From Aristotle to Obama: A Brief History of Communication
While there are rich areas of study in animal communication and interspecies
communication, our focus in this book is on human communication. Even though
all animals communicate, as human beings we have a special capacity to use
symbols to communicate about things outside our immediate temporal and spatial
reality.Frank E. X. Dance and Carl E. Larson, Speech Communication: Concepts
Communication and Behaviors (New York, NY: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston, 1972), 43. For
1. The process of generating example, we have the capacity to use abstract symbols, like the word education,
meaning by sending and to discuss a concept that encapsulates many aspects of teaching and learning.
receiving verbal and
We can also reflect on the past and imagine our future. The ability to think outside
nonverbal symbols and
signs that are influenced by our immediate reality is what allows us to create elaborate belief systems, art,
multiple contexts. philosophy, and academic theories. It’s true that you can teach a gorilla to sign
words like food and baby, but its ability to use symbols doesn’t extend to the same
level of abstraction as ours. However, humans haven’t always had the
sophisticated communication systems that we do today.
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Chapter 1 Introduction to Communication Studies
Some scholars speculate that humans’ first words were onomatopoetic. You may
remember from your English classes that onomatopoeia refers to words that sound like
that to which they refer—words like boing, drip, gurgle, swoosh, and whack. Just think
about how a prehistoric human could have communicated a lot using these words and
hand gestures. He or she could use gurgle to alert others to the presence of water or
swoosh and whack to recount what happened on a hunt. In any case, this primitive
ability to communicate provided an evolutionary advantage. Those humans who could
talk were able to cooperate, share information, make better tools, impress mates, or
warn others of danger, which led them to have more offspring who were also more
predisposed to communicate.Marshall T. Poe, A History of Communications: Media and
Society from the Evolution of Speech to the Internet (New York, NY: Cambridge
University Press, 2011), 27. This eventually led to the development of a “Talking
Culture” during the “Talking Era.” During this 150,000 year period of human existence,
ranging from 180,000 BCE to 3500 BCE, talking was the only medium of
communication, aside from gestures, that humans had.Marshall T. Poe, A History of
Communications: Media and Society from the Evolution of Speech to the Internet (New
York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 36.
Cave Paintings, creating pigments
made from the juice of fruits and The beginning of the “Manuscript Era,” around 3500 BCE, marked the turn from oral to
berries, colored minerals, or animal written culture. This evolution in communication corresponded with a shift to a more
blood. These pigments were then settled, agrarian way of life.Marshall T. Poe, A History of Communications: Media and
used to create depictions as a Society from the Evolution of Speech to the Internet (New York, NY: Cambridge
manual for instructing others what University Press, 2011), 61–73. As hunter-gatherers settled into small villages and
animals were safe to eat
began to plan ahead for how to plant, store, protect, and trade or sell their food, they
Drums and smoke signals
needed accounting systems to keep track of their materials and record transactions.
The word “manuscript” is derived While such transactions were initially tracked with actual objects that symbolized an
from the Latin term “libri manu amount—for example, five pebbles represented five measures of grain—symbols, likely
scripti” which translates to “book carved into clay, later served as the primary method of record keeping. In this case, five
written by hand”. Between 7th-13th dots might equal five measures of grain.
centuries, religios manuscripsts
were produced. Afterwards, non-
religious text for spreading During this period, villages also developed class systems as more successful
knowledge started mainly in farmers turned businessmen prospered and took leadership positions. Religion
Italy/Renaissance period also became more complex, and a new class of spiritual leaders emerged.
Soon, armies were needed to protect the stockpiled resources from others who
1448: German Johann Gutenberg might want to steal it. The emergence of elite classes and the rise of armies
started printing press
required records and bookkeeping, which furthered the spread of written
Audio Visuals: Radio early 1900s symbols. As clergy, the ruling elite, and philosophers began to take up writing,
Televisoion: 1939 the systems became more complex. The turn to writing didn’t threaten the
influential place of oral communication, however. During the near 5,000-year
period of the “Manuscript Era,” literacy, or the ability to read and write, didn’t
spread far beyond the most privileged in society. In fact, it wasn’t until the
1800s that widespread literacy existed in the world.
1.1 Communication: History and Forms 3
Chapter 1 Introduction to Communication Studies
The end of the “Manuscript Era” marked a shift toward a rapid increase in
communication technologies. The “Print Era” extended from 1450 to 1850 and was
marked by the invention of the printing press and the ability to mass-produce written
texts. This 400-year period gave way to the “Audiovisual Era,” which only lasted 140
years, from 1850 to 1990, and was marked by the invention of radio, telegraph,
telephone, and television. Our current period, the “Internet Era,” has only lasted from
1990 until the present. This period has featured the most rapid dispersion of a new
method of communication, as the spread of the Internet and the expansion of digital
and personal media signaled the beginning of the digital age.
The evolution of communication media, from speaking to digital technology, has
also influenced the field of communication studies. To better understand how this
field of study developed, we must return to the “Manuscript Era,” which saw the
production of the earliest writings about communication. In fact, the oldest essay
and book ever found were written about communication.James C. McCroskey,
“Communication Competence: The Elusive Construct,” in Competence in
Communication: A Multidisciplinary Approach, ed. Robert N. Bostrom (Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage, 1984), 260. Although this essay and book predate Aristotle, he is a
logical person to start with when tracing the development of the communication
scholarship. His writings on communication, although not the oldest, are the most
complete and systematic. Ancient Greek philosophers and scholars such as
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Aristotle theorized about the art of rhetoric , which refers to speaking well and
persuasively. Today, we hear the word rhetoric used in negative ways. A politician,
for example, may write off his or her opponent’s statements as “just rhetoric.” This
leads us to believe that rhetoric refers to misleading, false, or unethical
communication, which is not at all in keeping with the usage of the word by ancient
or contemporary communication experts. While rhetoric does refer primarily to
persuasive communication messages, much of the writing and teaching about
rhetoric conveys the importance of being an ethical rhetor, or communicator. So
when a communicator, such as a politician, speaks in misleading, vague, or
dishonest ways, he or she isn’t using rhetoric; he or she is being an unethical
speaker.
The study of rhetoric focused on public communication, primarily oratory used
in discussions or debates regarding laws and policy, speeches delivered in
courts, and speeches intended to praise or blame another person. The
connections among rhetoric, policy making, and legal proceedings show that
communication and citizenship have been connected since the study of
communication began. Throughout this book, we will continue to make
connections between communication, ethics, and civic engagement.
2. The art of speaking well
and persuasively.
1.1 Communication: History and Forms 4
Chapter 1 Introduction to Communication Studies
Ancient Greek rhetoricians like Aristotle were followed
by Roman orators
Invention is the process of like Cicero. Cicero
coming up with what to say. contributed to the
Its root is the Latin word field of rhetoric by
invenio, meaning “to find or expanding theories
discover.
regarding the five
canons of rhetoric,
Arrangement is the process of which include
structuring your content. You invention,
need to put all the great things arrangement, style,
you thought of in the delivery, and
invention stage into a good memory. Invention
order so that they work
refers to the use of Much of the public speaking in
together and so that they help
you land your message and evidence and ancient Greece took place in
persuade your audience. arguments to think courtrooms or in political
contexts.
about things in new
Style is the process of ways and is the most
choosing language and © Thinkstock
studied of the five
constructing your canons. Arrangement
presentation so as to create an refers to the
emotional response. The
organization of
vocabulary, sentence
structure, and expressions speech, style refers
used will affect the reader’s to the use of
perception of the ideas. language, and
Metaphors, humor etc. delivery refers to the
vocal and physical
Delivery: Delivery is the characteristics of a
process of presenting a text to
speaker. Memory is
an audience.
the least studied of
Memory: The process of the five canons and
committing a text to memory. refers to the
In ancient times, one’s techniques employed
rhetoric was spoken rather by speakers of that
than written, it was critical era to retain and then
that such speeches be well repeat large amounts
memorized and practiced for
of information. The
a powerful delivery.
Age of Enlightenment
in the 1700s marked
a societal turn toward
scientific discovery
and the acquisition of
knowledge, which led
to an explosion of
philosophical and
scientific writings on many aspects of human existence.
This focus on academic development continued into
the 1900s and the establishment of distinct
communication studies departments.
Communication studies as a distinct academic discipline with departments at
universities and colleges has only existed for a little over one hundred years.William
Keith, “On the Origins of Speech as a Discipline: James A. Winans and Public
Speaking as Practical Democracy,” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 38, no. 3 (2008): 239–
58. Although rhetoric has long been a key part of higher education, and colleges and
universities have long recognized the importance of speaking, communication
departments did not exist. In the early 1900s, professors with training and expertise in
communication were often housed in rhetoric or English departments and were
sometimes called “professors of speech.” During this time, tension began to build
between professors of English who studied rhetoric as the written word and professors
of speech who studied rhetoric as the spoken word. In 1914, a group of ten speech
teachers who were members of the National Council of Teachers of English broke off
from the organization and started the National Association of Academic Teachers of
Public Speaking, which eventually evolved into today’s National Communication
Association. There was also a distinction of focus and interest among professors of
speech. While some focused on the quality of ideas, arguments, and organization,
others focused on coaching the performance and delivery aspects of public
speaking.William Keith, “On the Origins of Speech as a Discipline: James A. Winans
and Public Speaking as Practical Democracy,” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 38, no. 3
(2008): 240. Instruction in the latter stressed the importance of “oratory” or “elocution,”
and this interest in reading and speaking
1.1 Communication: History and Forms 5
Chapter 1 Introduction to Communication Studies
aloud is sustained today in theatre and performance studies and
also in oral interpretation classes, which are still taught in many
communication departments.
The formalization of speech departments led to an expanded view of
the role of communication. Even though Aristotle and other ancient
rhetoricians and philosophers had theorized the connection between
rhetoric and citizenship, the role of the communicator became the
focus instead of solely focusing on the message. James A. Winans,
one of the first modern speech teachers and an advocate for teaching
communication in higher education, said there were “two motives for
learning to speak. Increasing one’s chance to succeed and increasing
one’s power to serve.”William Keith, “On the Origins of Speech as a
Discipline: James A. Winans and Public Speaking as Practical
Democracy,” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 38, no. 3 (2008):
253.Later, as social psychology began to expand in academic
institutions, speech communication scholars saw places for
connection to further expand definitions of communication to
include social and psychological contexts.
Today, you can find elements of all these various aspects of
communication being studied in communication departments. If we
use President Obama as a case study, we can see the breadth of
the communication field. Within one department, you may have
fairly traditional rhetoricians who study the speeches of President
Obama in comparison with other presidential rhetoric. Others may
study debates between presidential candidates, dissecting the
rhetorical strategies used, for example, by Mitt Romney and Barack
Obama. Expanding from messages to channels of communication,
scholars may study how different media outlets cover presidential
politics. At an interpersonal level, scholars may study what sorts of
conflicts emerge within families that have liberal and conservative
individuals. At a cultural level, communication scholars could study
how the election of an African American president creates a
narrative of postracial politics. Our tour from Aristotle to Obama
was quick, but hopefully instructive. Now let’s turn to a discussion
of the five major forms of communication.
