MODULE IN ADVANCED

ACADEMIC WRITING
Prepared by
DR. LEILANI M. IBAY-PAM0

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Lesson 1 - What is Academic Language

Lesson 2 – The Role of Language in Schooling and Beyond

Lesson 3 – Different Registers

Lesson 4 – The Nature of Language

Lesson 5 – What is Academic Writing

Lesson 6 – Good Academic Writing

Lesson 7 – What Academic Writing is and what it is not

Lesson 8 – Citing and Paraphrasing

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Course Description

Academic Writing is a course that will help you improve your

academic and technical writing abilities and techniques in English. Our

broad goals include developing selected print and digital literacies that

are required for effective written communication in academic,

professional, and workplace settings where you can communicate with

experts from various fields. Although the primary aim of this course

involves helping you build your proficiency and confidence as a writer of

English, we will also devote time and effort to improving your reading,

critical reasoning, and most importantly, research skills. All skill areas

are interdependent, and people do not become good writers solely by

learning to write, according to a guiding principle of language and

literacy development. They also become effective writers by:

➢ reading extensively and learning a variety of comprehension

strategies;

➢ listening and paying attention to spoken messages;

➢ speaking and attending to how others comprehend our speech;

➢ building their vocabularies and paying attention to new words;

➢ noticing and using unfamiliar grammatical patterns.

Because of this, our class activities and assignments will build on

what you've learned in previous courses; in this course, we'll read,

discuss, and write about popular and professional texts in your field, as

well as non-print sources like broadcasts, podcasts, and videos. This

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material will serve as input for our classroom work and for your

assignments (reading tasks, blog posts, and a mini-project). By reading

assigned materials and preparing for class, participating actively in

classroom tasks, and completing assignments, you will be able to:

➢ Question and critique text content, rhetorical structure, and

authors’ purposes;

➢ Apply genre awareness by understanding texts, contexts, and the

roles of readers and writers;

➢ Gather reliable and useful information for writing by conducting

effective searches;

➢ Summarize, paraphrase, and quote effectively from authoritative

sources;

➢ Demonstrate efficient planning, drafting, revision, and editing

strategies;

➢ Reproduce selected scientific and professional genres, including

digital texts, summaries, abstracts, and critical reviews;

➢ Provide helpful feedback to fellow writers on their developing texts.

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Introduction

Students are required to write essays and reports for exams and

courseworks. Even professionals who are taking their master's degree or

doctorate need to write reaction papers, position papers, concept papers,

and most importantly, research papers. Writing is a skill not everyone

has but can be learned. If you are willing to write you must be willing to

spend time to learn. Once you have mastered the writing process and

acquired your own style of writing everything goes on smoothly and

writing becomes a passion.

This module was written to help students achieve this goal. This

course explains the writing process clearly with examples. Each step is

demonstrated and practiced, from selecting suitable sources, reading,

notetaking and planning through to re-writing and proofreading. The

course culminates with the lessons in writing an action research which

will be one of the most significant outputs that students taking master's

degree are required to write. With it, plagiarism will be discussed and a

special section of the course discusses on paraphrasing and citing of

sources properly to avoid plagiarism. This course is enriched with

extended lessons and further exercises that are accessed through its

companion website, which your professor may share to you.

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What is Academic Language?

Language is the fundamental resource or tool with which teachers

and children work together in schools (Frances Christie, 2005).

For the last couple of decades the language education community

has been grappling with defining the construct of academic language and

situating it within an assets-based model to ensure the academic

success of linguistically and culturally diverse students. Along come the

Common Core State Standards (CCSS) in 2010, and poof, academic

language assumes a front and center position in curriculum design and

enactment, impacting every teacher, every day. This chapter summarizes

the thinking on academic language use and its application to schooling.

It examines the roles of academic language, its dimensions and

underlying theories, and the developmental nature of language learning.

It concludes with a call for educators to recognize the paradigm shift we

are currently witnessing and to seize the opportunity to promote social

justice for students everywhere.

The Role of Language in Schooling and Beyond

Language is perhaps the most powerful tool available to teachers,

since language is pervasive in every aspect of the teaching and learning

process. Whether it is a nod signifying agreement, a command such as

“Eyes on me!” or an explanation such as, “This is one way to simplify an

equation,” language is always a resource for making and communicating

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meaning.

Language serves many purposes in schools. In addition to being a

place for social networking and for socializing students into ways of

“doing school,” school is one context for learning. In school, students use

language to make sense of the world that surrounds them, and, in the

process, they are (1) learning language, (2) learning through language,

and (3) learning about language (Halliday, 1993).

One unique characteristic of humans is that we never stop

learning language. From birth to age 7, children learn an enormous

amount of language. Although this amount declines as students reach

age 17 or 18, we continue to learn and enhance the language we need as

we navigate through new stages and contexts in life.

Language is at the center of the learning process; humans learn

through language. Language is a way of seeing, understanding, and

communicating about the world. Learning in schools and classrooms is

largely accomplished through language. In school, “We could virtually

say that ‘language is the curriculum’” (Derewianka, 1990, p. 3).

Beginning with the early stages of language learning, children

formulate— consciously or unconsciously—their own rules about how

language works. Later, children add new rules and amend old ones so

that their sentences and usages resemble the language used by adults

and those that surround them. As children learn the language of the

home, they learn several different language styles, which vary according

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to the setting, the speakers, and the goal of communication. These styles

are also called registers.

Different Registers

The concept of register is typically concerned with variations in

language conditioned by uses rather than users and involves

consideration of the situation or context of use, the purpose,

subjectmatter and content of the message, and the relationship between

the participants. (Romaine, 1994, p. 20) In the study of language, a

register is a variety of a language used for a specific purpose and

audience in a particular social setting.

Registers are simply a particular kind of language being produced

within the context of a social situation. Below are three ways of saying

the same thing, depending on the relationship between speakers and the

circumstance:

I would be very appreciative if you would make less noise.

Please be quiet.

Shut up!

Throughout the day a person may use several different registers.

For example, let’s listen in as Nicole, a 37-year-old nurse, uses several

registers.

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 In school contexts, teachers and students also use a variety of

registers. Many researchers and educators have made a distinction

between everyday and academic language (Cummins, 1986). Social

language is associated with everyday, casual interactions; it’s the

language we use to order an ice cream, talk with a neighbor, or chat with

family members. In schools, this is the language students use in the

playground, cafeteria, or in the hallway. However, social language is also

very much used in classroom dialog, as illustrated in the following

examples:

“Turn to your elbow partner and figure out the answer.” (Grade 2

teacher to students)

“Hold your horses; we are not there yet!” (history teacher to high

school students). “Dunno how to save my work.” (Grade 4 student to

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teacher)

“That’s a cool shirt, Dylan. Did you see the game?” (principal to

middle school student).

“Dude, you need to get caught up with your group.” (Grade 5

teacher to student). Everyday language is very much a part of

classrooms and schools; however, with its colloquial and idiomatic

expressions, it can be considered in the academic range for those

students who have not previously been exposed to it. At the other end of

the academic language spectrum is the more formal, specialized register

associated with disciplinary material. With today’s emphasis on

academic registers, many educators immediately think about vocabulary

as the distinguishing feature. Although vocabulary is a very important

dimension of academic language, as will become evident in the next

sections, it is only one aspect.

The Nature of Academic Language

What’s hard about learning in academic content areas is that each

area is tied to academic specialist varieties of language (and other special

symbol systems) that are complex, technical, and initially alienating to

many learners (Gee, 2004).

Although in recent years academic language has been at the center

of many educational efforts, educators and researchers have

conceptualized academic language in different ways. Several recent

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studies point to teachers’ understandings of academic language as

challenging content-area vocabulary, or “hard words” (e.g., Ernst-Slavit

& Mason, 2011; Homza, 2011; Lee, 2011; Wong Fillmore, 2011).

However, academic language is a complex concept. “The difference in

purpose, audience, and context results in clear differences in terms of

language use in the selection of words, formality, sentence construction,

and discourse patterns” (Gottlieb & ErnstSlavit, 2013, p. 2).

In this section, we will provide a working definition of academic

language, explain its importance in fostering academic thinking, describe

the main roles of academic language, and explain three dimensions or

components that characterize academic language.

In general terms, academic language refers to the language used in

school to acquire new or deeper understanding of the content and

communicate that understanding to others (Bailey & Heritage, 2008;

Gottlieb & Ernst-Slavit, 2013; Gottlieb, Katz, & Ernst-Slavit, 2009;

Schleppegrell, 2004). Because academic language conveys the kind of

abstract, technical, and

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What is Academic Writing

Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities

and scholarly publications. You encounter it in journal articles and

books on academic topics. It is a style of expression that researchers use

to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and specific

areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal

tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective

(usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and

precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other

professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to

convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts for a group of

scholarly experts.

In college and post-graduate studies, you will be expected to write

your essays, research papers, and dissertation in academic style.

Academic writing follows the same writing process as other types of texts,

but it has specific conventions in terms of content, structure and style.

You are also required to cite your sources properly and paraphrase the

texts you use for your own papers to avoid plagiarism.

Importance of Good Academic Writing

The accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can

vary considerable depending on the methodological framework and the

intended audience. However, most college-level research papers require

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careful attention to the following stylistic elements:

I. The Big Picture

Unlike fiction or journalistic writing, the overall structure of

academic writing is formal and logical. It must be cohesive and possess a

logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various parts are

connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links

between sentences and paragraphs so that the reader is able to follow

your argument. The introduction gives an overview of what the research

is all about describing the problem situation. It may include a brief

discussion of the existing phenomenon or situation and justifies the

existence of the problem by citing statistical data and authoritative

sources presented from global to local.

The first part of the background of the study can be written like in

the example below:

Based on the year-end report of DepEd in 2019, both local and

international assessments highlighted the low performance of Filipino

learners (Malipot, 2020). DepEd Secretary Leonor Briones stated that the

performance of Filipino students in NAT 2019 continues to drift toward

the low proficiency levels, especially in English, Science, and Math. Aside

from local assessments, the result of the 2018 Programme for

International Student Assessment (PISA) also revealed that the

Philippines scored the lowest in reading comprehension in a global

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survey. The respondents of the assessment were around 600,000 15-

year-old learners from 79 participating countries. These figures from

achievement tests reflect the current dilemma of the education system of

the country. From this scenario, it can be inferred that DepEd’s goal of

improving the academic performance of students in English with the help

of technology has not yet achieved. The researcher being a principal at

the Department of Education (DepEd) is concerned with the integration

of ICT integration into classroom instruction especially in English

language learning. It is from this point that she was prompted to

conduct this study to determine the level of knowledge and skills of

English teachers and their capability to integrate information and

communication technology (ICT) into their teaching. She believes that

before any ICT pedagogy integration is implemented, the teachers who

are the facilitators of learning inside the classroom must be equipped

with the knowledge and skills in ICT and the capability to effectively use

ICT to teach English. Thus, this study.

II. Tone

The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of

writing. Throughout your paper, it is important that you present the

arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When

presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this

argument accurately and without loaded or biased language. In academic

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writing, the author is expected to investigate the research problem from

an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths

of your arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not

confrontational or dismissive.

For example:

This finding strengthens the previous findings of researchers such

as Mendoza (2018), Moreno (2017), and Carlos 2015) that the use of song

integration to improve the reading fluency of students is effective. It is

also important to note, however, that Pamo (2019) found that the song

integration did not produce significant improvement in the reading speed

of Grade 7 students. She used one-group pretest-posttest design and

conducted the intervention within three weeks only.

Notice that the writer here acknowledged the finding of another

researcher even if it did not support their present finding. It was

conveyed in a formal and objective view.

III. Diction

Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the

words you use is important because words that have almost the same

denotation [dictionary definition] can have very different connotations

[implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because

words and terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a

particular idea, concept, or phenomenon derived from the

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epistemological culture of that discipline [e.g., the concept of rational

choice in political science]. Therefore, use concrete words [not general]

that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be done without confusing

the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the context of

how that word or phrase is used within a discipline.

IV. Language

The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is

often complex and multi-dimensional. Therefore, it is important that you

use unambiguous language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic

sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without

difficulty. Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely

what you want it to mean. Do not use vague expressions that are not

specific or precise enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they,"

"we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.' ["in other

words"], 'e.g.' ["for example"], or 'a.k.a.' ["also known as"], and the use of

unspecific determinate words ["super," "very," "incredible," "huge," etc.].

V. Punctuation

Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the

narrative tone of their work and, therefore, punctuation marks are used

very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are rarely used to

express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated

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or over-excited. Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an

explanatory comment in a sentence, while hyphens should be limited to

connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming

compound phrases [e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally, understand that

semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter

than a period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses

of semi-colons: when a second clause expands or explains the first

clause; to describe a sequence of actions or different aspects of the same

topic; placed before clauses which begin with "nevertheless", "therefore",

"even so," and "for instance”; and, to mark off a series of phrases or

clauses which contain commas. If you are not confident about when to

use semi-colons [and most of the time, they are not required for proper

punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or revise the paragraph.

VI. Academic Conventions

Citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of

references as either footnotes or endnotes is a very important aspect of

academic writing. It is essential to always acknowledge the source of any

ideas, research findings, data, paraphrased, or quoted text that you have

used in your paper as a defense against allegations of plagiarism.

Equally important, the scholarly convention of citing sources allow

readers to identify the resources you used in writing your paper so they

can independently verify and assess the quality of findings and

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conclusions based on your review of the literature. Examples of other

academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings

and subheadings, properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the

text, avoiding slang or colloquial language, avoiding emotive language or

unsupported declarative statements, avoiding contractions, and using

first person and second person pronouns only when necessary.

VII. Evidence-Based Reasoning

Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about

the research problem. However, what is valued in academic writing is

that opinions are based on what is often termed, evidence-based

reasoning, a sound understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge

and academic debates that exist within, and often external to, your

discipline. You need to support your opinion with evidence from

scholarly sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical

argument. The quality of your evidence will determine the strength of

your argument. The challenge is to convince the reader of the validity of

your opinion through a well-documented, coherent, and logically

structured piece of writing. This is particularly important when

proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended courses of

action.

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 VIII. Thesis-Driven

Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point

is a particular perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen topic of

investigation, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to

the research questions posed for the topic. Note that a problem

statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic

writing because simply identifying the research problem does not

establish for the reader how you will contribute to solving the problem,

what aspects you believe are most critical, or suggest a method for

gathering data to better understand the problem.

For example:

This study will investigate the effectiveness of using TextTwist as a

strategy to enhance the vocabulary competence of students. (This is not

an academic writing because it simply states what the study will do. If

the problem is the poor vocabulary competence of the students, what

does the present research do to address the problem? What does it do to

contribute to the solution of the problem?)

The following statement of the problem is a good example of an

academic writing:

This study will investigate the effectiveness of using TextTwist as a

strategy to enhance the vocabulary competence of students.

Specifically, it aims to answer the following questions:

1. What is the level of the vocabulary competence of the students

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in their pretest?

2. What is the level of the vocabualry competence of the students

in their posttest after the intervention was conducted?

3. Is there a significant difference between the pretest and posttest

scores of the students?

IX. Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking

Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-

order thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem [e.g.,

critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed to, for

example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking]. Higher-order thinking

skills include cognitive processes that are used to comprehend, solve

problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract ideas that

cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with images. Think of

your writing this way: One of the most important attributes of a good

teacher is the ability to explain complexity in a way that is

understandable and relatable to the topic being presented. This is also

one of the main functions of academic writing - examining and

explaining the significance of complex ideas as clearly as possible. As a

writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing a lot of

complex information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts,

and recommendations that contribute to a better understanding of the

research problem.

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Lesson 3 – What Academic Writing is and what it is not

Academic writing is... Academic writing is not...

Formal and objective Personal
Clear and precise Long-winded
Focused and well-structured Emotional
Well-sourced Opinionated
Correct and consistent Conversational and informal

Formal and unbiased

Academic writing aims to convey information in an impartial way.

The goal is to present facts and statistics to the readers and make

arguments comvincing. However, these arguments must be based on the

evidence under consideration, not the author’s preconceptions and

opinions. All claims should be supported with relevant evidence, not just

asserted. To avoid bias, it is important to represent the work of other

researchers and the results of your own research fairly and accurately.

This means that the ideas of previous researchers where you got your

evidences must be properly acknowledged and their statements be

paraphrased to avoid copying of their works en toto.

For example if you want to cite the work of a researcher you can

say:

“This finding is in consonance with the finding of Pamo (2019) that

English language immersion program is culture-based and time-bound.”

or you can also express it this way, “Similarly, Pamo (2019) stated that

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English language immersion program is culture-based and time-bound.”

The formal style used in academic writing ensures that research is

presented consistently across different texts, so that studies can be

objectively assessed and compared with other research. Because of this,

it is important to strike the right tone with your language choices. Avoid

informal language, including slang, contractions, clichés, and

conversational phrases. The phrase a lot of is informal and should not be

used in academic writing. Use many of instead. Also should not be used

as a beginning of a sentence. The choice of word must also be

considered. The word unreliable is offensive to describe other

researchers' findings. It is unkind to declare that other researchers'

findings are unrealiable. Substiture offensive words with agreable ones.

See the examples below.

Also, a lot of researchers' findings were unreliable. (not good)

Moreover, findings of many researchers need more verifications to

be accepted as reliable. (good)

Clear and precise

It is important to use clear and precise language to ensure that

your reader knows exactly what you mean. Use specific and simple

words that can be understood easily without using a dictionary. Be

specific and avoid using foreign language or vague language. However, if

you cannot avoid to use a particular word because it is the only word

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that can describe the situation, event, or fact you are referring to, use the

term but define it. If you cannot give a definition, use examples or

associations.

Examples:

This thing have aroused the interest of people long time ago.

This phenomenon has sparked the interest researchers for over a

decade.

Avoid hedging your claims with words like “perhaps,” “maybe,”

“might be,” as this can give the impression that you lack confidence in

your arguments. Reflect on your word choice to ensure it accurately and

directly conveys your meaning:

This could perhaps suggest that…

This suggests that…

Specialist language or jargon is common and often necessary in

academic writing, which generally targets an audience of other

academics in related fields.

However, jargon should be used to make your writing more concise

and accurate, not to make it more complicated. Use those jargons but

define them. A specialist term should be used when:

 It conveys information more precisely than a comparable non-

specialist term.

 Your reader is likely to be familiar with the term.

 The term is commonly used by other researchers in your field.

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 Examples of technical jargons are medical terms, scientific words,

and words that are used by certain groups. You can use these terms but

define them or give examples.

Examples:

My doctor injects me with epinephrine whenever my urticaria

attacks me. Epinephrine is a drug used in emergencies to treat very

serious allergic reactions to insect stings/bites, foods, drugs, or other

substances. Urticaria, also known as hives, is an outbreak of swollen,

pale red bumps or plaques (wheals) on the skin that appear suddenly,

either as a result of the body's reaction to certain allergens, or for

unknown reasons.

The paragraph above used two jargons, epinephrine and urticaria.

These words are known to doctors and other related professions. It may

also be known by patients who have urticaria and who are receiving

epinephrine shots. However, these words are vague or unfamiliar to

readers in general. To avoid misconceptions, technical jargons should be

defined for understanding.

The best way to familiarize yourself with the kind of jargon used in

your field is to read papers by other researchers and pay attention to

their language.

Focused and well-structured

An academic text is not just a collection of ideas about a topic—it

needs to have a clear purpose. Why are you writing it? What is the

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purpose of your writing? Academic writing is not a product if fantasy or

imagination that you can just write to express your emotions like you do

in poetry and short story.

Start with a relevant research question or thesis statement, and

use it to develop a focused argument. Only include information that is

relevant to your overall purpose. These information will be used to

support your findings or expound your arguments.

A coherent structure is crucial to organize your ideas. Make sure

that your paragraphs and sentences are inter-related and they are used

to develop a strong argument. Pay attention to structure at three levels:

the structure of the whole text, paragraph structure, and sentence

structure.

For overall structure:

 Always include an introduction and a conclusion.

 Divide longer texts into chapters or sections with clear headings.

 Make sure information is presented in a logical order.

For paragraph structure:

 Start a new paragraph when you move onto a new idea.

 Use a topic sentence at the start of each paragraph to indicate

what it is about, and make clear transitions between paragraphs.

 Make sure every paragraph is relevant to your argument or

question.

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 For sentence structure:

 Use transition words to express the connections between different

ideas within and between sentences.

 Use appropriate punctuation to avoid sentence fragments or run-

on sentences.

 Use a variety of sentence lengths and structures.

Well-sourced

Academic writing uses sources to support its claims. Sources are

other texts (or media objects like photographs or films) that the author

analyzes or uses as evidence. Many of your sources will be written by

other academics; academic writing is collaborative and builds on

previous research.

It is important to consider which sources are credible and

appropriate to use in academic writing. For example, citing Wikipedia is

typically discouraged. Don’t rely on websites for information; instead, use

academic databases and your university library to find credible sources.

You must always cite your sources in academic writing. This

means acknowledging whenever you quote or paraphrase someone else’s

work by including a citation in the text and a reference list at the end.

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Lesson 4 – Citing and Paraphrasing

There are many different citation styles with different rules. The

most common styles are APA, MLA, and Chicago. Make sure to

consistently follow whatever style your institution requires. If you do not

cite correctly, you may get in trouble for plagiarism.

I. American Psychological Association (APA) citation

APA is the style of documentation of sources used by the American

Psychological Association. This form of writing research papers is used

mainly in the social sciences, like psychology, anthropology, sociology, as

well as education and other fields.

There are two parts to referencing: the citations within the text of

your paper and the reference list at the end of your paper.

The APA referencing style is an "author-date" style, so the citation

in the text consists of the author(s) and the year of publication given

wholly or partly in round brackets.

Use only the surname of the author(s) followed by a comma and

the year of publication. Include page, chapter or section numbers if you

need to be specific, for example if you are quoting, paraphrasing or

summarizing.

An in-text citation is a concise way to show the reader where the

original idea came from and to give credit to the original author. Use one

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every time you quote or paraphrase a source.

Include the author’s last name and the year of publication.

When quoting a source, it is also necessary to include the page

number(s) of the quote.

This is how you will acknowledge your source if you opt to put your

source in the end of your statement. The name of the author is enclosed

in parentheses followed by the year of the publication separated by a

comma:

An earlier study in which X and Y were compared revealed that X

performed better than Y (Smith, 2017).

If your source is mentioned in the beginning of your statement, the

surname of the source must be written followed by the year the article

was published. The year is enclosed in parentheses:

Smith (2017) shows how, in the past, research into X was mainly

concerned with herbal medicines.

If you opt to put the specific page where the statements are found,

you write it this way:

Elsewhere, it has been argued that the method is “the best

currently available” (Smith, 2019, p. 25).

You may opt to include the page. Some universities only require

their students to include the author(s) and the year of publication.

Always consult the format of your institution.

2 authors: When a source has two authors, separate their last

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names with an ampersand (&), or with the word ‘and’ when they appear

in the running text.

Research shows that there is a great need for … (Reynolds &

Thomas, 2014). You write an ampersand for the word “and” if your

citation is in the end of your statement. However, if you begin your

statement with the authors, you write the word “and” in full. Do not

abbreviate it or replace it with an ampersand like in the following

example:

Reynolds and Thomas (2014) write that there is a great need for …

Organisation as author: When a source does not list an

individual author, it can often be attributed to an organisation instead.

According to the company’s guidelines … (Microsoft, 2014).

Microsoft (2014) has set up the guidelines on …

Quotes: When you quote a source, you also have to add the page

number to the in-text citation.

According to the company’s business plan, ‘making an APA

Citation Generator is a lot of work, but many students benefit from it’

(Swan, 2014, p. 5).

Multiple sources in one citation: Sometimes, it’s necessary to

cite multiple sources in one sentence. You can combine them into one

set of brackets, separated by semicolons.

Various studies show that … (Docker & Vagrant, 2002; Porter,

1997; Lima, Swan, & Corrieri, 2012).

29
 APA Manual 7th edition: The most notable changes

In October 2019, the American Psychological Association (APA)

introduced the 7th edition of the APA Publication Manual, which replaces

the 6th edition published in 2009.

In that time a lot of things have changed. Citing online material

has become more common, the use of inclusive and bias-free language is

increasingly important, and the technology used by researchers and

students has changed.

The 7th edition addresses these changes by providing better and

more extensive guidelines. This article outlines the biggest changes that

you should know about.

References and in-text citations in APA Style

When it comes to citing sources, more guidelines have been added

that make citing online sources easier and clearer. In total, 114

examples are provided, ranging from books and periodicals to

audiovisuals and social media. For each reference category, an easy

template is provided to help you understand and apply the citation

guidelines. The biggest changes in the 7th edition are:

1) The publisher location is no longer included in the reference.

30
 2) The in-text citation for works with three or more authors is now

shortened right from the first citation. You only include the first author’s

name and “et al.”.

3) Surnames and initials for up to 20 authors (instead of 7) should

be provided in the reference list.

4) DOIs are formatted the same as URLs. The label “DOI:” is no

longer necessary.

wrong: doi: 10.1080/02626667.2018.1560449

correct: https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2018.1560449

5) URLs are no longer preceded by “Retrieved from,” unless a

31
retrieval date is needed. The website name is included (unless it’s the

same as the author), and web page titles are italicized.

wrong: Walker, A. (2019, November 14). Germany avoids recession

but growth remains weak. Retrieved from
https://www.bbc.com/news/business-50419127

correct: Walker, A. (2019, November 14). Germany avoids recession

but growth remains weak. BBC News.
https://www.bbc.com/news/business-50419127

6) For ebooks, the format, platform, or device (e.g. Kindle) is no

longer included in the reference, and the publisher is included.

wrong: Brück, M. (2009). Women in early British and Irish

astronomy: Stars and satellites [Kindle version].
https:/doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2473-2

correct: Brück, M. (2009). Women in early British and Irish

astronomy: Stars and satellites. Springer Nature.
https:/doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2473-2
7) Clear guidelines are provided for including contributors other

than authors and editors. For example, when citing a podcast episode,

the host of the episode should be included; for a TV series episode, the

writer and director of that episode are cited.

8) Dozens of examples are included for online source types such

as podcast episodes, social media posts, and YouTube videos. The use of

emojis and hashtags is also explained.

Inclusive and bias-free language

Writing inclusively and without bias is the new standard, and

32
APA’s new publication manual contains a separate chapter on this topic.

The guidelines provided by APA help authors reduce bias around

topics such as gender, age, disability, racial and ethnic identity, and

sexual orientation, as well as being sensitive to labels and describing

individuals at the appropriate level of specificity. Some examples include:

9) The singular “they” or “their” is endorsed as a gender-neutral

pronoun.

wrong: A researcher’s career depends on how often he or she is

cited.

correct: A researcher’s career depends on how often they are cited.

10) Instead of using adjectives as nouns to label groups of people,

descriptive phrases are preferred.

wrong: The poor

correct: People living in poverty

11) Instead of broad categories, you should use exact age ranges

that are more relevant and specific.

Wrong: People over 65 years old

Correct: People in the age range of 65 to 75 years old

APA Paper format

In the 7th edition, APA decided to provide different paper format

guidelines for professional and student papers. For both types a sample

paper is included. Some notable changes include:

33
 12) Increased flexibility regarding fonts: options include Calibri 11,

Arial 11, Lucida Sans Unicode 10, Times New Roman 12, and Georgia

11.

13) The running head on the title page no longer includes the

words “Running head:”. It now contains only a page number and the

(shortened) paper title.

Wrong: Running head: THE EFFECT OF GOOGLE ON THE

INTERNET

Correct: THE EFFECT OF GOOGLE ON THE INTERNET

14) The running head is omitted in student papers (unless your

instructor or institution tells you otherwise).

15) Heading levels 3-5 are updated to improve readability.

Mechanics of style

In terms of style, not much has changed in the 7th edition. In

addition to some updated and better explained guidelines, there are two

notable changes:

16) Use only one space after a period at the end of a sentence.

17) Use double quotation marks instead of italics to refer to

linguistic examples.

Wrong: APA endorses the use of the singular pronoun they

34
 Correct: APA endorses the use of the singular pronoun “they”

APA reference list: The APA reference page is a separate page at

the end of your paper where all sources you cited in the main text are

listed. The references are sorted alphabetically, double spaced, and

formatted using a hanging indent of ½ inch. Use “References” as page

heading and include a running head with your paper title and page

number.

Creating references in APA format

Each reference must be structured according to the rules for that

source type. These rules vary between books, journal articles, internet

articles and more. APA references can be created either manually or by

35
using an APA Citation Generator. You can use this online for free.There

are sites that offer a citation generator like the Scribbr APA Citation

Generator. It is even free of ads and you can automatically cite your

sources based on the website URL, journal DOI or book ISBN.

You should include a reference for all sources you have cited in the

text. Do not include sources you have only consulted. There are four

types of source that are never included in an APA reference page:

 Classical works such as the Bible

 Personal communication such as emails, telephone conversations

and chat messages

 Entire websites (always cite the page)

 Common knowledge

Multiple authors in APA: A standard source reference begins

with the author’s surname, followed by a comma, then the initial(s) of his

or her first name.

If there are multiple authors, place a comma between each of the

author names and an ampersand (“&”) before the last author’s name. If

there are more than eight authors, list the first six followed by an ellipses

“…” followed by the last author.

There should always be a period after the author name(s).

1 author:

Bentham, G. (1996). Association Between Incidence Of Non-

36
 Hodgkin’s Lymphoma And Solar Ultraviolet Radiation In
England And Wales. BMJ: British Medical Journal,
312(7039),1128-1131. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/29731519

2 authors:

Mead, G., & Whitehouse, J. (1986). Regular Review: Modern

Management Of Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma. British Medical
Journal (Clinical Research Edition), 293(6547), 577-580.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/29524395

3 – 7 authors:

Ishii, K., Hosoi, Y., Yamada, S., Ono, T., & Sakamoto, K. (1996).
Decreased Incidence of Thymic Lymphoma in AKR Mice as a
Result of Chronic, Fractionated Low-Dose Total-Body X
Irradiation. Radiation Research, 146(5), 582-585.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3579560

8+ authors :

Zoufaly, A., Stellbrink, H., An der Heiden, M., Kollan, C.,

Hoffmann, C., Van Lunzen, J., . . . ClinSurv Study Group.
(2009). Cumulative HIV Viremia during Highly Active
Antiretroviral Therapy Is a Strong Predictor of AIDS-Related
Lymphoma. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 200(1), 79-
87. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40255115

Formatting the reference page: An APA reference page must

also adhere to various format requirements, including indentation,

spacing and margins. It is also vital that your reference list is

alphabetized. This is how it should look:

37
 One inch (2.54 cm) page margins on all sides

 Times New Roman font in 12 pt

 ‘References’ as title (centered)

 Running head (top left corner)

 Page number (top right corner)

 Double spacing within and between references

 ½ inch hanging indent for references longer than one line.

Alignment instructions for Word:

1) Make sure you can see the ruler at the top of the page (change the

setting under the “View” tab if you cannot).

2) Select all text in the reference list.

3) The ruler will show two triangles and one square. Drag the bottom

38
 triangle to the right, half an inch, to set the hanging indent.

Dividing URLs

Microsoft Word sees a URL as one word and will always split a long

URL over more than one line.

To avoid this, you want Word to divide the URL after a slash. You

can divide a URL after a slash by placing your cursor after the slash and

then clicking on Insert → Symbol → More Symbols… → Special

Characters. Then add the character “No-Width Optional Break” or type

ALT+8203.

You can also do this for all the slashes in your document by using

the Find and Replace function in Word. At “Find what”, insert a slash. At

“Replace with” insert a slash and then type ALT+8203. Then click

“Replace All.” You need to practice doing this now because you will be

needing it when you will write your research.

Alphabetizing. The last step in creating the perfect APA reference

page is to ensure the sources are correctly alphabetized, usually based

39
on the author’s surname. Word can do this automatically for you. We

also wrote an in-depth article on how to alphabetize the APA reference

list.

APA format for other sections. The reference page is not the

only part of your paper with specific formatting requirements in APA

Style.

Smith, J. (2019). Statistical analysis methods (2nd ed.). New York,

NY: Norton.

Smith, J. (2019). Using APA for citing references. New York, NY:
Norton.

Smith, J. (2019). APA citation: A guide for researchers. New York,

NY: Norton.

Look closely at how the reference is written. Only the first letter of

the first word is capotalized in the title of the research. All words that

follow begin with a small letter unless it is a proper name or an acronym.

II. Modern Language Association (MLA) citation

The Modern Language Association (MLA) establishes values for

acknowledging sources used in a research paper. MLA citation style uses

a simple two-part parenthetical documentation system for citing sources:

Citations in the text of a paper point to the alphabetical Works Cited list

that appears at the end of the paper. Together, these references identify

and credit the sources used in the paper and allow others to access and

retrieve this material.

40
 For in-text citation:

In MLA style, writers place references to sources in the paper to

briefly identify them and enable readers to find them in the Works Cited

list. These parenthetical references should be kept as brief and as clear

as possible.

Give only the information needed to identify a source. Usually the

author's last name and a page reference suffice.

For example:

Author's name in text: Dover has expressed this concern (118-

21).

Author's name in reference: This concern has been expressed

(118-21).

Multiple authors of a work: This hypothesis (Bradley and Rogers

7) suggested this theory (Sumner, Reichl, and Waugh 23).

Two locations: Williams alludes to this premise (136-39, 145).

Two works cited: (Burns 54; Thomas 327)

Multivolume works

References to volumes and pages (Wilson 2:1-18)

References to an entire volume (Henderson, vol. 3)

In text reference to an entire volume: In volume 3,

Henderson suggests...

Corporate authors (United Nations, Economic Commission for

Africa 51-63)

41
 Works with no author: When a work has no author, use the

work's title or a shortened version of the title when citing it in text. (If

abbreviating a title, omit initial articles and begin with the word by which

it is alphabetized in the Works Cited list.): as stated by the presidential

commission (Report 4).

Online source without numbered pages: on climate change

(Howe)

Online source with numbered paragraphs: (Fox, pars. 4-5)

Works Cited list

References cited in the text of a research paper must appear at the

end of the paper in a Works Cited list or bibliography. This list provides

the information necessary to identify and retrieve each source that

specifically supports your research.

 Arrange entries in alphabetical order by authors' last names

(surnames), or by title for sources without authors.

 Capitalize the first word and all other principal words of the titles

and subtitles of cited works listed. (Do not capitalize articles,

prepositions, coordinating conjunctions, or the "to" in infinitives.)

 Shorten the publisher's name; for example, omit articles, business

abbreviations (Co., Inc.), and descriptive words (Press, Publisher).

 When multiple publishers are listed, include all of them, placing a

semicolon between each.

 When more than one city is listed for the same publisher, use only

42
 the first city.

 Use the conjunction "and," not an ampersand [&], when listing

multiple authors of a single work.

 Pagination: Do not use the abbreviations p. or pp. to designate

page numbers.

 Indentation: Align the first line of the entry flush with the left

margin, and indent all subsequent lines (5 to 7 spaces) to form a

"hanging indent."

 Italics: Choose a font in which the italic style contrasts clearly with

the regular style.

Examples:

Books: References to an entire book should include the

following elements:

 author(s) or editor(s)

 the complete title

 edition, if indicated

 place of publication

 the shortened name of the publisher

 date of publication

 medium of publication

No author or editor:

Peterson's Annual Guides to Graduate Study. 33rd ed.

Princeton: Peterson's, 1999. Print.

43
Editor:

Blistein, Elmer, ed. The Drama of the Renaissance: Essays for

Leicester Bradner. Providence: Brown, 1970. Print.

One author:

Nabokov, Vladimir. Lolita. New York: Putnam, 1955. Print.

Another work, same author:

Speak, Memory: An Autobiography Revisited. New York: Knopf,

1999. Print.

Two authors:

Cross, Susan, and Christine Hoffman. Bruce Nauman:

Theaters of Experience. New York: Guggenheim Museum;
London: Thames & Hudson, 2004. Print.

Three authors:

Lowi, Theodore, Benjamin Ginsberg, and Steve Jackson.

Analyzing American Government: American Government,
Freedom and Power. 3rd ed. New York: Norton, 1994. Print.

More than three authors:

Gilman, Sandor, et al. Hysteria beyond Freud. Berkeley: U of

California P, 1993. Print.

Corporate author:

Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art. A Guide to the Herbert F.

Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell University. Ithaca: Cornell
U, 1973. Print.

Multivolume work:

Morison, Samuel Eliot, Henry Steele Commager, and William

44
 E. Leuchtenburg. The Growth of the American Republic. 2
vols. New York: Oxford UP, 1980. Print.

Essay or Chapter in Edited Books or Anthologies: References to

an essay or chapter in an edited book or compilation must include the

following elements:

 essay or chapter author(s)

 essay or chapter title

 book title

 book editor(s) or compilers

 place of publication

 the shortened name of the publisher

 date of publication

 inclusive page numbers of the cited piece

 medium of publication

Article in a book:

Ahmedi, Fauzia Erfan. "Welcoming Courtyards: Hospitality,

Spirituality, and Gender." Feminism and Hospitality:
Gender in the Host/Guest Relationship. Ed. Maurice
Hamington. Lanham: Lexington, 2010. 109-24. Print.

Reprinted article:

Hunt, Tim. "The Misreading of Kerouac." Review of

Contemporary Fiction 3.2 (1983): 29-33. Rpt. in
Contemporary Literary Criticism. Ed. Carl Riley. Vol. 61.
Detroit: Gale, 1990. 308-10. Print.

Articles or entries from reference books: If the article or entry is

45
signed, place the author's name first; if it is unsigned, give the title first.

For wellknown reference works, it is not necessary to include full

publication information. Include only the title of the reference source,

edition, and date of publication.

Dictionary entry:

"Hospitality." Def. 1a. Webster’s Third New World Dictionary. 1993.

Print.

Encyclopedia entry:

Mercuri, Becky. "Cookies." The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and

Drink in America. Ed. Andrew F. Smith. Vol. 1. New York :
Oxford, 2004. Print.

Article from a less familiar reference book: For articles from

less familiar reference sources, include the full publication information.

Bernheisel, J. Frank. "Setting Recycling Goals and Priorities."

McGraw-Hill Recycling Handbook. Ed. Herbert F. Lund. 2nd
ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001. Print.

Article in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers: References to

periodical articles must include the following elements:

• author(s)

• article title

• publication title (journal, magazine, etc.)

• volume number

• publication date (abbreviate months, if used)

46
 • the inclusive page numbers

• medium of publication

Issue numbers should be stated as decimals to a given volume

number. In the example below, the number 25.4 reads as Volume 25,

issue 4. When citing newspapers, it is important to specify the edition

used (e.g. late ed.) because different editions of a newspaper may contain

different material.

Journal article, one author:

Matarrita-Cascante, David. "Beyond Growth: Reaching Tourism-

Led Development." Annals of Tourism Research 37.4 (2010):
1141-63. Print.

Journal article, two authors:

Laing, Jennifer, and Warwick Frost. "How Green Was My Festival:

Exploring Challenges and Opportunities Associated With
Staging Green Events." International Journal of Hospitality
Management 29.2 (2010): 261-7. Print.

Magazine article:

Kaplan, David A. "Corporate America’s No. 1 Gun For Hire."

Fortune 1 Nov. 2010: 81-95. Print

Newspaper article, no author:

"Africa Day Celebrated in Havana." Granma International 31 May

2009, English ed.: 16. Print.

47
 Newspaper article, one author, discontinuous pages:

Bajaj, Vikas. "The Double-Edged Rupee." New York Times 27 Oct.

2010: B1+. Print.

International document:

United Nations. General Assembly. Convention on the Elimination

of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. New York:
United Nations, 1979. Print.

Audio Visual

Film or video recording:

Annie Hall. Dir. Woody Allen. 1977. Videocassette. MGM/UA Home

Video, 1991.

Sound recording:

Counting Crows. August and Everything After. DGC, 1993. CD.

Sound recording, specific song:

Counting Crows. "Mr. Jones." August and Everything After. DGC,

1993. CD.

Correct and consistent

As well as following the rules of grammar, punctuation and

citation, it’s important to consistently apply stylistic conventions

regarding:

 How to write numbers

 Introducing abbreviations

 Using verb tenses in different sections

48
  Capitalization of terms and headings

 Spelling and punctuation differences between UK and US English

In some cases there are several acceptable approaches that you

can choose between—the most important thing is to apply the same rules

consistently, and to carefully proofread your text before you submit.

Academic writing is not…

Personal

Academic writing generally tries to avoid being too personal.

Information about the author may come in at some points—for example

in the acknowledgements or in a personal reflection—but for the most

part the text should focus on the research itself.

Always avoid addressing the reader directly with the second-person

pronoun “you.” Use the impersonal pronoun “one” or an alternate

phrasing instead for generalizations:

Wrong: As a teacher, you must treat your students fairly.

Correct: As a teacher, one must treat one’s students fairly.

Correct: Teachers must treat their students fairly.

The use of the first-person pronoun “I” used to be similarly

discouraged in academic writing, but it is increasingly accepted in many

fields. If you are unsure whether to use the first person, pay attention to

conventions in your field or ask your instructor.

When you refer to yourself, it should be for good reason. You can

position yourself and describe what you did during the research, but

49
avoid arbitrarily inserting your personal thoughts and feelings:

In my opinion…

I think that…

I like/dislike…

I conducted interviews with…

I argue that…

I hope to achieve…

Long-winded

Many students think their writing is not academic unless it is over-

complicated and long-winded. This is not a good approach—instead, aim

to be as concise and direct as possible.

If a term can be cut or replaced with a more straightforward one

without affecting your meaning, it should be. Avoid redundant phrasings

in your text, and try replacing phrasal verbs with their one-word

equivalents where possible:

Interest in this phenomenon carried on in the year 2018.

Interest in this phenomenon continued in 2018.

Repetition is a part of academic writing—for example, summarizing

earlier information in the conclusion—but it’s important to avoid

unnecessary repetition. Make sure that none of your sentences are

repeating a point you’ve already made in different words.

Emotive and grandiose

50
 An academic text is not the same thing as a literary, journalistic, or

marketing text. Though you’re still trying to be persuasive, a lot of

techniques from these styles are not appropriate in an academic context.

Specifically, you should avoid appeals to emotion and inflated claims.

Though you may be writing about a topic that is sensitive or

important to you, the point of academic writing is to clearly communicate

ideas, information and arguments, not to inspire an emotional response.

Avoid using emotive or subjective language:

This horrible tragedy was obviously one of the worst catastrophes

in construction history.

The injury and mortality rates of this accident were among the

highest in construction history.

Students are sometimes tempted to make the case for their topic

with exaggerated, unsupported claims and flowery language. Stick to

specific, grounded arguments that you can support with evidence, and

do not overstate your point:

Charles Dickens is the greatest writer of the Victorian period, and

his influence on all subsequent literature is enormous.

Charles Dickens is one of the best-known writers of the Victorian

period, and has had a significant influence on the development of the

English novel.

51
Additional Problems to Avoid

In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there

are other aspects of academic writing in the social sciences that you

should be aware of. These problems include:

Personal nouns. Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you,

us] may lead the reader to believe the study was overly subjective. These

words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid presenting

empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal

nouns to descriptions of things you actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten

teachers about classroom management techniques..."]. Note that

personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper

because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and

describe your work.

Directives. Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or

"do that." Directives should be framed as evidence-based

recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes.

Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms. Academic writing

relies on excellent grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative

should not include regional dialects or slang terms because they can be

open to interpretation; be direct and concise using standard English.

Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and developing a

narrative that does not have confusing language. By doing so, you help

eliminate the possibility of the reader misinterpreting the design and

52
purpose of your study.

Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company,"

"that area," etc.). Being concise in your writing also includes avoiding

vague references to persons, places, or things. While proofreading your

paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements

that lack context or specificity.

Numbered lists and bulleted items. The use of bulleted items or

lists should be used only if the narrative dictates a need for clarity. For

example, it is fine to state, "The four main problems with hedge funds

are:" and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this

must then be followed by detailed explanation and analysis of each item.

Given this, the question you should ask yourself while proofreading is:

why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with

systematic analysis of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also,

be careful using numbers because they can imply a ranked order of

priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets and avoid checkmarks

or other symbols.

Descriptive writing. Describing a research problem is an

important means of contextualizing a study. In fact, some description or

background information may be needed because you can not assume the

reader knows everything about the topic. However, the content of your

paper should focus on methodology, the analysis and interpretation of

findings, and their implications as they apply to the research problem

53
rather than background information and descriptions of tangential

issues.

Personal experience. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g.,

traveling abroad; caring for someone with Alzheimer's disease] can be an

effective way of introducing the research problem or engaging your

readers in understanding its significance. Use personal experience only

as an example, though, because academic writing relies on evidence-

based research. To do otherwise is simply story-telling.

54
Learning Activity:

1. Write a background of the problem, issue or phenomenon that

you would like to address and conduct a study about. Pandemic-related

issues that are relevant to the education system are encouraged. CHED

and DepEd are implementing the flexible learning system to address the

issues in education that Covid-19 has created. There are related

problems to this solution. One of those problems is the lack of training of

teachers and the insufficiency of resources to engage in flexible learning.

Students are also experiencing similar problems because not everyone

has access to the internet to receive online lectures. Develop or formulate

your problem from this juncture. Cite your sources properly using APA

citation style. This is what CdD uses.

Deadline of submission: May 15, 2021

55