutor asks 100 students to complete a math test.

The tutor wants to know why some students perform better than others.
Whilst the tutor does not know the answer to this, she thinks that it
might be because of two reasons: (1) some students spend more time
revising for their test; and (2) some students are naturally more
intelligent than others. As such, the tutor decides to investigate the
effect of revision time and intelligence on the test performance of the
100 students.

The dependent and independent variables for the study are:

Dependent Variable: Test Mark (measured from 0 to 100)

Independent Variables: Revision time (measured in

hours) Intelligence (measured using IQ score)

The dependent variable is simply a variable that is dependent on an

independent variable(s).

For example, in our case the test mark that a student achieves is
dependent on revision time and intelligence. Whilst revision time and
intelligence (the independent variables) may (or may not) cause a change in
the test mark (the dependent variable), the reverse is implausible; in other
words, whilst the number of hours a student spends revising and the higher a
student's IQ score may (or may not) change the test mark that a student
achieves, a change in a student's test mark has no bearing on whether a
student revises more or is more intelligent (this simply doesn't make sense).

Therefore, the aim of the tutor's investigation is to examine whether

these independent variables - revision time and IQ - result in a change in the
dependent variable, the students' test scores. However, it is also worth noting
that whilst this is the main aim of the experiment, the tutor may also be
interested to know if the independent variables - revision time and IQ - are also
connected in some way.

3.2 EXPERIMENTAL AND NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

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o Experimental research:

In experimental research, the aim is to manipulate an

independent variable(s) and then examine the effect that this change
has on a dependent variable(s). Since it is possible to manipulate the
independent variable(s), experimental research has the advantage of
enabling a researcher to identify a cause and effect between
variables.

For example, take our example of 100 students completing a

math exam where the dependent variable was the exam mark
(measured from 0 to 100), and the independent variables were revision
time (measured in hours) and intelligence (measured using IQ score).
Here, it would be possible to use an experimental design and manipulate
the revision time of the students. The tutor could divide the students
into two groups, each made up of 50 students. In "group one", the tutor
could ask the students not to do any revision. Alternately, "group two"
could be asked to do 20 hours of revision in the two weeks prior to the
test. The tutor could then compare the marks that the students
achieved.

o Non-experimental research:

In non-experimental research, the researcher does not manipulate

the independent variable(s). This is not to say that it is impossible to do
so, but it will either be impractical or unethical to do so.

For example, a researcher may be interested in the effect of illegal,

recreational drug use (the independent variable(s)) on certain types of
behavior (the dependent variable(s)). However, whilst possible, it would
be unethical to ask individuals to take illegal drugs in order to study what
effect this had on certain behaviors. As such, a researcher could ask both
drug and non-drug users to complete a questionnaire that had been
constructed to indicate the extent to which they exhibited certain
behaviors. Whilst it is not possible to identify the cause and effect
between the variables, we can still examine the association or
relationship between them.

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3.3 CATEGORICAL AND CONTINUOUS VARIABLES

Categorical variables are also known as discrete or qualitative

variables. Categorical variables can be further categorized as
either nominal, ordinal or dichotomous.

o Nominal variables are variables that have two or more categories, but
which do not have an intrinsic order.

For example, a real estate agent could classify their types of property
into distinct categories such as houses, condos, co-ops or bungalows.
So "type of property" is a nominal variable with 4 categories called
houses, condos, co-ops and bungalows. Of note, the different categories
of a nominal variable can also be referred to as groups or levels of the
nominal variable. Another example of a nominal variable would be
classifying where people live in the USA by state. In this case there will
be many more levels of the nominal variable (50 in fact).

o Dichotomous variables are nominal variables which have only two

categories or levels.

For example, if we were looking at gender, we would most

probably categorize somebody as either "male" or "female". This is an
example of a dichotomous variable (and also a nominal variable).
Another example might be if we asked a person if they owned a mobile
phone. Here, we may categorize mobile phone ownership as either "Yes"
or "No". In the real estate agent example, if type of property had been
classified as either residential or commercial then "type of property"
would be a dichotomous variable.

o Ordinal variables are variables that have two or more categories just
like nominal variables only the categories can also be ordered or ranked.
So if you asked someone if they liked the policies of the Democratic Party
and they could answer either "Not very much", "They are OK" or "Yes,
a lot" then you have an ordinal variable. Why? Because you have 3
categories, namely "Not very much", "They are OK" and "Yes, a lot" and
you can rank them from the most positive (Yes, a lot), to the middle
response (They are OK), to the least positive (Not very much). However,
whilst we can rank the levels, we cannot place a "value" to them; for
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example, we cannot say that "They are OK" is twice as positive as "Not
very much".

DATA

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

DISCRETE CONTINUOUS

NOMINAL ORDINAL INTERVAL RATIO

QUALITATIVE DATA – measure a characteristic on each individual or object

QUANTITATIVE DATA – measure a numerical amount on each individual or
object
DISCRETE DATA – can assume only a finite or countable number of values
CONTINUOUS DATA – can assume an infinite number of values corresponding
to a point on a line interval
NOMINAL DATA – can be gender, marital status, nature of employment, etc.
ORDINAL DATA - refer to order or rank - can be first, second, etc, rank 1,
rank 2
INTERVAL DATA – with precise difference in between measures –
temperature, water level
RATIO – scales used to measure height, weight, area, volume

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LESSON 4 - PERCENTAGE
In its simplest form, percent means per hundred.
Percentage formula is used to find the amount or share of something
in terms of 100. To express a number between zero and one, percentage
formula is used. It is defined as a number represented as a fraction of 100. It
is denoted by the symbol %, and is majorly used to compare and find out
ratios.

4.1 FORMULA TO CALCULATE PERCENTAGE

The Percentage Formula is given as,

Percentage = (Value ⁄ Total Value) × 100

Solved Example Questions Using the Formula for Percentage:

Question 1: Express ⅘ as a percentage.
Solution:
⅘ = (4 × 20 ⁄ 5 × 20)
= (80 ⁄ 100)
= 80%
Question 2: There are 150 students in a class. Out of them, 75 are girls. Find
the percentage of girls in the class.
Solution:
Total number of students in the class = 150
Girls in the class = 75
% of girls in the class = (75 ⁄ 150) × 100 = (7500 ⁄ 150) = 50%

LESSON 5 – SUMMATION

Often mathematical formulae require the addition of many variables

Summation or sigma notation is a convenient and simple form of
shorthand used to give a concise expression for a sum of the values of a
variable.

Let x1, x2, x3, …xn denote a set of n numbers. x1 is the first number in the
set. xi represents the ith number in the set.
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Summation notation involves:

The Summation Sign

This appears as the symbol, Σ, which is the Greek upper case letter, S.
The summation sign, Σ, instructs us to sum the elements of a
sequence. A typical element of the sequence which is being summed appears
to the right of the summation sign.

The variable of summation, i.e. the variable which is being summed

The variable of summation is represented by an index which is placed
beneath the summation sign. The index is often represented by i. (Other
common possibilities for representation of the index are j and t.) The index
appears as the expression i = 1. The index assumes values starting with the
value on the right hand side of the equation and ending with the value above
the summation sign.

i =The starting point for the summation or the lower limit of the summation

n = The stopping point for the summation or the upper limit of summation

Some typical examples of summation

This expression means sum the values of x, starting at x1 and ending

with xn.

This expression means sum the values of x, starting at x1 and ending

with x10.

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This expression means sum the values of x, starting at x3 and ending

with x10.
This expression means sum the values of x, starting at x3 and ending with
x10.

The limits of summation are often understood to mean i = 1 through

n. Then the notation below and above the summation sign is
omitted. Therefore this expression means sum the values of x, starting
at x1 and ending with xn.

This expression means sum the squared values of x, starting at

x1 and ending with xn.

Arithmetic operations may be performed on variables within the

summation. For example:

This expression means sum the values of x, starting at

x1 and ending with xn and then square the sum.

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Arithmetic operations may be performed on expressions containing

more than one variable. For example:

This expression means form the product of x multiplied by y,

starting at x1 and y1 and ending with xn and yn and then
sum the products.

In this expression c is a constant, i.e. an element which does

not involve the variable of summation and the sum involves
n elements.

PROPERTIES OF SUMMATION:
!
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑃𝑅𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑅𝑇𝑌 1. * 𝑖 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 =
2
"# %
"
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
𝑃𝑅𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑅𝑇𝑌 2. * 𝑖 ! = 1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯ + 𝑛! =
6
#$%
"

𝑃𝑅𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑅𝑇𝑌 3. * 𝑘 = 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑘 + ⋯ + 𝑘 = 𝑛𝑘 , 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
#$%
"

𝑃𝑅𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑅𝑇𝑌 4. * 𝑘𝑥# = 𝑘𝑥% + 𝑘𝑥! + 𝑘𝑥& + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑥"

#$%
"

= 𝑘 * 𝑥# , 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
#$%

𝑃𝑅𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑅𝑇𝑌 5 ∑"!#$(𝑎𝑥! ± 𝑏𝑦! ) = (𝑎𝑥$ ± 𝑏𝑦$ ) + (𝑎𝑥% ± 𝑏𝑦% ) +

(𝑎𝑥& ± 𝑏𝑦& ) + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑥" ± 𝑏𝑦" ) = 𝑎 ∑"!#$ 𝑥! + 𝑏 ∑"!#$ 𝑦! , a and
b are constants.
"

𝑃𝑅𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑅𝑇𝑌 6 5 𝑥! % = 𝑥$ % + 𝑥% % + 𝑥& % + ⋯ + 𝑥" %

!#$
"

𝑃𝑅𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑅𝑇𝑌 7. * 𝑥# 𝑦# = 𝑥% 𝑦% + 𝑥! 𝑦! + 𝑥& 𝑦& + ⋯ + 𝑥" 𝑦"

#$%

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ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES:
%'(%')%)
1. ∑%'
#$% 𝑖 = !
= 9(19) = 171 Property 1
&'(&')%)
2. ∑&'
#$% 𝑖 = !
= 19(39) = 741 Property 1
&&(&&)%) %+(%+)%)
3. ∑&&
#$%% 𝑖 = !
− !
= 33(17) − 5(11) = 506

This problem means you will be looking for the sum of 11 + 12 + 13

+… + 33. To get this, get first the sum from 1 – 33 then subtract the
sum from 1 – 11.
%,(%,)%)[!(%,))%] %,(%')(&0)
4. ∑%, !
#$% 𝑖 = /
= /
= 1785 Property 2
5. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∑0#$%(𝑥#
− 𝑦# )
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥% = 22 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦% = 9; 𝑥! = 14 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦! = 15; 𝑥& = 15 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦& =
21; 𝑥1 = 26 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦1 = 20; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥0 = 18 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦0 = 10
Solution: Use Property 5 with a and b are equal to 1
Substitute the values of x and y as shown below:
(𝑥% − 𝑦% ) + (𝑥! − 𝑦! ) + (𝑥& − 𝑦& ) + (𝑥1 − 𝑦1 ) + (𝑥0 − 𝑦0 ) = (22 − 9) +
(14 − 15) + (15 − 21) + (26 − 20) + (18 − 10) = 13 − 1 − 6 + 6 + 8 =
20
Therefore: ∑0#$%(𝑥# − 𝑦# ) = 20
6. 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∑0#$%(3𝑥# + 2 𝑦# )
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥% = 22 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦% = 9; 𝑥! = 14 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦! = 15; 𝑥& = 15 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦& =
21; 𝑥1 = 26 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦1 = 20; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥0 = 18 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦0 = 10
Solution: Use Property 5 with a = 3 and b = 2
Substituting values we have:
0 0

3 * 𝑥# + 2 * 𝑦#
#$% #$%
= 3(22 + 14 + 15 + 26 + 18) + 2(9 + 15 + 21 + 20 + 10)
= 3(95) + 2(75) = 285 + 150 = 435
0
Therefore: ∑#$%(3𝑥# + 2 𝑦# ) = 435
NOTE: YOU CAN FIND MORE EXAMPLES VIA INTERNET AND KHAN ACADEMY
IN PARTICULAR.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES:

BY DEFINITION OF QUANTITATIVE AND

QUALITATIVE DATA, CLASSIFY EACH DATA
ENUMERATED IN THE TABLE BELOW BY
WRITING QN FOR QUANTITATIVE AND QL FOR
QUALITATIVE.
DATA TYPE
1. Weekly Allowance
2. Income of Parents
3. gender
4. civil status
5. religion
6. age
7. address
8. educational
attainment of parents
9. job / occupation of
parents
10. schools previously
attended

Using the formulas for Summation, evaluate each of the

following:
1. ∑//
2$&1 𝑖 = _________

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥% = 22 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦% = 9; 𝑥! = 14 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦! =

15; 𝑥& = 15 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦& = 21; 𝑥1 = 26 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦1 =
20; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥0 = 18 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦0 = 10
2. Evaluate: ∑0#$%(2𝑥# − 5𝑦# )

3. Evaluate: ∑0#$%(𝑥# − 5)

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NOTE: SUBMIT YOUR ANSWERS ON OR BEFORE MARCH 15, 2021

REFERENCES:
Elementary Statistics Revised Edition by Basilia Ebora Blay Copyright 2013

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