Field Techniques Manual:

GIS, GPS and Remote Sensing

• Section A: Introduction

Chapter 1: GIS, GPS, Remote Sensing

and Fieldwork
1 GIS, GPS, Remote Sensing and Fieldwork
The widespread use of computers has led to the development of new technologies,
collectively known as geographical information sciences (GISci), for mapping and
monitoring features on the surface of the Earth. Foremost for exploration and fieldwork
among these technologies are: geographical information systems (GIS), which can take
digital datasets and produce maps showing features of interest in matter of seconds; the
global positioning system (GPS), which allows positions to be determined to ±10 m
anywhere on the Earth’s surface; and methods of observing features from a distance, such
as photography or infra-red scanning, known as remote sensing. These GISci techniques
complement the surveys and sampling that are at the heart of scientific exploration (Figure
1-1): they greatly enhance the types of fieldwork that can be carried out, reduce the amount
of time needed for many tasks and improve the quality of results.

GIS

Surveys
& sampling

Remote sensing GPS

Figure 1-1 Geographical information sciences and expedition fieldwork.

A fundamental objective of most exploration is to observe and record information about

the part of the world being studied, for instance by field surveys, photography, or
questionnaires. The development of ever-cheaper and more powerful computers, GIS
software and GPS kit, along with low-cost satellite pictures of the Earth, has greatly
improved the potential of expeditionary fieldwork to record, analyse and present data that
may help us to improve conditions on this beleaguered planet.

Remote sensing provides us with a means of recording the distribution of features on the
surface of the Earth and changes in those features over time: it is often the only source of
new data about a region that will be available to you, prior to you going there to collect
field data. Your GPS will tell you where you are in your study region and allows you to
input your sample locations into a GIS. A GIS is a means of combining existing data and
new data from fieldwork or the interpretation of remotely sensed images. GIS-generated
maps greatly reduce the original amounts of data and can be designed to focus on specific
themes of interest to your research.
4 Chapter 1: GIS, GPS, Remote Sensing and Fieldwork

This manual aims to provide expeditions with details of fieldwork techniques, from
‘traditional’ compass-based surveying, through to the use of GIS to show GPS-located
sites on satellite images displayed on a laptop screen in, say, Amazonia or the Himalayas.
There are many ways in which geographical information sciences can help with fieldwork
projects, these are just a few of the possible applications:
• Logistics: planning routes and navigation
• Research: mapping vegetation, wildlife, urbanisation, soils and geological features
• Monitoring: data logging of fire extents, forest loss, river channel changes
• Conservation applications: assessing biodiversity, park zonation, impact assessment
• Technology transfer: training local technical staff, donating hardware and shareware
• Education: maps for displays, involving schoolchildren with fieldwork.

1.1 Organisation of this manual

There are four parts to this manual: data, techniques, planning and results. The first set of
chapters examines the various types of geographical data and the geographical
frameworks fundamental to mapping. The main types of geographical data used on a
fieldwork-based project are illustrated in Figure 1-2 and fall into two categories: (i)
externally produced maps, images, photos and databases; and (ii) data collected by the
expedition, using surveys and sampling. Data stored in a GIS can be manipulated,
integrated or combined with other data sets for research or management purposes. The
merging and statistical analysing of spatial (map-based) data sets provides new
opportunities to formulate and test hypothesis on the organisation and functioning of the
socio-economic or geo-ecological system being examined.

GIS Merging
& analyses
of data
G
n s ot e

PS
m
g
in
Re

Fieldwork
se

Surveys,
sampling & maps

External databases Literature

& maps review &
desk-study

Figure 1-2 Data sources for expedition fieldwork. The arrows in the diamond indicate how data
from one source can feed into another.

For data to be used in a GIS, they first has to be geo-referenced or ‘fixed’ in geographical
space. The Geographical Framework chapter examines the various ways in which this can
Field Techniques: GIS, GPS and Remote Sensing 5

be done, and associated problems. Geo-referencing uses co-ordinates to locate points, with
longitude and latitude being the fundamental system. Certain assumptions need to be made
about the shape of the earth and these must be made clear in any GPS or GIS co-ordinate
system, in the form of a spheroid and a datum. For most purposes in GIS and on paper
maps, a flat ‘x,y’ co-ordinate system is far easier to deal with than a spheroidal ‘longitude,
latitude’ system, so a further step is introduced to the geographical framework, that of map
projections.

The next set of chapters provides detailed reviews of GISci techniques that are of use to
expeditions, moving from geographical information systems (GIS) to remote sensing and
photogrammetry, before considering surveying and the global positioning system (GPS).
GIS has been in use for several decades and is having a pervasive impact on the conduct of
expedition fieldwork. Burrough & McDonnel (1998) define a GIS as “a powerful set of
tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transformation and displaying spatial data
from the real world for a particular set of purposes”. Some outstanding textbooks on the
application of GIS have recently been published (Burrough & McDonnell 1998, Johnston
1998, Heywood et al. 1998, Wadsworth & Treweek 1999, Longley et al. 2001). Expedition
fieldwork will almost always involve the production of some form of map, both from field
surveys and from the interpretation of features on images from aircraft and/or satellites,
often using geomorphological and ecological mapping. GIS allows the integration and
analysis of spatial databases, as well as providing a means of producing high-quality
cartographic outputs.

Collecting images of Earth surface features, using aircraft or satellites, is a key aspect of
remote sensing. Multi-spectral scanning instruments work in the visible and infrared part
of the spectrum, whereas radar techniques use the microwave part, providing us with a
unique capability to ‘see’ through cloud cover. Remote sensing has seen a rapid increase in
computing power and software for image processing, allowing users to deal with growing
volumes of data and more sophisticated image processing (Drury 2001, Gibson & Power
2000, Lillesand & Kiefer 2000, Mather 1999). An important stage of processing remotely
sensed data for mapping is classification, which allows images to be more readily related
to ecological and geomorphological features. Supervised classification requires the user to
specify what classes are present and to identify homogeneous ‘training’ patches of each
class: pixels (picture elements) are then allocated to one class or another, based on the
unique spectral signature of each class. Surface areas of various land cover classes can be
calculated by counting the number of pixels per class over the area of interest. A specialist
aspect of remote sensing concerns collecting precise and accurate measurements from
photographs, termed photogrammetry. With aerial photography being the most widely used
form of remote sensing (Petrie 1999), a basic knowledge of photogrammetry is useful for
most expedition fieldwork. The widespread use of flatbed scanners, allowing digital copies
to be made of airphoto prints, and the advent of relatively low cost digital photogrammetry
software, has allowed changes in land cover types and landforms to be mapped in detail,
using airphoto archives that may cover the past 50 years. The costs of remote sensing vary
considerably, depending on the technique and image processing, and are in the order of
US$ 60 and US$ 1 per kilometre square for airborne and satellite images, respectively.
Some archive imagery is now being made available free.
6 Chapter 1: GIS, GPS, Remote Sensing and Fieldwork

The global positioning system (GPS) is an American military navigation system, parts of
which are available to the general public, that uses a network of satellites to locate GPS
receivers positioned anywhere on the Earth’s surface. As most GPS receivers are light-
weight, portable and cheap (some costing less than $100), GPS usage has become a key
aspect of expeditionary fieldwork. Accurate ground control is essential when mapping
using remotely sensed data, as remotely sensed measurements can only be as reliable as the
ground truth on which they are based. In 2000 the USA improved the accuracy of standard
GPS signals, from ±100 m to ±10 m, greatly improving the ground-truthing of medium-
scale satellite imagery, such as the widely-used Landsat data. Differential GPS (dGPS) can
now readily provide centimetre to metre detail in field survey locations: this has helped to
improve the accuracy of land cover mapping. Many GPS receivers are also data-loggers:
you can devise a code system for a given set of features, use the GPS to locate those
features, then plot and analyse the resulting features’ locations by exporting the GPS data
into a GIS.

The expedition planning and management chapter highlights how organising a successful
scientific expedition takes a lot of planning, which in turn requires a lot of time: allow at
least one year, preferably two, to get your ideas from the drawing board to fruition. Each
stage in the ‘life’ of an expedition involves different types of data, and associated
problems, many of which are highlighted in the questions below:

Planning:
• what is the overall aim or goal?
• what objectives do you hope to achieve?
• are there any maps or previous studies of your study area?
• which surveying and sampling techniques are appropriate?
• does the project have appropriate staff and equipment?
• how much time (and money) will the project require?
Fieldwork:
• where are your study areas located?
• how precise are your maps?
• how should field data be collected and stored?
• how will laptops, GPS units, etc, be powered in remote settings?
This handbook, plus the listings of websites given on the handbook’s CD, will help you to
find the answers to many of the questions posed above. A number of expedition training
courses are also available, foremost among which are those run by the RGS-IBG’s
Expedition Advisory Centre (EAC).

The final set of chapters focuses on the fruits of your expeditionary labour, the results of
your fieldwork. An expedition GIS allows you to start data entry, analysis and even
presentation - in the form of maps - during your fieldwork, speeding up a process usually
reserved (often with some dread) for after returning home. The main benefit, however, can
be for local people involved in data collection, data analysis and the useful application of
expedition findings.
Field Techniques: GIS, GPS and Remote Sensing 7

The last part of the manual gives examples of the sorts of exploration fieldwork that you
could follow using geographical information sciences. A wide range of applications are
covered: from archaeology, ecology and geoscience, to natural resource management and
socio-economic studies. Some more detailed case studies are also included, illustrating
ways in which GIS, GPS and remote sensing can aid fieldwork in remote settings.

There is an ever-increasing range of topics that you could examine, especially with regard
to risks from natural hazards, threats to biodiversity and the depletion of natural resources.
Good luck with your endeavours!
8 Chapter 1: GIS, GPS, Remote Sensing and Fieldwork