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 Python

About the Tutorial

Python is a general-purpose interpreted, interactive, object-oriented, and high-level
programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum during 1985- 1990.
Like Perl, Python source code is also available under the GNU General Public License
(GPL). This tutorial gives enough understanding on Python programming language.

Audience
This tutorial is designed for software programmers who need to learn Python
programming language from scratch.

Prerequisites
You should have a basic understanding of Computer Programming terminologies. A
basic understanding of any of the programming languages is a plus.

Disclaimer & Copyright

 Copyright 2017 by Tutorials Point (I) Pvt. Ltd.

All the content and graphics published in this e-book are the property of Tutorials
Point (I) Pvt. Ltd. The user of this e-book is prohibited to reuse, retain, copy,
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manner without written consent of the publisher.

We strive to update the contents of our website and tutorials as timely and as
precisely as possible, however, the contents may contain inaccuracies or errors.
Tutorials Point (I) Pvt. Ltd. provides no guarantee regarding the accuracy,
timeliness or completeness of our website or its contents including this tutorial. If
you discover any errors on our website or in this tutorial, please notify us at
[email protected].

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Table of Contents
About the Tutorial....................................................................................................................................... i

Audience..................................................................................................................................................... i

Prerequisites............................................................................................................................................... i

Disclaimer & Copyright................................................................................................................................ i

Table of Contents....................................................................................................................................... ii

1. PYTHON ─ OVERVIEW........................................................................................................1

History of Python........................................................................................................................................ 1

Python Features......................................................................................................................................... 1

2. PYTHON ─ ENVIRONMENT................................................................................................3

Local Environment Setup............................................................................................................................ 3

Getting Python........................................................................................................................................... 3

Installing Python......................................................................................................................................... 4

Setting up PATH.......................................................................................................................................... 5

Setting path at Unix/Linux.......................................................................................................................... 5

Setting path at Windows............................................................................................................................. 6

Python Environment Variables.................................................................................................................... 6

Running Python.......................................................................................................................................... 6

3. PYTHON ─ BASIC SYNTAX................................................................................................9

First Python Program.................................................................................................................................. 9

Python Identifiers..................................................................................................................................... 10

Python Keywords...................................................................................................................................... 11

Lines and Indentation............................................................................................................................... 11

Multi-Line Statements.............................................................................................................................. 13

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Quotation in Python................................................................................................................................. 13

Comments in Python................................................................................................................................ 14

Using Blank Lines...................................................................................................................................... 14

Waiting for the User................................................................................................................................. 15

Multiple Statements on a Single Line........................................................................................................ 15

Multiple Statement Groups as Suites........................................................................................................ 15

Command Line Arguments........................................................................................................................ 15

Accessing Command-Line Arguments........................................................................................................ 16

Parsing Command-Line Arguments........................................................................................................... 17

getopt.getopt method.............................................................................................................................. 17

Exception getopt.GetoptError................................................................................................................... 17

4. PYTHON ─ VARIABLE TYPES..........................................................................................20

Assigning Values to Variables.................................................................................................................... 20

Multiple Assignment................................................................................................................................. 21

Standard Data Types................................................................................................................................. 21

Python Numbers....................................................................................................................................... 21

Python Strings.......................................................................................................................................... 23

Python Lists.............................................................................................................................................. 24

Python Tuples........................................................................................................................................... 24

Python Dictionary..................................................................................................................................... 26

Data Type Conversion............................................................................................................................... 27

5. PYTHON ─ BASIC OPERATORS.......................................................................................29

Types of Operators................................................................................................................................... 29

Python Arithmetic Operators.................................................................................................................... 29

Python Comparison Operators.................................................................................................................. 31

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Python Assignment Operators.................................................................................................................. 34

Python Bitwise Operators......................................................................................................................... 36

Python Logical Operators.......................................................................................................................... 38

Python Membership Operators................................................................................................................. 38

Python Identity Operators........................................................................................................................ 40

Python Operators Precedence................................................................................................................... 41

6. PYTHON ─ DECISION MAKING.......................................................................................44

If Statement............................................................................................................................................. 45

If…else Statement..................................................................................................................................... 46

The elif Statement.................................................................................................................................... 48

Single Statement Suites............................................................................................................................ 49

7. PYTHON ─ LOOPS...............................................................................................................51

While Loop............................................................................................................................................... 52

The Infinite Loop....................................................................................................................................... 53

Using else Statement with Loops.............................................................................................................. 54

Single Statement Suites............................................................................................................................ 55

For Loop................................................................................................................................................... 56

Iterating by Sequence Index...................................................................................................................... 57

Using else Statement with Loops.............................................................................................................. 58

Nested Loops............................................................................................................................................ 59

Loop Control Statements.......................................................................................................................... 60

Break Statement....................................................................................................................................... 61

Continue Statement.................................................................................................................................. 63

Pass Statement......................................................................................................................................... 65

8. PYTHON ─ NUMBERS........................................................................................................66

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Number Type Conversion.......................................................................................................................... 67

Random Number Functions....................................................................................................................... 69

Trigonometric Functions........................................................................................................................... 69

Mathematical Constants........................................................................................................................... 70

9. PYTHON ─ STRINGS...........................................................................................................71

Accessing Values in Strings........................................................................................................................ 71

Updating Strings....................................................................................................................................... 71

Escape Characters..................................................................................................................................... 72

String Special Operators............................................................................................................................ 73

String Formatting Operator....................................................................................................................... 74

Triple Quotes............................................................................................................................................ 76

Unicode String.......................................................................................................................................... 77

Built-in String Methods............................................................................................................................. 78

capitalize() Method................................................................................................................................... 82

center(width, fillchar) Method.................................................................................................................. 82

count(str, beg= 0,end=len(string)) Method................................................................................................ 83

decode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict') Method......................................................................................84

encode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict') Method......................................................................................85

endswith(suffix, beg=0, end=len(string)) Method......................................................................................86

expandtabs(tabsize=8).............................................................................................................................. 87

find(str, beg=0 end=len(string))................................................................................................................. 88

index(str, beg=0, end=len(string))............................................................................................................. 89

isalnum() Method..................................................................................................................................... 90

isalpha()................................................................................................................................................... 90

isdigit()..................................................................................................................................................... 91

islower()................................................................................................................................................... 92

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isnumeric()............................................................................................................................................... 93

isspace() Method...................................................................................................................................... 94

istitle()...................................................................................................................................................... 95

isupper()................................................................................................................................................... 96

join(seq)................................................................................................................................................... 96

len(string)................................................................................................................................................. 97

ljust(width[, fillchar])................................................................................................................................ 98

lower()..................................................................................................................................................... 99

lstrip().................................................................................................................................................... 100

maketrans()............................................................................................................................................ 100

max(str).................................................................................................................................................. 102

min(str).................................................................................................................................................. 102

replace(old, new [, max])........................................................................................................................ 103

rfind(str, beg=0,end=len(string))............................................................................................................. 104

rindex(str, beg=0, end=len(string)).......................................................................................................... 105

rjust(width,[, fillchar])............................................................................................................................. 106

rstrip().................................................................................................................................................... 107

split(str="", num=string.count(str))......................................................................................................... 108

splitlines(num=string.count('\n'))............................................................................................................ 109

startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string))..................................................................................................... 110

strip([chars])........................................................................................................................................... 111

swapcase().............................................................................................................................................. 111

title()...................................................................................................................................................... 112

translate(table, deletechars="").............................................................................................................. 113

upper()................................................................................................................................................... 114

zfill (width)............................................................................................................................................. 115

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isdecimal().............................................................................................................................................. 116

10. PYTHON ─ LISTS..............................................................................................................118

Python Lists............................................................................................................................................ 118

Accessing Values in Lists......................................................................................................................... 118

Updating Lists......................................................................................................................................... 119

Deleting List Elements............................................................................................................................. 119

Basic List Operations............................................................................................................................... 120

Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes................................................................................................................ 121

Built-in List Functions and Methods........................................................................................................ 121

Cmp(list1, list2)....................................................................................................................................... 122

len(List).................................................................................................................................................. 123

max(list)................................................................................................................................................. 124

min(list).................................................................................................................................................. 124

List.append(obj)...................................................................................................................................... 126

list.count(obj)......................................................................................................................................... 127

list.extend(seq)....................................................................................................................................... 128

list.index(obj)......................................................................................................................................... 128

list.insert(index,obj)................................................................................................................................ 129

list.pop(obj=list[-1])................................................................................................................................ 130

List.remove(obj)..................................................................................................................................... 131

List.reverse()........................................................................................................................................... 131

list.sort([func])........................................................................................................................................ 132

11. PYTHON ─ TUPLES...........................................................................................................134

Accessing Values in Tuples...................................................................................................................... 134

Updating Tuples...................................................................................................................................... 135

Deleting Tuple Elements......................................................................................................................... 135

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Basic Tuples Operations.......................................................................................................................... 136

Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes................................................................................................................ 136

No Enclosing Delimiters.......................................................................................................................... 137

Built-in Tuple Functions.......................................................................................................................... 137

Cmp(tuple1, tuple2)................................................................................................................................ 138

Len(tuple)............................................................................................................................................... 139

Max(tuple).............................................................................................................................................. 140

Min(tuple).............................................................................................................................................. 141

Tuple(seg)............................................................................................................................................... 141

12. PYTHON ─ DICTIONARY.................................................................................................143

Accessing Values in Dictionary................................................................................................................ 143

Updating Dictionary................................................................................................................................ 144

Delete Dictionary Elements..................................................................................................................... 144

Properties of Dictionary Keys.................................................................................................................. 145

Built-in Dictionary Functions and Methods.............................................................................................. 146

Cmp(dict1, dict2).................................................................................................................................... 146

len(dict).................................................................................................................................................. 147

str(dict)................................................................................................................................................... 148

type()..................................................................................................................................................... 149

dict.clear().............................................................................................................................................. 151

Dict.copy().............................................................................................................................................. 151

Dict.fromkeys()....................................................................................................................................... 152

Dict.get(key,default=none)..................................................................................................................... 153

Dict.has_key(key)................................................................................................................................... 154

Dict.items()............................................................................................................................................. 155

Dict.keys().............................................................................................................................................. 156

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dict.setdefault(key, default=None).......................................................................................................... 156

dict.update(dict2)................................................................................................................................... 157

dict.values()............................................................................................................................................ 158

13. PYTHON ─ DATE AND TIME..........................................................................................160

What is Tick?.......................................................................................................................................... 160

What is TimeTuple?................................................................................................................................ 160

Getting Current Time.............................................................................................................................. 162

Getting Formatted Time.......................................................................................................................... 162

Getting Calendar for a Month.................................................................................................................. 163

The time Module.................................................................................................................................... 163

time.altzone........................................................................................................................................... 165

time.actime([tupletime])........................................................................................................................ 166

time.clock( )............................................................................................................................................ 166

time.ctime([secs])................................................................................................................................... 168

time.gmtime([secs])................................................................................................................................ 168

time.localtime([secs])............................................................................................................................. 169

time.mktime(tupletime)......................................................................................................................... 170

time.sleep(secs)...................................................................................................................................... 171

time.strftime(fmt[,tupletime])................................................................................................................ 172

time.strptime(str,fmt='%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y')..................................................................................174

time.time( )............................................................................................................................................ 176

time.tzset()............................................................................................................................................. 177

The calendar Module.............................................................................................................................. 179

Other Modules and Functions................................................................................................................. 181

14. PYTHON ─ FUNCTIONS...................................................................................................182

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Defining a Function................................................................................................................................. 182

Calling a Function.................................................................................................................................... 183

Passing by Reference Versus Passing by Value......................................................................................... 184

Function Arguments................................................................................................................................ 185

Required Arguments............................................................................................................................... 185

Keyword Arguments............................................................................................................................... 186

Default Arguments.................................................................................................................................. 187

Variable Length Arguments..................................................................................................................... 188

The Anonymous Functions...................................................................................................................... 189

The return Statement............................................................................................................................. 190

Scope of Variables.................................................................................................................................. 190

Global vs. Local variables........................................................................................................................ 191

15. PYTHON ─ MODULES......................................................................................................192

The import Statement............................................................................................................................. 192

The from...import Statement.................................................................................................................. 193

The from...import * Statement:............................................................................................................... 193

Locating Modules:.................................................................................................................................. 193

The PYTHONPATH Variable..................................................................................................................... 194

Namespaces and Scoping........................................................................................................................ 194

The dir( ) Function................................................................................................................................... 195

The globals() and locals() Functions......................................................................................................... 196

The reload() Function.............................................................................................................................. 196

Packages in Python................................................................................................................................. 196

16. PYTHON ─ FILES I/O........................................................................................................198

Printing to the Screen............................................................................................................................. 198

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Reading Keyboard Input.......................................................................................................................... 198

The raw_input Function.......................................................................................................................... 198

The input Function.................................................................................................................................. 199

Opening and Closing Files....................................................................................................................... 199

The open Function.................................................................................................................................. 199

The file Object Attributes........................................................................................................................ 201

The close() Method................................................................................................................................. 202

Reading and Writing Files........................................................................................................................ 203

The write() Method................................................................................................................................ 203

The read() Method.................................................................................................................................. 204

File Positions.......................................................................................................................................... 204

Renaming and Deleting Files................................................................................................................... 205

The rename() Method............................................................................................................................. 206

The remove() Method............................................................................................................................. 206

Directories in Python.............................................................................................................................. 207

The mkdir() Method................................................................................................................................ 207

The chdir() Method................................................................................................................................. 207

The getcwd() Method............................................................................................................................. 208

The rmdir() Method................................................................................................................................ 208

File and Directory Related Methods........................................................................................................ 209

file.close()............................................................................................................................................... 210

File.flush().............................................................................................................................................. 211

File.fileno()............................................................................................................................................. 212

File.isatty().............................................................................................................................................. 213

File.next()............................................................................................................................................... 214

File.read([size])....................................................................................................................................... 215

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File.readline([size])................................................................................................................................. 216

file.readline([sizehint])............................................................................................................................ 218

file.seek(offset[,whence])....................................................................................................................... 219

file.tell().................................................................................................................................................. 221

file.truncate([size])................................................................................................................................. 222

file.write(str).......................................................................................................................................... 224

file.writelines(sequence)......................................................................................................................... 225

OS Object Methods................................................................................................................................. 227

17. PYTHON ─ EXCEPTIONS.................................................................................................233

Assertions in Python............................................................................................................................... 235

The assert Statement.............................................................................................................................. 235

What is Exception?................................................................................................................................. 236

Handling an Exception............................................................................................................................ 236

The except Clause with No Exceptions..................................................................................................... 238

The except Clause with Multiple Exceptions............................................................................................ 239

The try-finally Clause.............................................................................................................................. 239

Argument of an Exception....................................................................................................................... 240

Raising an Exception............................................................................................................................... 241

User-Defined Exceptions......................................................................................................................... 242

18. PYTHON ─ CLASSES AND OBJECTS.............................................................................244

Overview of OOP Terminology................................................................................................................ 244

Creating Classes...................................................................................................................................... 245

Creating Instance Objects........................................................................................................................ 246

Accessing Attributes............................................................................................................................... 246

Built-In Class Attributes........................................................................................................................... 248

Destroying Objects (Garbage Collection)................................................................................................. 249

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Class Inheritance..................................................................................................................................... 251

Overriding Methods................................................................................................................................ 252

Base Overloading Methods..................................................................................................................... 253

Overloading Operators........................................................................................................................... 254

Data Hiding............................................................................................................................................. 255

19. PYTHON ─ REGULAR EXPRESSIONS............................................................................257

The match Function................................................................................................................................ 257

The search Function................................................................................................................................ 259

Matching Versus Searching..................................................................................................................... 260

Search and Replace................................................................................................................................. 261

Regular-Expression Modifiers: Option Flags............................................................................................. 261

Regular-Expression Patterns.................................................................................................................... 262

Regular-Expression Examples.................................................................................................................. 265

Grouping with Parentheses..................................................................................................................... 267

Backreferences....................................................................................................................................... 267

20. PYTHON ─ CGI PROGRAMMING....................................................................................270

What is CGI?........................................................................................................................................... 270

Web Browsing........................................................................................................................................ 270

CGI Architecture..................................................................................................................................... 271

Web Server Support and Configuration................................................................................................... 271

First CGI Program.................................................................................................................................... 272

HTTP Header........................................................................................................................................... 273

CGI Environment Variables..................................................................................................................... 274

GET and POST Methods.......................................................................................................................... 275

Passing Information using GET method:.................................................................................................. 276

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Simple URL Example : Get Method.......................................................................................................... 276

Simple FORM Example: GET Method....................................................................................................... 277

Passing Information Using POST Method................................................................................................. 278

Passing Checkbox Data to CGI Program................................................................................................... 279

Passing Radio Button Data to CGI Program.............................................................................................. 280

Passing Text Area Data to CGI Program................................................................................................... 281

Passing Drop Down Box Data to CGI Program.......................................................................................... 283

Using Cookies in CGI............................................................................................................................... 284

How It Works?........................................................................................................................................ 284

Setting up Cookies.................................................................................................................................. 285

Retrieving Cookies.................................................................................................................................. 285

File Upload Example............................................................................................................................... 286

How To Raise a "File Download" Dialog Box?.......................................................................................... 288

21. PYTHON ─ DATABASE ACCESS....................................................................................289

What is MySQLdb?.................................................................................................................................. 289

How do I Install MySQLdb?..................................................................................................................... 290

Database Connection.............................................................................................................................. 290

Creating Database Table......................................................................................................................... 292

INSERT Operation................................................................................................................................... 293

READ Operation...................................................................................................................................... 295

Update Operation................................................................................................................................... 296

DELETE Operation................................................................................................................................... 297

Performing Transactions......................................................................................................................... 298

COMMIT Operation................................................................................................................................ 299

ROLLBACK Operation.............................................................................................................................. 299

Disconnecting Database.......................................................................................................................... 299

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Handling Errors....................................................................................................................................... 300

22. PYTHON ─ NETWORK PROGRAMMING.......................................................................302

What is Sockets?..................................................................................................................................... 302

The socket Module.................................................................................................................................. 303

Server Socket Methods........................................................................................................................... 303

Client Socket Methods............................................................................................................................ 304

General Socket Methods......................................................................................................................... 304

A Simple Server...................................................................................................................................... 304

A Simple Client....................................................................................................................................... 305

Python Internet modules........................................................................................................................ 306

Further Readings.................................................................................................................................... 307

23. PYTHON ─ SENDING EMAIL...........................................................................................308

Sending an HTML e-mail using Python..................................................................................................... 309

Sending Attachments as an E-mail........................................................................................................... 310

24. PYTHON ─ MULTITHREADING......................................................................................313

Starting a New Thread............................................................................................................................ 313

The Threading Module............................................................................................................................ 314

Creating Thread Using Threading Module............................................................................................... 315

Synchronizing Threads............................................................................................................................ 317

Multithreaded Priority Queue................................................................................................................. 319

25. PYTHON ─ XML PROCESSING.......................................................................................323

What is XML?.......................................................................................................................................... 323

XML Parser Architectures and APIs:......................................................................................................... 323

Parsing XML with SAX APIs...................................................................................................................... 325

The make_parser Method....................................................................................................................... 325

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The parse Method.................................................................................................................................. 325

The parseString Method......................................................................................................................... 326

Parsing XML with DOM APIs.................................................................................................................... 329

26. PYTHON ─ GUI PROGRAMMING...................................................................................332

Tkinter Programming.............................................................................................................................. 332

Tkinter Widgets...................................................................................................................................... 333

Button.................................................................................................................................................... 335

Canvas.................................................................................................................................................... 338

Checkbutton........................................................................................................................................... 340

Entry....................................................................................................................................................... 344

Frame..................................................................................................................................................... 349

Label....................................................................................................................................................... 351

Listbox.................................................................................................................................................... 354

MenuButton........................................................................................................................................... 358

Menu...................................................................................................................................................... 362

Message................................................................................................................................................. 366

Radiobutton........................................................................................................................................... 369

Scale....................................................................................................................................................... 373

Scrollbar................................................................................................................................................. 378

Text........................................................................................................................................................ 381

TopLevel................................................................................................................................................. 387

SpinBox.................................................................................................................................................. 390

PanelWindow......................................................................................................................................... 393

LabelFrame............................................................................................................................................. 396

tkMessageBox........................................................................................................................................ 398

Standard Attributes................................................................................................................................ 400

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Dimensions............................................................................................................................................. 400

Colors..................................................................................................................................................... 401

Fonts...................................................................................................................................................... 402

Anchors.................................................................................................................................................. 403

Relief styles............................................................................................................................................ 404

Bitmaps.................................................................................................................................................. 406

Cursors................................................................................................................................................... 407

Geometry Management.......................................................................................................................... 408

Python Tkinter pack() Method................................................................................................................ 409

Python Tkinter grid() Method.................................................................................................................. 410

Python Tkinter place() Method............................................................................................................... 411

27. PYTHON ─ FURTHER EXTENSIONS..............................................................................413

Pre-Requisites for Writing Extensions...................................................................................................... 413

First Look at a Python Extension.............................................................................................................. 413

The Header File Python.h........................................................................................................................ 413

The C Functions...................................................................................................................................... 414

The Method Mapping Table.................................................................................................................... 415

The Initialization Function....................................................................................................................... 416

Building and Installing Extensions........................................................................................................... 418

Importing Extensions.............................................................................................................................. 418

Passing Function Parameters.................................................................................................................. 418

The PyArg_ParseTuple Function.............................................................................................................. 420

Returning Values.................................................................................................................................... 421

The Py_BuildValue Function................................................................................................................... 423

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1.Python ─ Overview Pyth

Python is a high-level, interpreted, interactive and object-oriented scripting

language. Python is designed to be highly readable. It uses English keywords
frequently where as other languages use punctuation, and it has fewer syntactical
constructions than other languages.

 Python is Interpreted: Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter.

You do not need to compile your program before executing it. This is similar
to PERL and PHP.

 Python is Interactive: You can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact
with the interpreter directly to write your programs.

 Python is Object-Oriented: Python supports Object-Oriented style or

technique of programming that encapsulates code within objects.

 Python is a Beginner's Language: Python is a great language for the

beginner-level programmers and supports the development of a wide range
of applications from simple text processing to WWW browsers to games.

History of Python
Python was developed by Guido van Rossum in the late eighties and early nineties
at the National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science in the
Netherlands.
Python is derived from many other languages, including ABC, Modula-3, C, C++,
Algol-68, SmallTalk, Unix shell, and other scripting languages.
Python is copyrighted. Like Perl, Python source code is now available under the
GNU General Public License (GPL).
Python is now maintained by a core development team at the institute, although
Guido van Rossum still holds a vital role in directing its progress.

Python Features
Python's features include:
 Easy-to-learn: Python has few keywords, simple structure, and a clearly
defined syntax. This allows the student to pick up the language quickly.

 Easy-to-read: Python code is more clearly defined and visible to the eyes.

 Easy-to-maintain: Python's source code is fairly easy-to-maintain.

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 A broad standard library: Python's bulk of the library is very portable and
cross-platform compatible on UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.

 Interactive Mode: Python has support for an interactive mode which allows
interactive testing and debugging of snippets of code.

 Portable: Python can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms and has
the same interface on all platforms.

 Extendable: You can add low-level modules to the Python interpreter. These
modules enable programmers to add to or customize their tools to be more
efficient.

 Databases: Python provides interfaces to all major commercial databases.

 GUI Programming: Python supports GUI applications that can be created

and ported to many system calls, libraries, and windows systems, such as
Windows MFC, Macintosh, and the X Window system of Unix.

 Scalable: Python provides a better structure and support for large programs
than shell scripting.

Apart from the above-mentioned features, Python has a big list of good features,
few are listed below:

 It supports functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.

 It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for

building large applications.

 It provides very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type
checking.

 It supports automatic garbage collection.

 It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA, and Java.

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2.Python ─ Environment Pyth

Python is available on a wide variety of platforms including Linux and Mac OS X. Let's
understand how to set up our Python environment.

Local Environment Setup

Open a terminal window and type "python" to find out if it is already installed and
which version is installed.

 Unix (Solaris, Linux, FreeBSD, AIX, HP/UX, SunOS, IRIX, etc.)

 Win 9x/NT/2000
 Macintosh (Intel, PPC, 68K)
 OS/2
 DOS (multiple versions)
 PalmOS
 Nokia mobile phones
 Windows CE
 Acorn/RISC OS
 BeOS
 Amiga
 VMS/OpenVMS
 QNX
 VxWorks
 Psion
 Python has also been ported to the Java and .NET virtual machines

Get ing Python

The most up-to-date and current source code, binaries, documentation, news, etc.,
is available on the official website of Python: http://www.python.org/.

You can download Python documentation from www.python.org/doc/. The

documentation is available in HTML, PDF, and PostScript formats.

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Installing Python
Python distribution is available for a wide variety of platforms. You need to
download only the binary code applicable for your platform and install Python.

If the binary code for your platform is not available, you need a C compiler to
compile the source code manually. Compiling the source code offers more flexibility
in terms of choice of features that you require in your installation.

Here is a quick overview of installing Python on various platforms:

Unix and Linux Installation

Here are the simple steps to install Python on Unix/Linux machine.

 Open a Web browser and go to http://www.python.org/download/.

 Follow the link to download zipped source code available for Unix/Linux.
 Download and extract files.
 Editing the Modules/Setup file if you want to customize some options.
 run ./configure script
 make
 make install

This installs Python at standard location /usr/local/bin and its libraries at

/usr/local/lib/pythonXX where XX is the version of Python.

Windows Installation
Here are the steps to install Python on Windows machine.

 Open a Web browser and go to http://www.python.org/download/

 Follow the link for the Windows installer python-XYZ.msi file where XYZ is the
version you need to install.

 To use this installer python-XYZ.msi, the Windows system must support

Microsoft Installer 2.0. Save the installer file to your local machine and then
run it to find out if your machine supports MSI.

 Run the downloaded file. This brings up the Python install wizard, which is
really easy to use. Just accept the default settings, wait until the install is
finished, and you are done.

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Macintosh Installation
Recent Macs come with Python installed, but it may be several years out of date.
See http://www.python.org/download/mac/ for instructions on getting the current
version along with extra tools to support development on the Mac. For older Mac
OS's before Mac OS X 10.3 (released in 2003), MacPython is available.

Jack Jansen maintains it and you can have full access to the entire documentation
at his website - http://www.cwi.nl/~jack/macpython.html. You can find complete installation
details for Mac OS installation.

Set ing up PATH

Programs and other executable files can be in many directories, so operating
systems provide a search path that lists the directories that the OS searches for
executables.

The path is stored in an environment variable, which is a named string maintained

by the operating system. This variable contains information available to the
command shell and other programs.

The path variable is named as PATH in Unix or Path in Windows (Unix is case-
sensitive; Windows is not).

In Mac OS, the installer handles the path details. To invoke the Python interpreter
from any particular directory, you must add the Python directory to your path.

Set ing path at Unix/Linux

To add the Python directory to the path for a particular session in Unix:

 In the csh shell: type setenv PATH "$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and

press Enter.

 In the bash shell (Linux): type export

ATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and press Enter.

 In the sh or ksh shell: type PATH="$PATH:/usr/local/bin/python" and

press Enter.

Note: /usr/local/bin/python is the path of the Python directory

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Set ing path at Windows

To add the Python directory to the path for a particular session in Windows:

At the command prompt: type path %path%;C:\Python and press Enter.

Note: C:\Python is the path of the Python directory

Python Environment Variables

Here are important environment variables, which can be recognized by Python:

Variable Description

It has a role similar to PATH. This variable tells the Python

interpreter where to locate the module files imported into a
PYTHONPATH program. It should include the Python source library directory
and the directories containing Python source code.
PYTHONPATH is sometimes preset by the Python installer.

It contains the path of an initialization file containing Python

source code. It is executed every time you start the
PYTHONSTARTUP
interpreter. It is named as .pythonrc.py in Unix and it
contains commands that load utilities or modify PYTHONPATH.

It is used in Windows to instruct Python to find the first case-

PYTHONCASEOK insensitive match in an import statement. Set this variable to
any value to activate it.

It is an alternative module search path. It is usually

PYTHONHOME embedded in the PYTHONSTARTUP or PYTHONPATH
directories to make switching module libraries easy.

Running Python
There are three different ways to start Python:

(1) Interactive Interpreter

You can start Python from Unix, DOS, or any other system that provides you a
command-line interpreter or shell window.

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Enter python the command line.

Start coding right away in the interactive interpreter.

$python # Unix/Linux

or

python% # Unix/Linux

or

C:>python # Windows/DOS

Here is the list of all the available command line options:

Option Description

-d It provides debug output.

-O It generates optimized bytecode (resulting in .pyo files).

-S Do not run import site to look for Python paths on startup.

-v verbose output (detailed trace on import statements).

-X disable class-based built-in exceptions (just use strings); obsolete

starting with version 1.6.

-c cmd run Python script sent in as cmd string

file run Python script from given file

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(2) Script from the Command-line

A Python script can be executed at command line by invoking the interpreter on
your application, as in the following:

$python script.py # Unix/Linuxor

python% script.py # Unix/Linuxor C:>python script.py #
Windows/DOS

Note: Be sure the file permission mode allows execution.

(3) Integrated Development Environment

You can run Python from a Graphical User Interface (GUI) environment as well, if
you have a GUI application on your system that supports Python.

 Unix: IDLE is the very first Unix IDE for Python.

 Windows: PythonWin is the first Windows interface for Python and is an IDE
with a GUI.

 Macintosh: The Macintosh version of Python along with the IDLE IDE is
available from the main website, downloadable as either MacBinary or
BinHex'd files.

If you are not able to set up the environment properly, then you can take help from
your system admin. Make sure the Python environment is properly set up and
working perfectly fine.

Note: All the examples given in subsequent chapters are executed with Python
2.4.3 version available on CentOS flavor of Linux.

We already have set up Python Programming environment online, so that you can
execute all the available examples online at the same time when you are learning
theory. Feel free to modify any example and execute it online.

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3.Python ─ Basic Syntax Pyth

The Python language has many similarities to Perl, C, and Java. However, there are
some definite differences between the languages.

First Python Program

Let us execute programs in different modes of programming.

Interactive Mode Programming:

Invoking the interpreter without passing a script file as a parameter brings up the
following prompt:

$ python
Python 2.4.3 (#1, Nov 11 2010, 13:34:43)
[GCC 4.1.2 20080704 (Red Hat 4.1.2-48)] on linux2
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>>

Type the following text at the Python prompt and press the Enter:

>>> print "Hello, Python!";

If you are running new version of Python, then you need to use print statement
with parenthesis as in print ("Hello, Python!");. However in Python version 2.4.3,
this produces the following result:

Hello, Python!

Script Mode Programming

Invoking the interpreter with a script parameter begins execution of the script and
continues until the script is finished. When the script is finished, the interpreter is
no longer active.

Let us write a simple Python program in a script. Python files have extension .py.
Type the following source code in a test.py file:

print "Hello, Python!";

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We assume that you have Python interpreter set in PATH variable. Now, try to run
this program as follows:

$ python test.py

This produces the following result:

Hello, Python!

Let us try another way to execute a Python script. Here is the modified test.py file:

#!/usr/bin/python
print "Hello, Python!";

We assume that you have Python interpreter available in /usr/bin directory. Now,
try to run this program as follows:

$ chmod +x test.py # This is to make file executable

$./test.py

This produces the following result:

Hello, Python!

Python Identifiers
A Python identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, class, module, or
other object. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z, or an underscore (_)
followed by zero or more letters, underscores and digits (0 to 9).

Python does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $, and % within

identifiers. Python is a case sensitive programming language. Thus, Manpower and
manpower are two different identifiers in Python.

Here are naming conventions for Python identifiers:

 Class names start with an uppercase letter. All other identifiers start with a
lowercase letter.

 Starting an identifier with a single leading underscore indicates that the

identifier is private.

 Starting an identifier with two leading underscores indicates a strongly

private identifier.

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 If the identifier also ends with two trailing underscores, the identifier is a
language-defined special name.

Python Keywords
The following list shows the Python keywords. These are reserved words and you
cannot use them as constant or variable or any other identifier names. All the
Python keywords contain lowercase letters only.

And exec Not

Assert finally or

Break for pass

Class from print

Continue global raise

def if return

del import try

elif in while

else is with

except lambda yield

Lines and Indentation

Python provides no braces to indicate blocks of code for class and function
definitions or flow control. Blocks of code are denoted by line indentation, which is
rigidly enforced.

The number of spaces in the indentation is variable, but all statements within the
block must be indented the same amount. For example:

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if True:
print "True"
else:
print "False"

However, the following block generates an error:

if True:
print "Answer"
print "True"
else:
print "Answer"
print "False"

Thus, in Python all the continuous lines indented with same number of spaces would
form a block. The following example has various statement blocks:

Note: Do not try to understand the logic at this point of time. Just make sure you
understood various blocks even if they are without braces.

#!/usr/bin/python

import sys

try:
# open file stream
file = open(file_name, "w")
except IOError:
print "There was an error writing to", file_name
sys.exit()
print "Enter '", file_finish,
print "' When finished"
while file_text != file_finish:
file_text = raw_input("Enter text: ")
if file_text == file_finish:
# close the file
file.close
break

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file.write(file_text)
file.write("\n")
file.close()
file_name = raw_input("Enter filename: ")
if len(file_name) == 0:
print "Next time please enter something"
sys.exit()
try:
file = open(file_name, "r")
except IOError:
print "There was an error reading file"
sys.exit()
file_text = file.read()
file.close()
print file_text

Multi-Line Statements
Statements in Python typically end with a new line. Python does, however, allow
the use of the line continuation character (\) to denote that the line should
continue. For example:

total = item_one + \
item_two + \
item_three

Statements contained within the [], {}, or () brackets do not need to use the line
continuation character. For example:

days = ['Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday',

'Thursday', 'Friday']

Quotation in Python
Python accepts single ('), double (") and triple (''' or """) quotes to denote string
literals, as long as the same type of quote starts and ends the string.

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The triple quotes are used to span the string across multiple lines. For example, all
the following are legal:

word = 'word'
sentence = "This is a sentence."
paragraph = """This is a paragraph. It
is
made up of multiple lines and sentences."""

Comments in Python
A hash sign (#) that is not inside a string literal begins a comment. All characters
after the # and up to the end of the physical line are part of the comment and the
Python interpreter ignores them.

#!/usr/bin/python

# First comment
print "Hello, Python!"; # second comment

This produces the following result:

Hello, Python!

You can type a comment on the same line after a statement or expression:

name = "Madisetti" # This is again comment

You can comment multiple lines as follows:

# This is a comment.
# This is a comment, too.
# This is a comment, too.
# I said that already.

Using Blank Lines

A line containing only whitespace, possibly with a comment, is known as a blank
line and Python totally ignores it.

In an interactive interpreter session, you must enter an empty physical line to

terminate a multiline statement.

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Waiting for the User

The following line of the program displays the prompt, the statement saying “Press
the enter key to exit”, and waits for the user to take action:

#!/usr/bin/python
raw_input("\n\nPress the enter key to exit.")

Here, "\n\n" is used to create two new lines before displaying the actual line. Once
the user presses the key, the program ends. This is a nice trick to keep a console
window open until the user is done with an application.

Multiple Statements on a Single Line

The semicolon ( ; ) allows multiple statements on the single line given that neither
statement starts a new code block. Here is a sample snip using the semicolon:

import sys; x = 'foo'; sys.stdout.write(x + '\n')

Multiple Statement Groups as Suites

A group of individual statements, which make a single code block are called suites
in Python. Compound or complex statements, such as if, while, def, and class
require a header line and a suite.

Header lines begin the statement (with the keyword) and terminate with a colon (:)
and are followed by one or more lines which make up the suite. For example:

if expression :
suite
elif expression :
suite
else :
suite

Command Line Arguments

Many programs can be run to provide you with some basic information about how
they should be run. Python enables you to do this with -h:

$ python -h

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usage: python [option] ... [-c cmd | -m mod | file | -] [arg] ...
Options and arguments (and corresponding environment variables):
-c cmd : program passed in as string (terminates option list)
-d : debug output from parser (also PYTHONDEBUG=x)
-E : ignore environment variables (such as PYTHONPATH)
-h : print this help message and exit

[ etc. ]

You can also program your script in such a way that it should accept various options.

Accessing Command-Line Arguments

Python provides a getopt module that helps you parse command-line options and
arguments.

$ python test.py arg1 arg2 arg3

The Python sys module provides access to any command-line arguments via
the sys.argv. This serves two purposes:

 sys.argv is the list of command-line arguments.

 len(sys.argv) is the number of command-line arguments.

Here sys.argv[0] is the program i.e. script name.

Example
Consider the following script test.py:

#!/usr/bin/python

import sys
print 'Number of arguments:', len(sys.argv), 'arguments.'
print 'Argument List:', str(sys.argv)

Now run above script as follows:

$ python test.py arg1 arg2 arg3

This produces the following result:

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Number of arguments: 4 arguments.

Argument List: ['test.py', 'arg1', 'arg2', 'arg3']

NOTE: As mentioned above, first argument is always script name and it is also
being counted in number of arguments.

Parsing Command-Line Arguments

Python provided a getopt module that helps you parse command-line options and
arguments. This module provides two functions and an exception to enable
command line argument parsing.

getopt.getopt method
This method parses command line options and parameter list. Following is simple
syntax for this method:

getopt.getopt(args, options[, long_options])

Here is the detail of the parameters:

 args: This is the argument list to be parsed.

 options: This is the string of option letters that the script wants to
recognize, with options that require an argument should be followed by a
colon (:).

 long_options: This is optional parameter and if specified, must be a list of

strings with the names of the long options, which should be supported. Long
options, which require an argument should be followed by an equal sign
('='). To accept only long options, options should be an empty string.

 This method returns value consisting of two elements: the first is a list
of (option, value) pairs. The second is the list of program arguments left
after the option list was stripped.

 Each option-and-value pair returned has the option as its first element,
prefixed with a hyphen for short options (e.g., '-x') or two hyphens for long
options (e.g., '--long-option').

Exception getopt.GetoptEr or
This is raised when an unrecognized option is found in the argument list or when an
option requiring an argument is given none.

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The argument to the exception is a string indicating the cause of the error. The
attributes msg and opt give the error message and related option.

Example
Consider we want to pass two file names through command line and we also want to
give an option to check the usage of the script. Usage of the script is as follows:

usage: test.py -i <inputfile> -o <outputfile>

Here is the following script to test.py:

#!/usr/bin/python

import sys, getopt

def main(argv):
inputfile = ''
outputfile = ''
try:
opts, args = getopt.getopt(argv,"hi:o:",["ifile=","ofile="])
except getopt.GetoptError:
print 'test.py -i <inputfile> -o <outputfile>'
sys.exit(2)
for opt, arg in opts:
if opt == '-h':
print 'test.py -i <inputfile> -o <outputfile>'
sys.exit()
elif opt in ("-i", "--ifile"):
inputfile = arg
elif opt in ("-o", "--ofile"):
outputfile = arg
print 'Input file is "', inputfile
print 'Output file is "', outputfile

if name == " main ":

main(sys.argv[1:])

Now, run above script as follows:

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$ test.py -h
usage: test.py -i <inputfile> -o <outputfile>

$ test.py -i BMP -o
usage: test.py -i <inputfile> -o <outputfile>

$ test.py -i inputfile
Input file is " inputfile
Output file is "

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4.Python ─ Variable Types Pyth

Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store values. This means
when you create a variable, you reserve some space in memory.

Based on the data type of a variable, the interpreter allocates memory and decides
what can be stored in the reserved memory. Therefore, by assigning different data
types to variables, you can store integers, decimals, or characters in these
variables.

Assigning Values to Variables

Python variables do not need explicit declaration to reserve memory space. The
declaration happens automatically when you assign a value to a variable. The equal
sign (=) is used to assign values to variables.

The operand to the left of the = operator is the name of the variable and the
operand to the right of the = operator is the value stored in the variable. For
example:

#!/usr/bin/python

counter = 100 # An integer

assignment miles = 1000.0 # A floating
point name = "John" # A string

print counter
print miles
print name

Here, 100, 1000.0, and "John" are the values assigned to counter, miles, and name
variables respectively. This produces the following result:

100
1000.0
John

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Multiple Assignment
Python allows you to assign a single value to several variables simultaneously. For
example:

a = b = c = 1

Here, an integer object is created with the value 1, and all three variables are
assigned to the same memory location. You can also assign multiple objects to
multiple variables. For example:

a, b, c = 1, 2, "john"

Here, two integer objects with values 1 and 2 are assigned to variables a and b
respectively, and one string object with the value "john" is assigned to the variable c.

Standard Data Types

The data stored in memory can be of many types. For example, a person's age is
stored as a numeric value and his or her address is stored as alphanumeric
characters. Python has various standard data types that are used to define the
operations possible on them and the storage method for each of them.

Python has five standard data types:

 Numbers
 String
 List
 Tuple
 Dictionary

Python Numbers
Number data types store numeric values. Number objects are created when you
assign a value to them. For example:

var1 = 1
var2 = 10

You can also delete the reference to a number object by using the del statement.
The syntax of the del statement is:

del var1[,var2[,var3[.. .,varN]]]]

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You can delete a single object or multiple objects by using the del statement. For
example:

del var
del var_a, var_b

Python supports four different numerical types:

 int (signed integers)

 long (long integers, they can also be represented in octal and hexadecimal)
 float (floating point real values)
 complex (complex numbers)

Examples
Here are some examples of numbers:

int long Float complex

10 51924361L 0.0 3.14j

100 -0x19323L 15.20 45.j

-786 0122L -21.9 9.322e-36j

080 0xDEFABCECBDAECBFBAEl 32.3+e18 .876j

-0490 535633629843L -90. -.6545+0J

-0x260 -052318172735L -32.54e100 3e+26J

0x69 -4721885298529L 70.2-E12 4.53e-7j

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 Python allows you to use a lowercase L with long, but it is recommended that
you use only an uppercase L to avoid confusion with the number 1. Python
displays long integers with an uppercase L.

 A complex number consists of an ordered pair of real floating-point numbers

denoted by x + yj, where x is the real part and b is the imaginary part of the
complex number.

Python Strings
Strings in Python are identified as a contiguous set of characters represented in the
quotation marks. Python allows for either pairs of single or double quotes. Subsets
of strings can be taken using the slice operator ([ ] and [:] ) with indexes starting
at 0 in the beginning of the string and working their way from -1 at the end.

The plus (+) sign is the string concatenation operator and the asterisk (*) is the
repetition operator. For example:

#!/usr/bin/python

str = 'Hello World!'

print str # Prints complete string
print str[0] # Prints first character of the string
print str[2:5] # Prints characters starting from 3rd to
5th print str[2:] # Prints string starting from 3rd character
print str * 2 # Prints string two times
print str + "TEST" # Prints concatenated string

This will produce the following result:

Hello World!
H
llo
llo World!
Hello World!Hello World!
Hello World!TEST

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Python Lists
Lists are the most versatile of Python's compound data types. A list contains items
separated by commas and enclosed within square brackets ([]). To some extent,
lists are similar to arrays in C. One difference between them is that all the items
belonging to a list can be of different data type.

The values stored in a list can be accessed using the slice operator ([ ] and [:])
with indexes starting at 0 in the beginning of the list and working their way to end -
1. The plus (+) sign is the list concatenation operator, and the asterisk (*) is the
repetition operator. For example:

#!/usr/bin/python

list = [ 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 ]

tinylist = [123, 'john']

print list # Prints complete list

print list[0] # Prints first element of the list
print list[1:3] # Prints elements starting from 2nd till 3rd
print list[2:] # Prints elements starting from 3rd element
print tinylist * 2 # Prints list two times
print list + tinylist # Prints concatenated lists

This produces the following result:

['abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003]

abcd
[786, 2.23]
[2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003]
[123, 'john', 123, 'john']
['abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003, 123, 'john']

Python Tuples
A tuple is another sequence data type that is similar to the list. A tuple consists of a
number of values separated by commas. Unlike lists, however, tuples are enclosed
within parentheses.

The main differences between lists and tuples are: Lists are enclosed in brackets
( [ ] ) and their elements and size can be changed, while tuples are enclosed in

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parentheses ( ( ) ) and cannot be updated. Tuples can be thought of as read-

only lists. For example:

#!/usr/bin/python

tuple = ( 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 )

tinytuple = (123, 'john')

print tuple # Prints complete list

print tuple[0] # Prints first element of the list
print tuple[1:3] # Prints elements starting from 2nd till 3rd
print tuple[2:] # Prints elements starting from 3rd element
print tinytuple * 2 # Prints list two times
print tuple + tinytuple # Prints concatenated lists

This produces the following result:

('abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003)

abcd
(786, 2.23)
(2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003)
(123, 'john', 123, 'john')
('abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003, 123, 'john')

The following code is invalid with tuple, because we attempted to update a tuple,
which is not allowed. Similar case is possible with lists:

#!/usr/bin/python

tuple = ( 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 )

list = [ 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 ]
tuple[2] = 1000 # Invalid syntax with
tuple list[2] = 1000 # Valid syntax with
list

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Python Dictionary
Python's dictionaries are kind of hash table type. They work like associative arrays
or hashes found in Perl and consist of key-value pairs. A dictionary key can be
almost any Python type, but are usually numbers or strings. Values, on the other
hand, can be any arbitrary Python object.

Dictionaries are enclosed by curly braces ({ }) and values can be assigned and
accessed using square braces ([]). For example:

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {}
dict['one'] = "This is one"
dict[2] = "This is two"
tinydict = {'name': 'john','code':6734, 'dept': 'sales'}
print dict['one'] # Prints value for 'one' key
print dict[2] # Prints value for 2 key
print tinydict # Prints complete dictionary
print tinydict.keys() # Prints all the keys
print tinydict.values() # Prints all the values

This produces the following result:

This is one
This is two
{'dept': 'sales', 'code': 6734, 'name': 'john'}
['dept', 'code', 'name']
['sales', 6734, 'john']

Dictionaries have no concept of order among elements. It is incorrect to say that

the elements are "out of order"; they are simply unordered.

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Data Type Conversion

Sometimes, you may need to perform conversions between the built-in types. To
convert between types, you simply use the type name as a function.

There are several built-in functions to perform conversion from one data type to
another. These functions return a new object representing the converted value.

Function Description

Converts x to an integer. base specifies the base if x is a

int(x [,base])
string.

Converts x to a long integer. base specifies the base if x is

long(x [,base] )
a string.

float(x) Converts x to a floating-point number.

complex(real [,imag]) Creates a complex number.

str(x) Converts object x to a string representation.

repr(x) Converts object x to an expression string.

eval(str) Evaluates a string and returns an object.

tuple(s) Converts s to a tuple.

list(s) Converts s to a list.

set(s) Converts s to a set.

Creates a dictionary. d must be a sequence of (key,value)

dict(d)
tuples.

frozenset(s) Converts s to a frozen set.

chr(x) Converts an integer to a character.

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unichr(x) Converts an integer to a Unicode character.

ord(x) Converts a single character to its integer value.

hex(x) Converts an integer to a hexadecimal string.

oct(x) Converts an integer to an octal string.

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5.Python ─ Basic Operators Pyth

Operators are the constructs which can manipulate the value of operands.

Consider the expression 4 + 5 = 9. Here, 4 and 5 are called operands and + is

called operator.

Types of Operators
Python language supports the following types of operators.

 Arithmetic Operators
 Comparison (Relational) Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Logical Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Membership Operators
 Identity Operators

Let us have a look on all operators one by one.

Python Arithmetic Operators

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then:

Operator Description Example

+ Addition Adds values on either side of the operator. a + b = 30

Subtracts right hand operand from left hand

- Subtraction a – b = -10
operand.

* Multiplication Multiplies values on either side of the operator a * b = 200

Divides left hand operand by right hand

/ Division b/a=2
operand

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Divides left hand operand by right hand

% Modulus b%a=0
operand and returns remainder

Performs exponential (power) calculation on a**b =10 to

** Exponent
operators the power 20

Floor Division - The division of operands

9//2 = 4 and
// where the result is the quotient in which the
9.0//2.0 = 4.0
digits after the decimal point are removed.

Example
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then:

#!/usr/bin/python

a = 21
b = 10
c = 0

c = a + b
print "Line 1 - Value of c is ", c
c = a - b
print "Line 2 - Value of c is ", c
c = a * b
print "Line 3 - Value of c is ", c
c = a / b
print "Line 4 - Value of c is ", c

c = a % b
print "Line 5 - Value of c is ", c

a = 2
b = 3
c = a**b
print "Line 6 - Value of c is ", c

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a = 10
b = 5
c = a//b
print "Line 7 - Value of c is ", c

When you execute the above program, it produces the following result:

Line 1 - Value of c is 31
Line 2 - Value of c is 11
Line 3 - Value of c is 210
Line 4 - Value of c is 2
Line 5 - Value of c is 1
Line 6 - Value of c is 8
Line 7 - Value of c is 2

Python Comparison Operators

These operators compare the values on either sides of them and decide the relation
among them. They are also called Relational operators.

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then:

Operator Description Example

== If the values of two operands are (a == b) is not true.

equal, then the condition becomes
true.
!= If values of two operands are not (a != b) is true.
equal, then condition becomes true.

<> If values of two operands are not (a <> b) is true. This is

equal, then condition becomes true. similar to != operator.

> If the value of left operand is greater (a > b) is not true.

than the value of right operand, then
condition becomes true.

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< If the value of left operand is less than (a < b) is true.

the value of right operand, then
condition becomes true.

>= If the value of left operand is greater (a >= b) is not true.

than or equal to the value of right
operand, then condition becomes true.

<= If the value of left operand is less than (a <= b) is true.

or equal to the value of right operand,
then condition becomes true.

Example
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then:

#!/usr/bin/python

a = 21
b = 10
c = 0

if ( a == b ):
print "Line 1 - a is equal to b"
else:
print "Line 1 - a is not equal to b"

if ( a != b ):
print "Line 2 - a is not equal to b"
else:
print "Line 2 - a is equal to b"

if ( a <> b ):
print "Line 3 - a is not equal to b"
else:
print "Line 3 - a is equal to b"

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if ( a < b ):
print "Line 4 - a is less than b"
else:
print "Line 4 - a is not less than b"

if ( a > b ):
print "Line 5 - a is greater than b"
else:
print "Line 5 - a is not greater than b"

a = 5;
b = 20;
if ( a <= b ):
print "Line 6 - a is either less than or equal to b"
else:
print "Line 6 - a is neither less than nor equal to b"

if ( b >= a ):
print "Line 7 - b is either greater than or equal to b"
else:
print "Line 7 - b is neither greater than nor equal to b"

When you execute the above program it produces the following result:

Line 1 - a is not equal to b

Line 2 - a is not equal to b
Line 3 - a is not equal to b
Line 4 - a is not less than b
Line 5 - a is greater than b
Line 6 - a is either less than or equal to b
Line 7 - b is either greater than or equal to b

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Python Assignment Operators

Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then:

Operator Description Example

= Assigns values from right side operands to c = a + b assigns

left side operand value of a + b into c

+= It adds right operand to the left operand c += a is equivalent

and assign the result to left operand to c = c + a
Add AND

-= It subtracts right operand from the left c -= a is equivalent

operand and assign the result to left to c = c - a
Subtract AND
operand

*= It multiplies right operand with the left c *= a is equivalent

operand and assign the result to left to c = c * a
Multiply AND
operand

/= It divides left operand with the right c /= a is equivalent

operand and assign the result to left to c = c / a
Divide AND
operand

%= It takes modulus using two operands and c %= a is

assign the result to left operand equivalent to c = c
Modulus AND
%a

**= Performs exponential (power) calculation c **= a is

on operators and assign value to the left equivalent to c = c
Exponent AND
operand ** a

//= It performs floor division on operators and c //= a is

assign value to the left operand equivalent to c = c
Floor Division
// a

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Example
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then:

#!/usr/bin/python

a = 21
b = 10
c = 0

c = a + b
print "Line 1 - Value of c is ", c

c += a
print "Line 2 - Value of c is ", c

c *= a
print "Line 3 - Value of c is ", c

c /= a
print "Line 4 - Value of c is ", c

c = 2
c %= a
print "Line 5 - Value of c is ", c

c **= a
print "Line 6 - Value of c is ", c

c //= a
print "Line 7 - Value of c is ", c

When you execute the above program, it produces the following result:

Line 1 - Value of c is 31
Line 2 - Value of c is 52
Line 3 - Value of c is 1092
Line 4 - Value of c is 52

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Line 5 - Value of c is 2
Line 6 - Value of c is 2097152
Line 7 - Value of c is 99864

Python Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit by bit operation. Assume if a = 60;
and b = 13; Now in binary format they will be as follows:

a = 0011 1100

b = 0000 1101

a&b = 0000 1100

a|b = 0011 1101

a^b = 0011 0001

~a = 1100 0011

There are following Bitwise operators supported by Python language.

Operator Description Example

& Operator copies a bit to the result if it (a & b) = 12

Binary AND exists in both operands. (means 0000 1100)

It copies a bit if it exists in either (a | b) = 61

| Binary OR
operand. (means 0011 1101)

It copies the bit if it is set in one (a ^ b) = 49 (means

^ Binary XOR
operand but not both. 0011 0001)

~ (~a ) = -61 (means

1100 0011 in 2's
It is unary and has the effect of
Binary complement form due
'flipping' bits.
to a signed binary
Ones Complement
number.

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<< The left operands value is moved left a << 2 = 240

by the number of bits specified by
Binary Left Shift the right operand. (means 1111 0000)

>> The left operands value is moved a >> 2 = 15

right by the number of bits specified
Binary Right Shift by the right operand. (means 0000 1111)

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

a = 60 # 60 = 0011 1100
b = 13 # 13 = 0000 1101
c = 0

c = a & b; # 12 = 0000 1100

print "Line 1 - Value of c is ", c

c = a | b; # 61 = 0011 1101
print "Line 2 - Value of c is ", c

c = a ^ b; # 49 = 0011 0001
print "Line 3 - Value of c is ", c

c = ~a; # -61 = 1100 0011

print "Line 4 - Value of c is ", c

c = a << 2; # 240 = 1111 0000

print "Line 5 - Value of c is ", c

c = a >> 2; # 15 = 0000 1111

print "Line 6 - Value of c is ", c

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When you execute the above program it produces the following result:

Line 1 - Value of c is 12
Line 2 - Value of c is 61
Line 3 - Value of c is 49
Line 4 - Value of c is -61
Line 5 - Value of c is 240
Line 6 - Value of c is 15

Python Logical Operators

There are following logical operators supported by Python language. Assume variable
a holds 10 and variable b holds 20 then:

Operator Description Example

and If both the operands are true then (a and b) is true.

condition becomes true.
Logical AND

or If any of the two operands are non-zero (a or b) is true.

then condition becomes true.
Logical OR

not Used to reverse the logical state of its Not (a and b) is false.
operand.
Logical NOT

Python Membership Operators

Python’s membership operators test for membership in a sequence, such as strings,
lists, or tuples. There are two membership operators as explained below:

Operator Description Example

Evaluates to true if it finds a variable

x in y, here in results in a 1
in in the specified sequence and false
if x is a member of
otherwise.
sequence y.

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Evaluates to true if it does not finds a x not in y, here not in

not in variable in the specified sequence and results in a 1 if x is not a
false otherwise. member of sequence y.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

a = 10
b = 20
list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];

if ( a in list ):
print "Line 1 - a is available in the given list"
else:
print "Line 1 - a is not available in the given list"

if ( b not in list ):
print "Line 2 - b is not available in the given list"
else:
print "Line 2 - b is available in the given list"

a = 2
if ( a in list ):
print "Line 3 - a is available in the given list"
else:
print "Line 3 - a is not available in the given list"

When you execute the above program it produces the following result:

Line 1 - a is not available in the given list

Line 2 - b is not available in the given list
Line 3 - a is available in the given list

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Python Identity Operators

Identity operators compare the memory locations of two objects. There are two
Identity operators as explained below:

Operator Description Example

is Evaluates to true if the variables on either x is y, here is results

side of the operator point to the same object in 1 if id(x) equals
and false otherwise. id(y).

is not Evaluates to false if the variables on either x is not y, here is

side of the operator point to the same object not results in 1 if
and true otherwise. id(x) is not equal to
id(y).

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

a = 20
b = 20

if ( a is b ):
print "Line 1 - a and b have same identity"
else:
print "Line 1 - a and b do not have same identity"

if ( id(a) == id(b) ):
print "Line 2 - a and b have same identity"
else:
print "Line 2 - a and b do not have same identity"

b = 30
if ( a is b ):
print "Line 3 - a and b have same identity"
else:
print "Line 3 - a and b do not have same identity"

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if ( a is not b ):
print "Line 4 - a and b do not have same identity"
else:
print "Line 4 - a and b have same identity"

When you execute the above program it produces the following result:

Line 1 - a and b have same identity

Line 2 - a and b have same identity
Line 3 - a and b do not have same identity
Line 4 - a and b do not have same identity

Python Operators Precedence

The following table lists all operators from highest precedence to lowest.

Operator Description

** Exponentiation (raise to the power)

~+- Ccomplement, unary plus and minus (method names for

the last two are +@ and -@)

* / % // Multiply, divide, modulo and floor division

+- Addition and subtraction

>> << Right and left bitwise shift

& Bitwise 'AND'

^| Bitwise exclusive `OR' and regular `OR'

<= < > >= Comparison operators

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<> == != Equality operators

= %= /= //= -= += Assignment operators

*= **=

is is not Identity operators

in not in Membership operators

not or and Logical operators

Operator precedence affects how an expression is evaluated.

For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator * has

higher precedence than +, so it first multiplies 3*2 and then adds into 7.

Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those
with the lowest appear at the bottom.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

a = 20
b = 10
c = 15
d = 5
e = 0

e = (a + b) * c / d #( 30 * 15 ) / 5
print "Value of (a + b) * c / d is ", e

e = ((a + b) * c) / d # (30 * 15 ) / 5
print "Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is ", e

e = (a + b) * (c / d); # (30) * (15/5)

print "Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is ", e

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e = a + (b * c) / d; # 20 + (150/5)
print "Value of a + (b * c) / d is ", e

When you execute the above program, it produces the following result:

Value of (a + b) * c / d is 90
Value of ((a + b) * c) / d is 90
Value of (a + b) * (c / d) is 90
Value of a + (b * c) / d is 50

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6.Python ─ Decision Making Pyth

Decision making is anticipation of conditions occurring while execution of the

program and specifying actions taken according to the conditions.

Decision structures evaluate multiple expressions which produce TRUE or FALSE as

outcome. You need to determine which action to take and which statements to
execute if outcome is TRUE or FALSE otherwise.

Following is the general form of a typical decision making structure found in most of
the programming languages:

Python programming language assumes any non-zero and non-null values

as TRUE, and if it is either zero or null, then it is assumed as FALSE value.

Python programming language provides following types of decision making

statements. Click the following links to check their detail.

Statement Description

if statement consists of a boolean expression followed by one or

if statements
more statements.

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if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which

if...else statements
executes when the boolean expression is FALSE.

nested if You can use one if or else if statement inside another if or else
statements if statement(s).

If Statement
It is similar to that of other languages. The if statement contains a logical
expression using which data is compared and a decision is made based on the
result of the comparison.

Syntax
if expression:
statement(s)

If the boolean expression evaluates to TRUE, then the block of statement(s) inside
the if statement is executed. If boolean expression evaluates to FALSE, then the
first set of code after the end of the if statement(s) is executed.

Flow Diagram

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Example
#!/usr/bin/python

var1 = 100
if var1:
print "1 - Got a true expression value"
print var1

var2 = 0
if var2:
print "2 - Got a true expression value"
print var2
print "Good bye!"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

1 - Got a true expression value

100
Good bye!

If…else Statement
An else statement can be combined with an if statement. An else statement
contains the block of code that executes if the conditional expression in the if
statement resolves to 0 or a FALSE value.

The else statement is an optional statement and there could be at most only one else
statement following if.

Syntax
The syntax of the if...else statement is:

if expression:
statement(s)
else:
statement(s)

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Flow Diagram

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

var1 = 100
if var1:
print "1 - Got a true expression value"
print var1
else:
print "1 - Got a false expression value"
print var1

var2 = 0
if var2:
print "2 - Got a true expression value"
print var2

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else:
print "2 - Got a false expression value"
print var2
print "Good bye!"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

1 - Got a true expression

value 100
2 - Got a false expression value
0
Good bye!

The elif Statement

The elif statement allows you to check multiple expressions for TRUE and execute a
block of code as soon as one of the conditions evaluates to TRUE.

Similar to the else, the elif statement is optional. However, unlike else, for which
there can be at most one statement, there can be an arbitrary number
of elif statements following an if.

Syntax
if expression1:
statement(s)
elif expression2:
statement(s)
elif expression3:
statement(s)
else:
statement(s)

Core Python does not provide switch or case statements as in other languages, but
we can use if..elif...statements to simulate switch case as follows:

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Example
#!/usr/bin/python

var = 100
if var == 200:
print "1 - Got a true expression value"
print var
elif var == 150:
print "2 - Got a true expression value"
print var
elif var == 100:
print "3 - Got a true expression value"
print var
else:
print "4 - Got a false expression value"
print var

print "Good bye!"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

3 - Got a true expression value

100
Good bye!

Single Statement Suites

If the suite of an if clause consists only of a single line, it may go on the same line
as the header statement.

Here is an example of a one-line if clause:

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#!/usr/bin/python

var = 100

if ( var == 100 ) : print "Value of expression is

100" print "Good bye!"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Value of expression is 100

Good bye!

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7.Python ─ Loops Pyth

In general, statements are executed sequentially: The first statement in a function

is executed first, followed by the second, and so on. There may be a situation when
you need to execute a block of code several number of times.

Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more
complicated execution paths.

A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple

times. The following diagram illustrates a loop statement:

Python programming language provides following types of loops to handle looping

requirements.

Loop Type Description

Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is

while loop
TRUE. It tests the condition before executing the loop body.

Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the

for loop
code that manages the loop variable.

You can use one or more loop inside any another while, for or do..while
nested loops
loop.

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While Loop
A while loop statement in Python programming language repeatedly executes a
target statement as long as a given condition is true.

Syntax
The syntax of a while loop in Python programming language is:

while expression:
statement(s)

Here, statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements.

The condition may be any expression, and true is any non-zero value. The loop
iterates while the condition is true.

When the condition becomes false, program control passes to the line immediately
following the loop.

In Python, all the statements indented by the same number of character spaces
after a programming construct are considered to be part of a single block of code.
Python uses indentation as its method of grouping statements.

Flow Diagram

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Here, key point of the while loop is that the loop might not ever run. When the
condition is tested and the result is false, the loop body will be skipped and the first
statement after the while loop will be executed.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

count = 0
while (count < 9):
print 'The count is:', count
count = count + 1

print "Good bye!"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

The count is: 0

The count is: 1
The count is: 2
The count is: 3
The count is: 4
The count is: 5
The count is: 6
The count is: 7
The count is: 8
Good bye!

The block here, consisting of the print and increment statements, is executed
repeatedly until count is no longer less than 9. With each iteration, the current
value of the index count is displayed and then increased by 1.

The Infinite Loop

A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition never becomes FALSE. You must use
caution when using while loops because of the possibility that this condition never
resolves to a FALSE value. This results in a loop that never ends. Such a loop is
called an infinite loop.

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An infinite loop might be useful in client/server programming where the server

needs to run continuously so that client programs can communicate with it as and
when required.

#!/usr/bin/python

var = 1
while var == 1 : # This constructs an infinite
loop num = raw_input("Enter a number :")
print "You entered: ", num

print "Good bye!"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Enter a number :20

You entered: 20
Enter a number :29
You entered: 29
Enter a number :3
You entered: 3
Enter a number between :Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 5, in <module>
num = raw_input("Enter a number :")
KeyboardInterrupt

Above example goes in an infinite loop and you need to use CTRL+C to exit the
program.

Using else Statement with Loops

Python supports to have an else statement associated with a loop statement.

 If the else statement is used with a for loop, the else statement is executed
when the loop has exhausted iterating the list.

 If the else statement is used with a while loop, the else statement is
executed when the condition becomes false.

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The following example illustrates the combination of an else statement with a while
statement that prints a number as long as it is less than 5, otherwise else
statement gets executed.

#!/usr/bin/python

count = 0
while count < 5:
print count, " is less than 5"
count = count + 1
else:
print count, " is not less than 5"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

0 is less than 5
1 is less than 5
2 is less than 5
3 is less than 5
4 is less than 5
5 is not less than 5

Single Statement Suites

Similar to the if statement syntax, if your while clause consists only of a single
statement, it may be placed on the same line as the while header.

Here is the syntax and example of a one-line while clause:

#!/usr/bin/python

flag = 1

while (flag): print 'Given flag is really true!'

print "Good bye!"

It is better not try above example because it goes into infinite loop and you need to
press CTRL+C keys to exit.

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For Loop
It has the ability to iterate over the items of any sequence, such as a list or a string.

Syntax
for iterating_var in sequence:
statements(s)

If a sequence contains an expression list, it is evaluated first. Then, the first item in
the sequence is assigned to the iterating variable iterating_var. Next, the
statements block is executed. Each item in the list is assigned to iterating_var, and
the statement(s) block is executed until the entire sequence is exhausted.

Flow Diagram

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

for letter in 'Python': # First Example

print 'Current Letter :', letter

fruits = ['banana', 'apple', 'mango']

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for fruit in fruits: # Second Example

print 'Current fruit :', fruit

print "Good bye!"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Current Letter : P
Current Letter : y
Current Letter : t
Current Letter : h
Current Letter : o
Current Letter : n
Current fruit : banana
Current fruit : apple
Current fruit : mango
Good bye!

Iterating by Sequence Index

An alternative way of iterating through each item is by index offset into the
sequence itself. Following is a simple example:

#!/usr/bin/python

fruits = ['banana', 'apple', 'mango']

for index in range(len(fruits)):
print 'Current fruit :', fruits[index]

print "Good bye!"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Current fruit : banana

Current fruit : apple
Current fruit : mango
Good bye!

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Here, we took the assistance of the len() built-in function, which provides the total
number of elements in the tuple as well as the range() built-in function to give us
the actual sequence to iterate over.

Using else Statement with Loops

Python supports to have an else statement associated with a loop statement.

 If the else statement is used with a for loop, the else statement is executed
when the loop has exhausted iterating the list.

 If the else statement is used with a while loop, the else statement is
executed when the condition becomes false.

The following example illustrates the combination of an else statement with a for
statement that searches for prime numbers from 10 through 20.

#!/usr/bin/python

for num in range(10,20): #to iterate between 10 to 20

for i in range(2,num): #to iterate on the factors of the
number if num%i == 0: #to determine the first factor
j=num/i #to calculate the second
factor print '%d equals %d * %d' % (num,i,j)
break #to move to the next number, the #first
FOR else: # else part of the loop
print num, 'is a prime number'

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

10 equals 2 * 5
11 is a prime number
12 equals 2 * 6
13 is a prime number
14 equals 2 * 7
15 equals 3 * 5
16 equals 2 * 8
17 is a prime number
18 equals 2 * 9
19 is a prime number

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Nested Loops
Python programming language allows to use one loop inside another loop. Following
section shows few examples to illustrate the concept.

Syntax
for iterating_var in sequence:
for iterating_var in sequence:
statements(s)
statements(s)

The syntax for a nested while loop statement in Python programming language is
as follows:

while expression:
while expression:
statement(s)
statement(s)

A final note on loop nesting is that you can put any type of loop inside of any other
type of loop. For example a for loop can be inside a while loop or vice versa.

Example
The following program uses a nested for loop to find the prime numbers from 2 to
100:

#!/usr/bin/python

i = 2
while(i < 100):
j = 2
while(j <= (i/j)):
if not(i%j): break
j = j + 1
if (j > i/j) : print i, " is prime"
i = i + 1

print "Good bye!"

When the above code is executed, it produces following result:

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2 is prime
3 is prime
5 is prime
7 is prime
11 is prime
13 is prime
17 is prime
19 is prime
23 is prime
29 is prime
31 is prime
37 is prime
41 is prime
43 is prime
47 is prime
53 is prime
59 is prime
61 is prime
67 is prime
71 is prime
73 is prime
79 is prime
83 is prime
89 is prime
97 is prime
Good bye!

Loop Control Statements

Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence. When
execution leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are
destroyed.

Python supports the following control statements. Click the following links to check
their detail.

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Control
Description
Statement

Terminates the loop statement and transfers execution to the

break statement
statement immediately following the loop.

continue Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and
statement immediately retest its condition prior to reiterating.

The pass statement in Python is used when a statement is

pass statement required syntactically but you do not want any command or
code to execute.

Break Statement
It terminates the current loop and resumes execution at the next statement, just
like the traditional break statement in C.

The most common use for break is when some external condition is triggered
requiring a hasty exit from a loop. The break statement can be used in
both while and for loops.

If you are using nested loops, the break statement stops the execution of the
innermost loop and start executing the next line of code after the block.

Syntax
The syntax for a break statement in Python is as follows:

break

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Flow Diagram

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

for letter in 'Python': # First Example

if letter == 'h':
break
print 'Current Letter :', letter

var = 10 # Second Example

while var > 0:
print 'Current variable value :', var
var = var -1
if var == 5:
break

print "Good bye!"

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When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Current Letter : P
Current Letter : y
Current Letter : t
Current variable value : 10
Current variable value : 9
Current variable value : 8
Current variable value : 7
Current variable value : 6
Good bye!

Continue Statement
It returns the control to the beginning of the while loop. The continue statement
rejects all the remaining statements in the current iteration of the loop and moves
the control back to the top of the loop.

The continue statement can be used in both while and for loops.

Syntax
continue

Flow Diagram

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Example
#!/usr/bin/python

for letter in 'Python': # First Example

if letter == 'h':
continue
print 'Current Letter :', letter

var = 10 # Second Example

while var > 0:
var = var -1
if var == 5:
continue
print 'Current variable value :', var
print "Good bye!"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Current Letter : P
Current Letter : y
Current Letter : t
Current Letter : o
Current Letter : n
Current variable value : 9
Current variable value : 8
Current variable value : 7
Current variable value : 6
Current variable value : 4
Current variable value : 3
Current variable value : 2
Current variable value : 1
Current variable value : 0
Good bye!

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Pass Statement
It is used when a statement is required syntactically but you do not want any
command or code to execute.

The pass statement is a null operation; nothing happens when it executes.

The pass is also useful in places where your code will eventually go, but has not
been written yet (e.g., in stubs for example):

Syntax
pass

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

for letter in 'Python':

if letter == 'h':
pass
print 'This is pass block'
print 'Current Letter :', letter

print "Good bye!"

When the above code is executed, it produces following result:

Current Letter : P
Current Letter : y
Current Letter : t
This is pass block
Current Letter : h
Current Letter : o
Current Letter : n
Good bye!

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8.Python ─ Numbers Pyth

Number data types store numeric values. They are immutable data types, means
that changing the value of a number data type results in a newly allocated object.

Number objects are created when you assign a value to them. For example:

var1 = 1
var2 = 10

You can also delete the reference to a number object by using the del statement.
The syntax of the del statement is:

del var1[,var2[,var3[.. .,varN]]]]

You can delete a single object or multiple objects by using the del statement. For
example:

del var
del var_a, var_b

Python supports four different numerical types:

 int (signed integers): They are often called just integers or ints, are
positive or negative whole numbers with no decimal point.

 long (long integers): Also called longs, they are integers of unlimited size,
written like integers and followed by an uppercase or lowercase L.

 float (floating point real values) : Also called floats, they represent real
numbers and are written with a decimal point dividing the integer and
fractional parts. Floats may also be in scientific notation, with E or e
indicating the power of 10 (2.5e2 = 2.5 x 10 2 = 250).

 complex (complex numbers) : are of the form a + bJ, where a and b are
floats and J (or j) represents the square root of -1 (which is an imaginary
number). The real part of the number is a, and the imaginary part is b.
Complex numbers are not used much in Python programming.

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Examples
Here are some examples of numbers:

int Long float complex

10 51924361L 0.0 3.14j

100 -0x19323L 15.20 45.j

-786 0122L -21.9 9.322e-36j

080 0xDEFABCECBDAECBFBAEL 32.3+e18 .876j

-0490 535633629843L -90. -.6545+0J

-0x260 -052318172735L -32.54e100 3e+26J

0x69 -4721885298529L 70.2-E12 4.53e-7j

 Python allows you to use a lowercase L with long, but it is recommended that
you use only an uppercase L to avoid confusion with the number 1. Python
displays long integers with an uppercase L.

 A complex number consists of an ordered pair of real floating point numbers

denoted by a + bj, where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part of the
complex number.

Number Type Conversion

Python converts numbers internally in an expression containing mixed types to a
common type for evaluation. But sometimes, you need to coerce a number
explicitly from one type to another to satisfy the requirements of an operator or
function parameter.

 Type int(x) to convert x to a plain integer.

 Type long(x) to convert x to a long integer.
 Type float(x) to convert x to a floating-point number.

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 Type complex(x) to convert x to a complex number with real part x and

imaginary part zero.

 Type complex(x, y) to convert x and y to a complex number with real part

x and imaginary part y. x and y are numeric expressions

Mathematical Functions
Python includes following functions that perform mathematical calculations.

Function Returns ( description )

abs(x) The absolute value of x: the (positive) distance between x and zero.

ceil(x) The ceiling of x: the smallest integer not less than x

cmp(x, y) -1 if x < y, 0 if x == y, or 1 if x > y

exp(x) The exponential of x: ex

fabs(x) The absolute value of x.

floor(x) The floor of x: the largest integer not greater than x

log(x) The natural logarithm of x, for x> 0

log10(x) The base-10 logarithm of x for x> 0.

max(x1, x2,...) The largest of its arguments: the value closest to positive infinity

min(x1, x2,...) The smallest of its arguments: the value closest to negative infinity

The fractional and integer parts of x in a two-item tuple. Both parts have
modf(x)
the same sign as x. The integer part is returned as a float.

pow(x, y) The value of x**y.

x rounded to n digits from the decimal point. Python rounds away from
round(x [,n])
zero as a tie-breaker: round(0.5) is 1.0 and round(-0.5) is -1.0.

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sqrt(x) The square root of x for x > 0

Random Number Functions

Random numbers are used for games, simulations, testing, security, and privacy
applications. Python includes following functions that are commonly used.

Function Description

choice(seq) A random item from a list, tuple, or string.

A randomly selected element from range(start, stop,

randrange ([start,] stop [,step])
step)

A random float r, such that 0 is less than or equal to r

random()
and r is less than 1

Sets the integer starting value used in generating

seed([x]) random numbers. Call this function before calling any
other random module function. Returns None.

shuffle(lst) Randomizes the items of a list in place. Returns None.

A random float r, such that x is less than or equal to r

uniform(x, y)
and r is less than y

Trigonometric Functions
Python includes following functions that perform trigonometric calculations.

Function Description

acos(x) Return the arc cosine of x, in radians.

asin(x) Return the arc sine of x, in radians.

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atan(x) Return the arc tangent of x, in radians.

atan2(y, x) Return atan(y / x), in radians.

cos(x) Return the cosine of x radians.

hypot(x, y) Return the Euclidean norm, sqrt(x*x + y*y).

sin(x) Return the sine of x radians.

tan(x) Return the tangent of x radians.

degrees(x) Converts angle x from radians to degrees.

radians(x) Converts angle x from degrees to radians.

Mathematical Constants
The module also defines two mathematical constants:

Constants Description

pi The mathematical constant pi.

e The mathematical constant e.

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Strings are amongst the most popular types in Python. We can create them simply
by enclosing characters in quotes. Python treats single quotes the same as double
quotes. Creating strings is as simple as assigning a value to a variable. For
example:

var1 = 'Hello World!'

var2 = "Python Programming"

Accessing Values in Strings

Python does not support a character type; these are treated as strings of length
one, thus also considered a substring.

To access substrings, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or
indices to obtain your substring. For example:

#!/usr/bin/python

var1 = 'Hello World!'

var2 = "Python Programming"

print "var1[0]: ", var1[0]

print "var2[1:5]: ", var2[1:5]

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

var1[0]: H
var2[1:5]: ytho

Updating Strings
You can "update" an existing string by (re)assigning a variable to another string.
The new value can be related to its previous value or to a completely different
string altogether. For example:

#!/usr/bin/python

var1 = 'Hello World!'

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print "Updated String :- ", var1[:6] + 'Python'

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Updated String :- Hello Python

Escape Characters
Following table is a list of escape or non-printable characters that can be
represented with backslash notation.

An escape character gets interpreted; in a single quoted as well as double quoted

strings.

Backslash Hexadecimal
Description
notation character

\a 0x07 Bell or alert

\b 0x08 Backspace

\cx Control-x

\C-x Control-x

\e 0x1b Escape

\f 0x0c Formfeed

\M-\C-x Meta-Control-x

\n 0x0a Newline

\nnn Octal notation, where n is in the range 0.7

\r 0x0d Carriage return

\s 0x20 Space

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\t 0x09 Tab

\v 0x0b Vertical tab

\x Character x

Hexadecimal notation, where n is in the range

\xnn
0.9, a.f, or A.F

String Special Operators

Assume string variable a holds 'Hello' and variable b holds 'Python', then:

Operator Description Example

Concatenation - Adds values on either side a + b will give

+
of the operator HelloPython

Repetition - Creates new strings,

a*2 will give -
* concatenating multiple copies of the same
HelloHello
string

Slice - Gives the character from the given

[] a[1] will give e
index

Range Slice - Gives the characters from the

[:] a[1:4] will give ell
given range

Membership - Returns true if a character

in H in a will give 1
exists in the given string

Membership - Returns true if a character

not in M not in a will give 1
does not exist in the given string

Raw String - Suppresses actual meaning of

Escape characters. The syntax for raw print r'\n' prints \n
r/R
strings is exactly the same as for normal and print R'\n'prints \
strings with the exception of the raw string n

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operator, the letter "r," which precedes the

quotation marks. The "r" can be lowercase
(r) or uppercase (R) and must be placed
immediately preceding the first quote mark.

% Format - Performs String formatting See at next section

String Format ing Operator

One of Python's coolest features is the string format operator %. This operator is
unique to strings and makes up for the pack of having functions from C's printf()
family. Following is a simple example:

#!/usr/bin/python
print "My name is %s and weight is %d kg!" % ('Zara', 21)

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

My name is Zara and weight is 21 kg!

Here is the list of complete set of symbols which can be used along with %:

Format Symbol Conversion

%c character

%s string conversion via str() prior to formatting

%i signed decimal integer

%d signed decimal integer

%u unsigned decimal integer

%o octal integer

%x hexadecimal integer (lowercase letters)

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%X hexadecimal integer (UPPERcase letters)

%e exponential notation (with lowercase 'e')

%E exponential notation (with UPPERcase 'E')

%f floating point real number

%g the shorter of %f and %e

%G the shorter of %f and %E

Other supported symbols and functionality are listed in the following table:

Symbol Functionality

* argument specifies width or precision

- left justification

+ display the sign

<sp> leave a blank space before a positive number

# add the octal leading zero ( '0' ) or hexadecimal leading

'0x' or '0X', depending on whether 'x' or 'X' were used.

0 pad from left with zeros (instead of spaces)

% '%%' leaves you with a single literal '%'

(var) mapping variable (dictionary arguments)

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m.n. m is the minimum total width and n is the number of

digits to display after the decimal point (if appl.)

Triple Quotes
Python's triple quotes comes to the rescue by allowing strings to span multiple
lines, including verbatim NEWLINEs, TABs, and any other special characters.

The syntax for triple quotes consists of three consecutive single or double quotes.

#!/usr/bin/python

para_str = """this is a long string that is made up of

several lines and non-printable characters such as
TAB ( \t ) and they will show up that way when displayed.
NEWLINEs within the string, whether explicitly given like
this within the brackets [ \n ], or just a NEWLINE within
the variable assignment will also show up.
"""
print para_str;

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result. Note how every
single special character has been converted to its printed form, right down to the
last NEWLINE at the end of the string between the "up." and closing triple quotes.
Also note that NEWLINEs occur either with an explicit carriage return at the end of
a line or its escape code (\n):

this is a long string that is made up of

several lines and non-printable characters such as
TAB ( ) and they will show up that way when displayed.
NEWLINEs within the string, whether explicitly given like
this within the brackets [
], or just a NEWLINE within
the variable assignment will also show up.

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Raw strings do not treat the backslash as a special character at all. Every character
you put into a raw string stays the way you wrote it:

#!/usr/bin/python
print 'C:\\nowhere'

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

C:\nowhere

Now let's make use of raw string. We would put expression in r'expression' as
follows:

#!/usr/bin/python
print r'C:\\nowhere'

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

C:\\nowhere

Unicode String
Normal strings in Python are stored internally as 8-bit ASCII, while Unicode strings
are stored as 16-bit Unicode. This allows for a more varied set of characters,
including special characters from most languages in the world. I'll restrict my
treatment of Unicode strings to the following:

#!/usr/bin/python
print u'Hello, world!'

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Hello, world!

As you can see, Unicode strings use the prefix u, just as raw strings use the prefix r.

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Built-in String Methods

Python includes the following built-in methods to manipulate strings:

Sr. No. Methods with Description

capitalize()
1
Capitalizes first letter of string.

center(width, fillchar)
2 Returns a space-padded string with the original string centered to a
total of width columns.

count(str, beg= 0,end=len(string))

3 Counts how many times str occurs in string or in a substring of string if
starting index beg and ending index end are given.

decode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict')
4 Decodes the string using the codec registered for encoding. encoding
defaults to the default string encoding.

encode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict')
5 Returns encoded string version of string; on error, default is to raise a
ValueError unless errors is given with 'ignore' or 'replace'.

endswith(suffix, beg=0, end=len(string))

Determines if string or a substring of string (if starting index beg and
6
ending index end are given) ends with suffix; returns true if so and
false otherwise.

expandtabs(tabsize=8)
7 Expands tabs in string to multiple spaces; defaults to 8 spaces per tab
if tabsize not provided.

find(str, beg=0 end=len(string))

Determine if str occurs in string or in a substring of string if starting
8
index beg and ending index end are given returns index if found and -1
otherwise.

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index(str, beg=0, end=len(string))

9
Same as find(), but raises an exception if str not found.

isalnum()
10 Returns true if string has at least 1 character and all characters are
alphanumeric and false otherwise.

isalpha()
11 Returns true if string has at least 1 character and all characters are
alphabetic and false otherwise.

isdigit()
12
Returns true if string contains only digits and false otherwise.

islower()
13 Returns true if string has at least 1 cased character and all cased
characters are in lowercase and false otherwise.

isnumeric()
14 Returns true if a unicode string contains only numeric characters and
false otherwise.

isspace()
15 Returns true if string contains only whitespace characters and false
otherwise.

istitle()
16
Returns true if string is properly "titlecased" and false otherwise.

isupper()
17 Returns true if string has at least one cased character and all cased
characters are in uppercase and false otherwise.

join(seq)
18 Merges (concatenates) the string representations of elements in
sequence seq into a string, with separator string.

len(string)
19
Returns the length of the string.

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ljust(width[, fillchar])
20 Returns a space-padded string with the original string left-justified to a
total of width columns.

lower()
21
Converts all uppercase letters in string to lowercase.

lstrip()
22
Removes all leading whitespace in string.

maketrans()
23
Returns a translation table to be used in translate function.

max(str)
24
Returns the max alphabetical character from the string str.

min(str)
25
Returns the min alphabetical character from the string str.

replace(old, new [, max])

26 Replaces all occurrences of old in string with new or at most max
occurrences if max given.

rfind(str, beg=0,end=len(string))
27
Same as find(), but search backwards in string.

rindex( str, beg=0, end=len(string))

28
Same as index(), but search backwards in string.

rjust(width,[, fillchar])
29 Returns a space-padded string with the original string right-justified to
a total of width columns.

rstrip()
30
Removes all trailing whitespace of string.

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split(str="", num=string.count(str))
31 Splits string according to delimiter str (space if not provided) and
returns list of substrings; split into at most num substrings if given.

splitlines( num=string.count('\n'))
32 Splits string at all (or num) NEWLINEs and returns a list of each line
with NEWLINEs removed.

startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string))
Determines if string or a substring of string (if starting index beg and
33
ending index end are given) starts with substring str; returns true if so
and false otherwise.

strip([chars])
34
Performs both lstrip() and rstrip() on string.

swapcase()
35
Inverts case for all letters in string.

title()
36 Returns "titlecased" version of string, that is, all words begin with
uppercase and the rest are lowercase.

translate(table, deletechars="")
37 Translates string according to translation table str(256 chars),
removing those in the del string.

upper()
38
Converts lowercase letters in string to uppercase.

zfill (width)
Returns original string leftpadded with zeros to a total of width
39
characters; intended for numbers, zfill() retains any sign given (less
one zero).

isdecimal()
40 Returns true if a unicode string contains only decimal characters and
false otherwise.

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capitalize() Method
It returns a copy of the string with only its first character capitalized.

Syntax
str.capitalize()

Parameters
NA

Return Value
string

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example....wow!!!";

print "str.capitalize() : ", str.capitalize()

Result
str.capitalize() : This is string example.. .wow!!!

center(width, fillchar) Method

The method center() returns centered in a string of length width. Padding is done
using the specified fillchar. Default filler is a space.

Syntax
str.center(width[, fillchar])

Parameters
 width -- This is the total width of the string.
 fillchar -- This is the filler character.

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Return Value
This method returns centered in a string of length width.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

print "str.center(40, 'a') : ", str.center(40, 'a')

Result
str.center(40, 'a') : aaaathis is string example....wow!!!aaaa

count(str, beg= 0,end=len(string) Method

The method count() returns the number of occurrences of substring sub in the
range [start, end]. Optional arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice
notation.

Syntax
str.count(sub, start= 0,end=len(string))

Parameters
 sub -- This is the substring to be searched.

 start -- Search starts from this index. First character starts from 0 index. By
default search starts from 0 index.

 end -- Search ends from this index. First character starts from 0 index. By
default search ends at the last index.

Return Value
Centered in a string of length width.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

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sub = "i";
print "str.count(sub, 4, 40) : ", str.count(sub, 4, 40)
sub = "wow";
print "str.count(sub) : ", str.count(sub)

Result
str.count(sub, 4, 40) : 2
str.count(sub, 4, 40) : 1

decode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict') Method
The method decode() decodes the string using the codec registered for encoding. It
defaults to the default string encoding.

Syntax
str.decode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict')

Parameters
 encoding -- This is the encodings to be used. For a list of all encoding
schemes please visit: Standard Encodings.

 errors -- This may be given to set a different error handling scheme. The
default for errors is 'strict', meaning that encoding errors raise a
UnicodeError. Other possible values are 'ignore', 'replace',
'xmlcharrefreplace', 'backslashreplace' and any other name registered via
codecs.register_error().

Return Value
Decoded string.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

str = str.encode('base64','strict');

print "Encoded String: " + str;

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print "Decoded String: " + str.decode('base64','strict')

Result
Encoded String: dGhpcyBpcyBzdHJpbmcgZXhhbXBsZS4uLi53b3chISE=
Decoded String: this is string example....wow!!!

encode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict') Method
The method encode() returns an encoded version of the string. Default encoding is
the current default string encoding. The errors may be given to set a different error
handling scheme.

Syntax
str.encode(encoding='UTF-8',errors='strict')

Parameters
 encoding -- This is the encodings to be used. For a list of all encoding
schemes please visit Standard Encodings.

 errors -- This may be given to set a different error handling scheme. The
default for errors is 'strict', meaning that encoding errors raise a
UnicodeError. Other possible values are 'ignore', 'replace',
'xmlcharrefreplace', 'backslashreplace' and any other name registered via
codecs.register_error().

Return Value
Encoded string.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python
str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";
print "Encoded String: " + str.encode('base64','strict')

Result
Encoded String: dGhpcyBpcyBzdHJpbmcgZXhhbXBsZS4uLi53b3chISE=

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endswith(suf ix, beg=0, end=len(string) Method

It returns True if the string ends with the specified suffix, otherwise return False
optionally restricting the matching with the given indices start and end.

Syntax
str.endswith(suffix[, start[, end]])

Parameters
 suffix -- This could be a string or could also be a tuple of suffixes to look for.
 start -- The slice begins from here.
 end -- The slice ends here.

Return Value
TRUE if the string ends with the specified suffix, otherwise FALSE.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

suffix = "wow!!!";
print str.endswith(suffix);
print str.endswith(suffix,20);

suffix = "is";
print str.endswith(suffix, 2, 4);
print str.endswith(suffix, 2, 6);

Result
True
True
True
False

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expandtabs(tabsize=8)
It returns a copy of the string in which tab characters ie. '\t' are expanded using
spaces, optionally using the given tabsize (default 8).

Syntax
str.expandtabs(tabsize=8)

Parameters
 tabsize -- This specifies the number of characters to be replaced for a tab
character '\t'.

Return Value
 This method returns a copy of the string in which tab characters i.e., '\t' have
been expanded using spaces.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is\tstring example. . .wow!!!";

print "Original string: " + str;

print "Defualt exapanded tab: " + str.expandtabs();
print "Double exapanded tab: " + str.expandtabs(16);

Result
Original string: this is string example....wow!!!
Defualt exapanded tab: this is string example....wow!!!
Double exapanded tab: this is string example....wow!!!

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find(str, beg=0 end=len(string))

It determines if string str occurs in string, or in a substring of string if starting
index beg and ending index end are given.

Syntax
str.find(str, beg=0 end=len(string))

Parameters
 str -- This specifies the string to be searched.
 beg -- This is the starting index, by default its 0.
 end -- This is the ending index, by default its equal to the lenght of the string.

Return Value
Index if found and -1 otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of find() method.
#!/usr/bin/python

str1 = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

str2 = "exam";

print str1.find(str2);
print str1.find(str2, 10);
print str1.find(str2, 40);

Result
15
15
-1

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index(str, beg=0, end=len(string)

It determines if string str occurs in string or in a substring of string if starting
index beg and ending index end are given. This method is same as find(), but
raises an exception if sub is not found.

Syntax
str.index(str, beg=0 end=len(string))

Parameters
 str -- This specifies the string to be searched.
 beg -- This is the starting index, by default its 0.
 end -- This is the ending index, by default its equal to the length of the string.

Return Value
Index if found otherwise raises an exception if str is not found.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

str1 = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

str2 = "exam";

print str1.index(str2);
print str1.index(str2, 10);
print str1.index(str2, 40);

Result
15
15
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 8, in
print str1.index(str2, 40);
ValueError: substring not found
shell returned 1

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isalnum() Method
It checks whether the string consists of alphanumeric characters.

Syntax
str.isa1num()

Parameters
NA

Return Value
TRUE if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and there is at least one
character, FASLE otherwise.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this2009"; # No space in this string

print str.isalnum();

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

print str.isalnum();

Result
True
False

isalpha()
The method isalpha() checks whether the string consists of alphabetic characters
only.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for islpha() method:

str.isalpha()

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Parameters
 NA

Return Value
This method returns true if all characters in the string are alphabetic and there is at
least one character, false otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of isalpha() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this"; # No space & digit in this string

print str.isalpha();

str = "this is string example....wow!!!";

print str.isalpha();

When we run above program, it produces following result:

True
False

isdigit()
The method isdigit() checks whether the string consists of digits only.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for isdigit() method:

str.isdigit()

Parameters
 NA

Return Value
This method returns true if all characters in the string are digits and there is at least
one character, false otherwise.

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Example
The following example shows the usage of isdigit() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "123456"; # Only digit in this string

print str.isdigit();

str = "this is string example....wow!!!";

print str.isdigit();

When we run above program, it produces following result:

True
False

islower()
Description
The method islower() checks whether all the case-based characters (letters) of the
string are lowercase.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for islower() method:

str.islower()

Parameters
 NA

Return Value
This method returns true if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and there
is at least one cased character, false otherwise.

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Example
The following example shows the usage of islower() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "THIS is string example....wow!!!";

print str.islower();

str = "this is string example....wow!!!";

print str.islower();

When we run above program, it produces following result:

False
True

isnumeric()
Description
The method isnumeric() checks whether the string consists of only numeric
characters. This method is present only on unicode objects.

Note: To define a string as Unicode, one simply prefixes a 'u' to the opening
quotation mark of the assignment. Below is the example.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for isnumeric() method:

str.isnumeric()

Parameters
 NA

Return Value
This method returns true if all characters in the string are numeric, false otherwise.

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Example
The following example shows the usage of isnumeric() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
str = u"this2009";
print str.isnumeric();
str = u"23443434";
print str.isnumeric();

When we run above program, it produces following result:

False
True

isspace() Method
The method isspace() checks whether the string consists of whitespace.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for isspace() method:

str.isspace()

Parameters
 NA

Return Value
This method returns true if there are only whitespace characters in the string and
there is at least one character, false otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of isspace() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = " ";

print str.isspace();
str = "This is string example....wow!!!";
print str.isspace();

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When we run above program, it produces following result:

True
False

istitle()
The method istitle() checks whether all the case-based characters in the string
following non-casebased letters are uppercase and all other case-based characters
are lowercase.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for istitle() method:

str.istitle()

Parameters
 NA

Return Value
This method returns true if the string is a titlecased string and there is at least one
character, for example uppercase characters may only follow uncased characters
and lowercase characters only cased ones.It returns false otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of istitle() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "This Is String Example...Wow!!!";

print str.istitle();

str = "This is string example.. .wow!!!";

print str.istitle();

When we run above program, it produces following result:

True
False

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isupper()
The method isupper() checks whether all the case-based characters (letters) of the
string are uppercase.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for isupper() method:

str.isupper()

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns true if all cased characters in the string are uppercase and
there is at least one cased character, false otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of isupper() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "THIS IS STRING EXAMPLE.. .WOW!!!";

print str.isupper();

str = "THIS is string example.. .wow!!!";

print str.isupper();

When we run above program, it produces following result:

True
False

join(seq)
Description
The method join() returns a string in which the string elements of sequence have
been joined by str separator.

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Syntax
Following is the syntax for join() method:

str.join(sequence)

Parameters
sequence -- This is a sequence of the elements to be joined.

Return Value
This method returns a string, which is the concatenation of the strings in the
sequence seq. The separator between elements is the string providing this method.

Example
The following example shows the usage of join() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "-";
seq = ("a", "b", "c"); # This is sequence of strings.
print str.join( seq );

When we run above program, it produces following result:

a-b-c

len(string)
The method len() returns the length of the string.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for len() method:

len( str )

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns the length of the string.

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Example
The following example shows the usage of len() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

print "Length of the string: ", len(str);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Length of the string: 32

ljust(width[, fillchar])
The method ljust() returns the string left justified in a string of length width.
Padding is done using the specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is
returned if width is less than len(s).

Syntax
Following is the syntax for ljust() method:

str.ljust(width[, fillchar])

Parameters
 width -- This is string length in total after padding.
 fillchar -- This is filler character, default is a space.

Return Value
This method returns the string left justified in a string of length width. Padding is
done using the specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is returned
if width is less than len(s).

Example
The following example shows the usage of ljust() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

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print str.ljust(50, '0');

When we run above program, it produces following result:

this is string example....wow!!!000000000000000000

lower()
The method lower() returns a copy of the string in which all case-based characters
have been lowercased.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for lower() method:

str.lower()

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all case-based characters have been
lowercased.

Example
The following example shows the usage of lower() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "THIS IS STRING EXAMPLE.. .WOW!!!";

print str.lower();

When we run above program, it produces following result:

this is string example....wow!!!

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lstrip()
The method lstrip() returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been
stripped from the beginning of the string (default whitespace characters).

Syntax
Following is the syntax for lstrip() method:

str.lstrip([chars])

Parameters
chars -- You can supply what chars have to be trimmed.

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from
the beginning of the string (default whitespace characters).

Example
The following example shows the usage of lstrip() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = " this is string example....wow!!! ";

print str.lstrip();
str = "88888888this is string example.. .wow!!!8888888";
print str.lstrip('8');

When we run above program, it produces following result:

this is string example....wow!!!

this is string example....wow!!!8888888

maketrans()
The method maketrans() returns a translation table that maps each character in
the intabstring into the character at the same position in the outtab string. Then
this table is passed to the translate() function.

Note: Both intab and outtab must have the same length.

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Syntax
Following is the syntax for maketrans() method:

str.maketrans(intab, outtab]);

Parameters
 intab -- This is the string having actual characters.
 outtab -- This is the string having corresponding mapping character.

Return Value
This method returns a translate table to be used translate() function.

Example
The following example shows the usage of maketrans() method. Under this, every
vowel in a string is replaced by its vowel position:

#!/usr/bin/python

from string import maketrans # Required to call maketrans function.

intab = "aeiou"
outtab = "12345"
trantab = maketrans(intab, outtab)

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

print str.translate(trantab);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

th3s 3s str3ng 2x1mpl2....w4w!!!

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max(str)
The method max() returns the max alphabetical character from the string str.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for max() method:

max(str)

Parameters
 str -- This is the string from which max alphabetical character needs to be
returned.

Return Value
This method returns the max alphabetical character from the string str.

Example
The following example shows the usage of max() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is really a string example.. .wow!!!";

print "Max character: " + max(str);

str = "this is a string example.. .wow!!!";

print "Max character: " + max(str);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Max character: y
Max character: x

min(str)
The method min() returns the min alphabetical character from the string str.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for min() method:

min(str)

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Parameters
 str -- This is the string from which min alphabetical character needs to be
returned.

Return Value
This method returns the max alphabetical character from the string str.

Example
The following example shows the usage of min() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this-is-real-string-example.. .wow!!!";

print "Min character: " + min(str);

str = "this-is-a-string-example.. .wow!!!";

print "Min character: " + min(str);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Min character: !
Min character: !

replace(old, new [, max])

The method replace() returns a copy of the string in which the occurrences
of old have been replaced with new, optionally restricting the number of
replacements to max.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for replace() method:

str.replace(old, new[, max])

Parameters
 old -- This is old substring to be replaced.
 new -- This is new substring, which would replace old substring.
 max -- If this optional argument max is given, only the first count
occurrences are replaced.

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Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring old
replaced by new. If the optional argument max is given, only the first count
occurrences are replaced.

Example
The following example shows the usage of replace() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example....wow!!! this is really string";

print str.replace("is", "was");
print str.replace("is", "was", 3);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

thwas was string example....wow!!! thwas was really string

thwas was string example....wow!!! thwas is really string

rfind(str, beg=0,end=len(string)
Description
The method rfind() returns the last index where the substring str is found, or -1 if
no such index exists, optionally restricting the search to string[beg:end].

Syntax
Following is the syntax for rfind() method:

str.rfind(str, beg=0 end=len(string))

Parameters
 str -- This specifies the string to be searched.
 beg -- This is the starting index, by default its 0.
 end -- This is the ending index, by default its equal to the length of the string.

Return Value
This method returns last index if found and -1 otherwise.

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Example
The following example shows the usage of rfind() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is really a string example.. .wow!!!";

str = "is";

print str.rfind(str);
print str.rfind(str, 0, 10);
print str.rfind(str, 10, 0);

print str.find(str);
print str.find(str, 0, 10);
print str.find(str, 10, 0);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

5
5
-1
2
2
-1

rindex(str, beg=0, end=len(string)

The method rindex() returns the last index where the substring str is found, or
raises an exception if no such index exists, optionally restricting the search to
string[beg:end].

Syntax
Following is the syntax for rindex() method:

str.rindex(str, beg=0 end=len(string))

Parameters

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 str -- This specifies the string to be searched.

 beg -- This is the starting index, by default its 0
 len -- This is ending index, by default its equal to the length of the string.

Return Value
This method returns last index if found otherwise raises an exception if str is not
found.

Example
The following example shows the usage of rindex() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str1 = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

str2 = "is";

print str1.rindex(str2);
print str1.index(str2);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

5
2

rjust(width,[, fil char])

The method rjust() returns the string right justified in a string of length width.
Padding is done using the specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is
returned if width is less than len(s).

Syntax
Following is the syntax for rjust() method:

str.rjust(width[, fillchar])

Parameters

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 width -- This is the string length in total after padding.

 fillchar -- This is the filler character, default is a space.

Return Value
This method returns the string right justified in a string of length width. Padding is
done using the specified fillchar (default is a space). The original string is returned
if width is less than len(s).

Example
The following example shows the usage of rjust() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

print str.rjust(50, '0');

When we run above program, it produces following result:

000000000000000000this is string example. . .wow!!!

rstrip()
The method rstrip() returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been
stripped from the end of the string (default whitespace characters).

Syntax
Following is the syntax for rstrip() method:

str.rstrip([chars])

Parameters
 chars -- You can supply what chars have to be trimmed.

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from
the end of the string (default whitespace characters).

Example

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The following example shows the usage of rstrip() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = " this is string example....wow!!! ";

print str.rstrip();
str = "88888888this is string example.. .wow!!!8888888";
print str.rstrip('8');

When we run above program, it produces following result:

this is string example. . .wow!!!

88888888this is string example....wow!!!

split(str="", num=string.count(str)
The method split() returns a list of all the words in the string, using str as the
separator (splits on all whitespace if left unspecified), optionally limiting the number
of splits to num.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for split() method:

str.split(str="", num=string.count(str)).

Parameters
 str -- This is any delimeter, by default it is space.
 num -- this is number of lines to be made.

Return Value
This method returns a list of lines.

Example
The following example shows the usage of split() method.

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#!/usr/bin/python

str = "Line1-abcdef \nLine2-abc \nLine4-abcd";

print str.split( );
print str.split(' ', 1 );

When we run above program, it produces following result:

['Line1-abcdef', 'Line2-abc', 'Line4-abcd']

['Line1-abcdef', '\nLine2-abc \nLine4-abcd']

splitlines(num=string.count('\n'))
The method splitlines() returns a list with all the lines in string, optionally including
the line breaks (if num is supplied and is true)

Syntax
Following is the syntax for splitlines() method:

str.splitlines( num=string.count('\n'))

Parameters
 num -- This is any number, if present then it would be assumed that line
breaks need to be included in the lines.

Return Value
This method returns true if found matching string otherwise false.

Example
The following example shows the usage of splitlines() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "Line1-a b c d e f\nLine2- a b c\n\nLine4- a b c d";

print str.splitlines( );
print str.splitlines( 0 );
print str.splitlines( 3 );
print str.splitlines( 4 );
print str.splitlines( 5 );

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When we run above program, it produces following result:

['Line1-a b c d e f', 'Line2- a b c', '', 'Line4- a b c d']

['Line1-a b c d e f', 'Line2- a b c', '', 'Line4- a b c d']
['Line1-a b c d e f\n', 'Line2- a b c\n', '\n', 'Line4- a b c d']
['Line1-a b c d e f\n', 'Line2- a b c\n', '\n', 'Line4- a b c d']
['Line1-a b c d e f\n', 'Line2- a b c\n', '\n', 'Line4- a b c d']

startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string)
The method startswith() checks whether string starts with str, optionally
restricting the matching with the given indices start and end.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for startswith() method:

str.startswith(str, beg=0,end=len(string));

Parameters
 str -- This is the string to be checked.

 beg -- This is the optional parameter to set start index of the matching
boundary.

 end -- This is the optional parameter to set start index of the matching
boundary.

Return Value
This method returns true if found matching string otherwise false.

Example
The following example shows the usage of startswith() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example....wow!!!";

print str.startswith( 'this' );
print str.startswith( 'is', 2, 4 );
print str.startswith( 'this', 2, 4 );

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When we run above program, it produces following result:

True
True
False

strip([chars])
The method strip() returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been
stripped from the beginning and the end of the string (default whitespace
characters).

Syntax
Following is the syntax for strip() method:

str.strip([chars]);

Parameters
 chars -- The characters to be removed from beginning or end of the string.

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all chars have been stripped from
the beginning and the end of the string.

Example
The following example shows the usage of strip() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "0000000this is string example.. .wow!!!0000000";

print str.strip( '0' );

When we run above program, it produces following result:

this is string example....wow!!!

swapcase()
The method swapcase() returns a copy of the string in which all the case-based
characters have had their case swapped.

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Syntax
Following is the syntax for swapcase() method:

str.swapcase();

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all the case-based characters have
had their case swapped.

Example
The following example shows the usage of swapcase() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

print str.swapcase();

str = "THIS IS STRING EXAMPLE.. .WOW!!!";

print str.swapcase();

When we run above program, it produces following result:

title()
The method title() returns a copy of the string in which first characters of all the
words are capitalized.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for title() method:

str.title();

Parameters
NA

Return Value

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This method returns a copy of the string in which first characters of all the words
are capitalized.

Example
The following example shows the usage of title() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

print str.title();

When we run above program, it produces following result:

This Is String Example....Wow!!!

translate(table, deletechars="")
The method translate() returns a copy of the string in which all characters have
been translated using table (constructed with the maketrans() function in the string
module), optionally deleting all characters found in the string deletechars.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for translate() method:

str.translate(table[, deletechars]);

Parameters
 table -- You can use the maketrans() helper function in the string module to
create a translation table.

 deletechars -- The list of characters to be removed from the source string.

Return Value
This method returns a translated copy of the string.

Example
The following example shows the usage of translate() method. Under this every
vowel in a string is replaced by its vowel position:

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#!/usr/bin/python

from string import maketrans # Required to call maketrans function.

intab = "aeiou"
outtab = "12345"
trantab = maketrans(intab, outtab)

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

print str.translate(trantab);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

th3s 3s str3ng 2x1mpl2....w4w!!!

Following is the example to delete 'x' and 'm' characters from the string:

#!/usr/bin/python

from string import maketrans # Required to call maketrans function.

intab = "aeiou"
outtab = "12345"
trantab = maketrans(intab, outtab)

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

print str.translate(trantab, 'xm');

This will produce following result:

th3s 3s str3ng 21pl2....w4w!!!

upper()
The method upper() returns a copy of the string in which all case-based characters
have been uppercased.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for upper() method:

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str.upper()

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns a copy of the string in which all case-based characters have been
uppercased.

Example
The following example shows the usage of upper() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

print "str.capitalize() : ", str.upper()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

THIS IS STRING EXAMPLE....WOW!!!

zfil (width)
The method zfill() pads string on the left with zeros to fill width.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for zfill() method:

str.zfill(width)

Parameters
 width -- This is final width of the string. This is the width which we would
get after filling zeros.

Return Value
This method returns padded string.

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Example
The following example shows the usage of zfill() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = "this is string example.. .wow!!!";

print str.zfill(40);
print str.zfill(50);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

00000000this is string example....wow!!!

000000000000000000this is string example. . .wow!!!

isdecimal()
The method isdecimal() checks whether the string consists of only decimal
characters. This method are present only on unicode objects.

Note: To define a string as Unicode, one simply prefixes a 'u' to the opening
quotation mark of the assignment. Below is the example.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for isdecimal() method:

str.isdecimal()

Parameters
 NA

Return Value
This method returns true if all characters in the string are decimal, false otherwise.

Example
The following example shows the usage of isdecimal() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = u"this2009";

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print str.isdecimal();

str = u"23443434";
print str.isdecimal();

When we run above program, it produces following result:

False
True

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10. Python ─ Lists Pyth

The most basic data structure in Python is the sequence. Each element of a
sequence is assigned a number - its position or index. The first index is zero, the
second index is one, and so forth.

Python has six built-in types of sequences, but the most common ones are lists and
tuples, which we would see in this tutorial.

There are certain things you can do with all sequence types. These operations
include indexing, slicing, adding, multiplying, and checking for membership. In
addition, Python has built-in functions for finding the length of a sequence and for
finding its largest and smallest elements.

Python Lists
The list is a most versatile datatype available in Python which can be written as a
list of comma-separated values (items) between square brackets. Important thing
about a list is that items in a list need not be of the same type.

Creating a list is as simple as putting different comma-separated values between

square brackets. For example:

list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];

list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];
list3 = ["a", "b", "c", "d"];

Similar to string indices, list indices start at 0, and lists can be sliced, concatenated
and so on.

Accessing Values in Lists

To access values in lists, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or
indices to obtain value available at that index. For example:

#!/usr/bin/python

list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];

list2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ];

print "list1[0]: ", list1[0]

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print "list2[1:5]: ", list2[1:5]

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

list1[0]: physics
list2[1:5]: [2, 3, 4, 5]

Updating Lists
You can update single or multiple elements of lists by giving the slice on the left-
hand side of the assignment operator, and you can add to elements in a list with
the append() method. For example:

#!/usr/bin/python

list = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];

print "Value available at index 2 : "

print list[2];
list[2] = 2001;
print "New value available at index 2 : "
print list[2];

Note: append() method is discussed in subsequent section.

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Value available at index 2 :

1997
New value available at index 2 :
2001

Deleting List Elements

To remove a list element, you can use either the del statement if you know exactly
which element(s) you are deleting or the remove() method if you do not know. For
example:

#!/usr/bin/python

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list1 = ['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000];

print list1;
del list1[2];
print "After deleting value at index 2 : "
print list1;

When the above code is executed, it produces following result:

['physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000]

After deleting value at index 2 :
['physics', 'chemistry', 2000]

Note: remove() method is discussed in subsequent section.

Basic List Operations

Lists respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean concatenation
and repetition here too, except that the result is a new list, not a string.

In fact, lists respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on strings in
the prior chapter.

Python Expression Results Description

len([1, 2, 3]) 3 Length

[1, 2, 3] + [4, 5, 6] [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] Concatenation

['Hi!'] * 4 ['Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!'] Repetition

3 in [1, 2, 3] True Membership

for x in [1, 2, 3]: print x, 123 Iteration

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Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes

Because lists are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for lists as
they do for strings.

Assume the following input:

L = ['spam', 'Spam', 'SPAM!']

Python Expression Results Description

L[2] 'SPAM!' Offsets start at zero

L[-2] 'Spam' Negative: count from the right

L[1:] ['Spam', 'SPAM!'] Slicing fetches sections

Built-in List Functions and Methods

Python includes the following list functions:

Sr.
Function with Description
No.

cmp(list1, list2)
1
Compares elements of both lists.

len(list)
2
Gives the total length of the list.

max(list)
3
Returns item from the list with max value.

min(list)
4
Returns item from the list with min value.

list(seq)
5
Converts a tuple into list.

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Cmp(list1, list2)
The method cmp() compares elements of two lists.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for cmp() method:

cmp(list1, list2)

Parameters
 list1 -- This is the first list to be compared.
 list2 -- This is the second list to be compared.

Return Value
If elements are of the same type, perform the compare and return the result. If
elements are different types, check to see if they are numbers.

 If numbers, perform numeric coercion if necessary and compare.

 If either element is a number, then the other element is "larger" (numbers

are "smallest").

 Otherwise, types are sorted alphabetically by name.

If we reached the end of one of the lists, the longer list is "larger." If we exhaust
both lists and share the same data, the result is a tie, meaning that 0 is returned.

Example
The following example shows the usage of cmp() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz'], [456, 'abc']

print cmp(list1, list2);

print cmp(list2, list1);
list3 = list2 + [786];
print cmp(list2, list3)

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When we run above program, it produces following result:

-1
1
-1

len(List)
The method len() returns the number of elements in the list.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for len() method:

len(list)

Parameters
 list -- This is a list for which number of elements to be counted.

Return Value
This method returns the number of elements in the list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of len() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz', 'zara'], [456, 'abc']

print "First list length : ", len(list1);

print "Second list length : ", len(list2);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

First list length : 3

Second lsit length : 2

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max(list)
The method max returns the elements from the list with maximum value.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for max() method:

max(list)

Parameters
 list -- This is a list from which max valued element to be returned.

Return Value
This method returns the elements from the list with maximum value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of max() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'], [456, 700, 200]

print "Max value element : ", max(list1);

print "Max value element : ", max(list2);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Max value element : zara

Max value element : 700

min(list)
The method min() returns the elements from the list with minimum value.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for min() method:

min(list)

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Parameters
 list -- This is a list from which min valued element to be returned.

Return Value
This method returns the elements from the list with minimum value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of min() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

list1, list2 = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'], [456, 700, 200]

print "min value element : ", min(list1);

print "min value element : ", min(list2);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

min value element : 123

min value element : 200

Python includes following list methods:

Sr. No. Methods with Description

1 list.append(obj)
Appends object obj to list

2 list.count(obj)
Returns count of how many times obj occurs in list

3 list.extend(seq)
Appends the contents of seq to list

4 list.index(obj)
Returns the lowest index in list that obj appears

5 list.insert(index, obj)
Inserts object obj into list at offset index

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6 list.pop(obj=list[-1])
Removes and returns last object or obj from list

7 list.remove(obj)
Removes object obj from list

8 list.reverse()
Reverses objects of list in place

9 list.sort([func])
Sorts objects of list, use compare func if given

List.append(obj)
The method append() appends a passed obj into the existing list.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for append() method:

list.append(obj)

Parameters
 obj -- This is the object to be appended in the list.

Return Value
This method does not return any value but updates existing list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of append() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'];

aList.append( 2009 );
print "Updated List : ", aList;

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When we run above program, it produces following result:

Updated List : [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 2009]

list.count(obj)
The method count() returns count of how many times obj occurs in list.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for count() method:

list.count(obj)

Parameters
 obj -- This is the object to be counted in the list.

Return Value
This method returns count of how many times obj occurs in list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of count() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 123];

print "Count for 123 : ", aList.count(123);

print "Count for zara : ", aList.count('zara');

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Count for 123 : 2

Count for zara : 1

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list.extend(seq)
The method extend() appends the contents of seq to list.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for extend() method:

list.extend(seq)

Parameters
 seq -- This is the list of elements

Return Value
This method does not return any value but add the content to existing list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of extend() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 123];

bList = [2009, 'manni'];
aList.extend(bList)

print "Extended List : ", aList ;

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Extended List : [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 123, 2009, 'manni']

list.index(obj)
The method index() returns the lowest index in list that obj appears.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for index() method:

list.index(obj)

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Parameters
 obj -- This is the object to be find out.

Return Value
This method returns index of the found object otherwise raise an exception
indicating that value does not find.

Example
The following example shows the usage of index() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'];

print "Index for xyz : ", aList.index( 'xyz' ) ;

print "Index for zara : ", aList.index( 'zara' ) ;

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Index for xyz : 1

Index for zara : 2

list.insert(index,obj)
The method insert() inserts object obj into list at offset index.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for insert() method:

list.insert(index, obj)

Parameters
 index -- This is the Index where the object obj need to be inserted.
 obj -- This is the Object to be inserted into the given list.

Return Value
This method does not return any value but it inserts the given element at the given
index.

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Example
The following example shows the usage of insert() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc']

aList.insert( 3, 2009)

print "Final List : ", aList

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Final List : [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 2009, 'abc']

list.pop(obj=list[-1])
The method pop() removes and returns last object or obj from the list.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for pop() method:

list.pop(obj=list[-1])

Parameters
 obj -- This is an optional parameter, index of the object to be removed from
the list.

Return Value
This method returns the removed object from the list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of pop() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'];

print "A List : ", aList.pop();
print "B List : ", aList.pop(2);

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When we run above program, it produces following result:

A List : abc
B List : zara

List.remove(obj)
Parameters
 obj -- This is the object to be removed from the list.

Return Value
This method does not return any value but removes the given object from the list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of remove() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 'xyz'];

aList.remove('xyz');
print "List : ", aList;
aList.remove('abc');
print "List : ", aList;

When we run above program, it produces following result:

List : [123, 'zara', 'abc', 'xyz']

List : [123, 'zara', 'xyz']

List.reverse()
The method reverse() reverses objects of list in place.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for reverse() method:

list.reverse()

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Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method does not return any value but reverse the given object from the list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of reverse() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 'xyz'];

aList.reverse();
print "List : ", aList;

When we run above program, it produces following result:

List : ['xyz', 'abc', 'zara', 'xyz', 123]

list.sort([func])
The method reverse() reverses objects of list in place.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for reverse() method:

list.reverse()

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method does not return any value but reverse the given object from the list.

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Example
The following example shows the usage of reverse() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

aList = [123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc', 'xyz'];

aList.reverse();
print "List : ", aList;

When we run above program, it produces following result:

List : ['xyz', 'abc', 'zara', 'xyz', 123]

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11. Python ─ Tuples Pyth

A tuple is a sequence of immutable Python objects. Tuples are sequences, just like
lists. The differences between tuples and lists are, the tuples cannot be changed
unlike lists and tuples use parentheses, whereas lists use square brackets.

Creating a tuple is as simple as putting different comma-separated values.

Optionally you can put these comma-separated values between parentheses also.
For example:

tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);

tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 );
tup3 = "a", "b", "c", "d";

The empty tuple is written as two parentheses containing nothing:

tup1 = ();

To write a tuple containing a single value you have to include a comma, even
though there is only one value:

tup1 = (50,);

Like string indices, tuple indices start at 0, and they can be sliced, concatenated,
and so on.

Accessing Values in Tuples

To access values in tuple, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or
indices to obtain value available at that index. For example:

#!/usr/bin/python

tup1 = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);

tup2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 );

print "tup1[0]: ", tup1[0]

print "tup2[1:5]: ", tup2[1:5]

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

tup1[0]: physics
tup2[1:5]: [2, 3, 4, 5]

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Updating Tuples
Tuples are immutable which means you cannot update or change the values of
tuple elements. You are able to take portions of existing tuples to create new tuples
as the following example demonstrates:

#!/usr/bin/python

tup1 = (12, 34.56);

tup2 = ('abc', 'xyz');

# Following action is not valid for tuples

# tup1[0] = 100;

# So let's create a new tuple as follows

tup3 = tup1 + tup2;
print tup3;

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

(12, 34.56, 'abc', 'xyz')

Deleting Tuple Elements

Removing individual tuple elements is not possible. There is, of course, nothing
wrong with putting together another tuple with the undesired elements discarded.

To explicitly remove an entire tuple, just use the del statement. For example:

#!/usr/bin/python

tup = ('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000);

print tup;
del tup;
print "After deleting tup : "
print tup;

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This produces the following result. Note an exception raised, this is because after
del tup, tuple does not exist anymore:

('physics', 'chemistry', 1997, 2000)

After deleting tup :
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 9, in <module>
print tup;
NameError: name 'tup' is not defined

Basic Tuples Operations

Tuples respond to the + and * operators much like strings; they mean
concatenation and repetition here too, except that the result is a new tuple, not a
string.

In fact, tuples respond to all of the general sequence operations we used on strings
in the prior chapter:

Python Expression Results Description

len((1, 2, 3)) 3 Length

(1, 2, 3) + (4, 5, 6) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) Concatenation

('Hi!',) * 4 ('Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!', 'Hi!') Repetition

3 in (1, 2, 3) True Membership

for x in (1, 2, 3): print x, 123 Iteration

Indexing, Slicing, and Matrixes

Because tuples are sequences, indexing and slicing work the same way for tuples as
they do for strings. Assuming following input:

L = ('spam', 'Spam', 'SPAM!')

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Python Expression Results Description

L[2] 'SPAM!' Offsets start at zero

L[-2] 'Spam' Negative: count from the right

L[1:] ['Spam', 'SPAM!'] Slicing fetches sections

No Enclosing Delimiters
Any set of multiple objects, comma-separated, written without identifying symbols,
i.e., brackets for lists, parentheses for tuples, etc., default to tuples, as indicated in
these short examples:

#!/usr/bin/python

print 'abc', -4.24e93, 18+6.6j, 'xyz';

x, y = 1, 2;
print "Value of x , y : ", x,y;

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

abc -4.24e+93 (18+6.6j) xyz

Value of x , y : 1 2

Built-in Tuple Functions

Python includes the following tuple functions:

Sr. No. Function with Description

1 cmp(tuple1, tuple2)
Compares elements of both tuples.

2 len(tuple)
Gives the total length of the tuple.

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3 max(tuple)
Returns item from the tuple with max value.

4 min(tuple)
Returns item from the tuple with min value.

5 tuple(seq)
Converts a list into tuple.

Cmp(tuple1, tuple2)
The method cmp() compares elements of two tuples.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for cmp() method:

cmp(tuple1, tuple2)

Parameters
 tuple1 -- This is the first tuple to be compared
 tuple2 -- This is the second tuple to be compared

Return Value
If elements are of the same type, perform the compare and return the result. If
elements are different types, check to see if they are numbers.

 If numbers, perform numeric coercion if necessary and compare.

 If either element is a number, then the other element is "larger" (numbers
are "smallest").

 Otherwise, types are sorted alphabetically by name.

If we reached the end of one of the tuples, the longer tuple is "larger." If we exhaust
both tuples and share the same data, the result is a tie, meaning that 0 is returned.

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Example
The following example shows the usage of cmp() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

tuple1, tuple2 = (123, 'xyz'), (456, 'abc')

print cmp(tuple1, tuple2);

print cmp(tuple2, tuple1);
tuple3 = tuple2 + (786,);
print cmp(tuple2, tuple3)

When we run above program, it produces following result:

-1
1
-1

Len(tuple)
The method len() returns the number of elements in the tuple.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for len() method:

len(tuple)

Parameters
 tuple -- This is a tuple for which number of elements to be counted.

Return Value
This method returns the number of elements in the tuple.

Example
The following example shows the usage of len() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

tuple1, tuple2 = (123, 'xyz', 'zara'), (456, 'abc')

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print "First tuple length : ", len(tuple1);

print "Second tuple length : ", len(tuple2);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

First tuple length : 3

Second tuple length : 2

Max(tuple)
The method max() returns the elements from the tuple with maximum value.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for max() method:

max(tuple)

Parameters
 tuple -- This is a tuple from which max valued element to be returned.

Return Value
This method returns the elements from the tuple with maximum value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of max() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

tuple1, tuple2 = (123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'), (456, 700, 200)

print "Max value element : ", max(tuple1);

print "Max value element : ", max(tuple2);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Max value element : zara

Max value element : 700

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Min(tuple)
The method min() returns the elements from the tuple with minimum value.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for min() method:

min(tuple)

Parameters
 tuple -- This is a tuple from which min valued element to be returned.

Return Value
This method returns the elements from the tuple with minimum value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of min() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

tuple1, tuple2 = (123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc'), (456, 700, 200)

print "min value element : ", min(tuple1);

print "min value element : ", min(tuple2);

When we run above program, it produces following result:

min value element : 123

min value element : 200

Tuple(seg)
The method tuple() compares elements of two tuples.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for tuple() method:

tuple( seq )

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Parameters
 seq -- This is a tuple to be converted into tuple.

Return Value
This method returns the tuple.

Example
The following example shows the usage of tuple() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

aList = (123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc');

aTuple = tuple(aList)

print "Tuple elements : ", aTuple

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Tuple elements : (123, 'xyz', 'zara', 'abc')

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12. Python ─ Dictionary Pyth

Each key is separated from its value by a colon (:), the items are separated by
commas, and the whole thing is enclosed in curly braces. An empty dictionary
without any items is written with just two curly braces, like this: {}.

Keys are unique within a dictionary while values may not be. The values of a
dictionary can be of any type, but the keys must be of an immutable data type such
as strings, numbers, or tuples.

Accessing Values in Dictionary

To access dictionary elements, you can use the familiar square brackets along with
the key to obtain its value. Following is a simple example:

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'};

print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name'];

print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

dict['Name']: Zara
dict['Age']: 7

If we attempt to access a data item with a key, which is not part of the dictionary,
we get an error as follows:

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'};

print "dict['Alice']: ", dict['Alice'];

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When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

dict['Zara']:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 4, in <module>
print "dict['Alice']: ", dict['Alice'];
KeyError: 'Alice'

Updating Dictionary
You can update a dictionary by adding a new entry or a key-value pair, modifying an
existing entry, or deleting an existing entry as shown below in the simple example:

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'};

dict['Age'] = 8; # update existing entry

dict['School'] = "DPS School"; # Add new entry

print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];

print "dict['School']: ", dict['School'];

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

dict['Age']: 8
dict['School']: DPS School

Delete Dictionary Elements

You can either remove individual dictionary elements or clear the entire contents of
a dictionary. You can also delete entire dictionary in a single operation.

To explicitly remove an entire dictionary, just use the del statement. For example:

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Class': 'First'};

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del dict['Name']; # remove entry with key

'Name' dict.clear(); # remove all entries in
dict del dict ; # delete entire dictionary

print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];

print "dict['School']: ", dict['School'];

This produces the following result. Note that an exception is raised because after del
dict, dictionary does not exist anymore:

dict['Age']:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 8, in <module>
print "dict['Age']: ", dict['Age'];
TypeError: 'type' object is unsubscriptable

Note: del() method is discussed in subsequent section.

Properties of Dictionary Keys

Dictionary values have no restrictions. They can be any arbitrary Python object,
either standard objects or user-defined objects. However, same is not true for the
keys.

There are two important points to remember about dictionary keys:

(a) More than one entry per key not allowed. Which means no duplicate key is
allowed. When duplicate keys encountered during assignment, the last assignment
wins. For example:

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Manni'};

print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name'];

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

dict['Name']: Manni

(b) Keys must be immutable. Which means you can use strings, numbers or tuples
as dictionary keys but something like ['key'] is not allowed. Following is a simple
example:

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#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {['Name']: 'Zara', 'Age': 7};

print "dict['Name']: ", dict['Name'];

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "test.py", line 3, in <module>
dict = {['Name']: 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
TypeError: list objects are unhashable

Built-in Dictionary Functions and Methods

Python includes the following dictionary functions:

Sr. No. Function with Description

1 cmp(dict1, dict2)

Compares elements of both dict.

2 len(dict)

Gives the total length of the dictionary. This would be equal to the
number of items in the dictionary.

3 str(dict)

Produces a printable string representation of a dictionary

4 type(variable)

Returns the type of the passed variable. If passed variable is dictionary,

then it would return a dictionary type.

Cmp(dict1, dict2)
The method cmp() compares two dictionaries based on key and values.

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Syntax
Following is the syntax for cmp() method:

cmp(dict1, dict2)

Parameters
 dict1 -- This is the first dictionary to be compared with dict2.
 dict2 -- This is the second dictionary to be compared with dict1.

Return Value
This method returns 0 if both dictionaries are equal, -1 if dict1 < dict2, and 1 if dict1
> dic2.

Example
The following example shows the usage of cmp() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

dict1 = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};

dict2 = {'Name': 'Mahnaz', 'Age': 27};
dict3 = {'Name': 'Abid', 'Age': 27};
dict4 = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
print "Return Value : %d" % cmp (dict1, dict2)
print "Return Value : %d" % cmp (dict2, dict3)
print "Return Value : %d" % cmp (dict1, dict4)

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Return Value : -1
Return Value : 1
Return Value : 0

len(dict)
The method len() gives the total length of the dictionary. This would be equal to the
number of items in the dictionary.

Syntax

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Following is the syntax for len() method:

len(dict)

Parameters
 dict -- This is the dictionary, whose length needs to be calculated.

Return Value
This method returns the length.

Example
The following example shows the usage of len() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};

print "Length : %d" % len (dict)

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Length : 2

str(dict)
The method str() produces a printable string representation of a dictionary.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for str() method:

str(dict)

Parameters
 dict -- This is the dictionary.

Return Value
This method returns string representation.

Example
The following example shows the usage of str() method.

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#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};

print "Equivalent String : %s" % str (dict)

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Equivalent String : {'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Zara'}

type()
The method type() returns the type of the passed variable. If passed variable is
dictionary then it would return a dictionary type.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for type() method:

type(dict)

Parameters
 dict -- This is the dictionary.

Return Value
This method returns the type of the passed variable.

Example
The following example shows the usage of type() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};

print "Variable Type : %s" % type (dict)

When we run the above program, it produces the following result:

Variable Type : <type 'dict'>

Python includes following dictionary methods:

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Sr. No. Methods with Description

1 dict.clear()

Removes all elements of dictionary dict

2 dict.copy()

Returns a shallow copy of dictionary dict

3 dict.fromkeys()

Create a new dictionary with keys from seq and values set to value.

4 dict.get(key, default=None)

For key key, returns value or default if key not in dictionary

5 dict.has_key(key)

Returns true if key in dictionary dict, false otherwise

6 dict.items()

Returns a list of dict's (key, value) tuple pairs

7 dict.keys()

Returns list of dictionary dict's keys

8 dict.setdefault(key, default=None)

Similar to get(), but will set dict[key]=default if key is not already in

dict
9 dict.update(dict2)

Adds dictionary dict2's key-values pairs to dict

10 dict.values()

Returns list of dictionary dict's values

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dict.clear()
The method clear() removes all items from the dictionary.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for clear() method:

dict.clear()

Parameters
 NA

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of clear() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};

print "Start Len : %d" % len(dict)

dict.clear()
print "End Len : %d" % len(dict)

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Start Len : 2
End Len : 0

Dict.copy()
The method copy() returns a shallow copy of the dictionary.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for copy() method:

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dict.copy()

Parameters
 NA

Return Value
This method returns a shallow copy of the dictionary.

Example
The following example shows the usage of copy() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

dict1 = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};

dict2 = dict1.copy()
print "New Dictinary : %s" % str(dict2)

When we run above program, it produces following result:

New Dictinary : {'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Zara'}

Dict.fromkeys()
The method fromkeys() creates a new dictionary with keys from seq and values set
to value.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for fromkeys() method:

dict.fromkeys(seq[, value]))

Parameters
 seq -- This is the list of values which would be used for dictionary keys
preparation.
 value -- This is optional, if provided then value would be set to this value

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Return Value
This method returns the list.

Example
The following example shows the usage of fromkeys() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

seq = ('name', 'age', 'sex')

dict = dict.fromkeys(seq)
print "New Dictionary : %s" % str(dict)

dict = dict.fromkeys(seq, 10)

print "New Dictionary : %s" % str(dict)

When we run above program, it produces following result:

New Dictionary : {'age': None, 'name': None, 'sex': None}

New Dictionary : {'age': 10, 'name': 10, 'sex': 10}

Dict.get(key,default=none)
The method get() returns a value for the given key. If key is not available then
returns default value None.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for get() method:

dict.get(key, default=None)

Parameters
 key -- This is the Key to be searched in the dictionary.

 default -- This is the Value to be returned in case key does not exist.

Return Value

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This method return a value for the given key. If key is not available, then returns
default value None.

Example
The following example shows the usage of get() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zabra', 'Age': 7}

print "Value : %s" % dict.get('Age')

print "Value : %s" % dict.get('Education', "Never")

When we run above program, it produces the following result:

Value : 7
Value : Never

Dict.has_key(key)
The method has_key() returns true if a given key is available in the dictionary,
otherwise it returns a false.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for has_key() method:

dict.has_key(key)

Parameters
 key -- This is the Key to be searched in the dictionary.

Return Value
This method return true if a given key is available in the dictionary, otherwise it
returns a false.

Example
The following example shows the usage of has_key() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

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dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}

print "Value : %s" % dict.has_key('Age')

print "Value : %s" % dict.has_key('Sex')

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Value : True
Value : False

Dict.items()
The method items() returns a list of dict's (key, value) tuple pairs

Syntax
Following is the syntax for items() method:

dict.items()

Parameters
 NA

Return Value
This method returns a list of tuple pairs.

Example
The following example shows the usage of items() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}

print "Value : %s" % dict.items()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Value : [('Age', 7), ('Name', 'Zara')]

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Dict.keys()
The method keys() returns a list of all the available keys in the dictionary.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for keys() method:

dict.keys()

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns a list of all the available keys in the dictionary.

Example
The following example shows the usage of keys() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}

print "Value : %s" % dict.keys()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Value : ['Age', 'Name']

dict.setdefault(key, default=None)
The method setdefault() is similar to get(), but will set dict[key]=default if key is
not already in dict.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for setdefault() method:

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dict.setdefault(key, default=None)

Parameters
 key -- This is the key to be searched.
 default -- This is the Value to be returned in case key is not found.

Return Value
This method returns the key value available in the dictionary and if given key is not
available then it will return provided default value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of setdefault() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}

print "Value : %s" % dict.setdefault('Age', None)

print "Value : %s" % dict.setdefault('Sex', None)

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Value : 7
Value : None

dict.update(dict2)
The method update() adds dictionary dict2's key-values pairs in to dict. This
function does not return anything.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for update() method:

dict.update(dict2)

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Parameters
 dict2 -- This is the dictionary to be added into dict.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of update() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}

dict2 = {'Sex': 'female' }

dict.update(dict2)
print "Value : %s" % dict

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Value : {'Age': 7, 'Name': 'Zara', 'Sex': 'female'}

dict.values()
The method values() returns a list of all the values available in a given dictionary.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for values() method:

dict.values()

Parameters
NA

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Return Value
This method returns a list of all the values available in a given dictionary.

Example
The following example shows the usage of values() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}

print "Value : %s" % dict.values()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Value : [7, 'Zara']

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13. Python ─ Date and Time Pyth

A Python program can handle date and time in several ways. Converting between
date formats is a common chore for computers. Python's time and calendar
modules help track dates and times.

What is Tick?
Time intervals are floating-point numbers in units of seconds. Particular instants in
time are expressed in seconds since 12:00am, January 1, 1970(epoch).

There is a popular time module available in Python which provides functions for
working with times and for converting between representations. The
function time.time() returns the current system time in ticks since 12:00am,
January 1, 1970(epoch).

Example
#!/usr/bin/python
import time; # This is required to include time module.

ticks = time.time()
print "Number of ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970:", ticks

This would produce a result something as follows:

Number of ticks since 12:00am, January 1, 1970: 7186862.73399

Date arithmetic is easy to do with ticks. However, dates before the epoch cannot be
represented in this form. Dates in the far future also cannot be represented this
way
- the cutoff point is sometime in 2038 for UNIX and Windows.

What is TimeTuple?
Many of Python's time functions handle time as a tuple of 9 numbers, as shown
below:

Index Field Values

0 4-digit year 2008

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1 Month 1 to 12

2 Day 1 to 31

3 Hour 0 to 23

4 Minute 0 to 59

5 Second 0 to 61 (60 or 61 are leap-seconds)

6 Day of Week 0 to 6 (0 is Monday)

7 Day of year 1 to 366 (Julian day)

8 Daylight savings -1, 0, 1, -1 means library determines

DST

The above tuple is equivalent to struct_time structure. This structure has following
attributes:

Index Attributes Values

0 tm_year 2008

1 tm_mon 1 to 12

2 tm_mday 1 to 31

3 tm_hour 0 to 23

4 tm_min 0 to 59

5 tm_sec 0 to 61 (60 or 61 are leap-seconds)

6 tm_wday 0 to 6 (0 is Monday)

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7 tm_yday 1 to 366 (Julian day)

8 tm_isdst -1, 0, 1, -1 means library determines

DST

Get ing Current Time

To translate a time instant from a seconds since the epoch floating-point value into
a time-tuple, pass the floating-point value to a function (For example, localtime)
that returns a time-tuple with all nine items valid.

#!/usr/bin/python
import time;

localtime = time.localtime(time.time())
print "Local current time :", localtime

This would produce the following result, which could be formatted in any other
presentable form:

Local current time : time.struct_time(tm_year=2013, tm_mon=7,

tm_mday=17, tm_hour=21, tm_min=26, tm_sec=3, tm_wday=2, tm_yday=198, tm_isdst=0)

Get ing Formatted Time

You can format any time as per your requirement, but simple method to get time in
readable format is asctime():

#!/usr/bin/python
import time;

localtime = time.asctime( time.localtime(time.time()) )

print "Local current time :", localtime

This would produce the following result:

Local current time : Tue Jan 13 10:17:09 2009

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Get ing Calendar for a Month

The calendar module gives a wide range of methods to play with yearly and
monthly calendars. Here, we print a calendar for a given month ( Jan 2008 ):

#!/usr/bin/python
import calendar

cal = calendar.month(2008, 1)
print "Here is the calendar:"
print cal;

This would produce the following result:

Here is the calendar:

January 2008
Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27
28 29 30 31

The time Module

There is a popular time module available in Python which provides functions for
working with times and for converting between representations. Here is the list of
all available methods:

Sr. No. Function with Description

time.altzone

1 The offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one
is defined. This is negative if the local DST timezone is east of UTC
(as in Western Europe, including the UK). Only use this if daylight is
nonzero.
2 time.asctime([tupletime])

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Accepts a time-tuple and returns a readable 24-character string such

as 'Tue Dec 11 18:07:14 2008'.

time.clock( )

3 Returns the current CPU time as a floating-point number of seconds.

To measure computational costs of different approaches, the value of
time.clock is more useful than that of time.time().

time.ctime([secs])
4
Like asctime(localtime(secs)) and without arguments is like asctime( )

time.gmtime([secs])
5 Accepts an instant expressed in seconds since the epoch and returns
a time-tuple t with the UTC time. Note : t.tm_isdst is always 0

time.localtime([secs])

6 Accepts an instant expressed in seconds since the epoch and returns

a time-tuple t with the local time (t.tm_isdst is 0 or 1, depending on
whether DST applies to instant secs by local rules).

time.mktime(tupletime)

7 Accepts an instant expressed as a time-tuple in local time and returns

a floating-point value with the instant expressed in seconds since the
epoch.

time.sleep(secs)
8
Suspends the calling thread for secs seconds.

time.strftime(fmt[,tupletime])
9 Accepts an instant expressed as a time-tuple in local time and returns
a string representing the instant as specified by string fmt.

time.strptime(str,fmt='%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y')

10 Parses str according to format string fmt and returns the instant in
time-tuple format.

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time.time( )
11 Returns the current time instant, a floating-point number of seconds
since the epoch.

time.tzset()
12 Resets the time conversion rules used by the library routines. The
environment variable TZ specifies how this is done.

time.altzone
The method altzone() is the attribute of the time module. This returns the offset
of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if one is defined. This is
negative if the local DST timezone is east of UTC (as in Western Europe, including
the UK). Only use this if daylight is nonzero.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for altzone() method:

time.altzone

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns the offset of the local DST timezone, in seconds west of UTC, if
one is defined.

Example
The following example shows the usage of altzone() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
import time

print "time.altzone %d " % time.altzone

When we run above program, it produces following result:

time.altzone() 25200

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time.actime([tupletime])
The method asctime() converts a tuple or struct_time representing a time as
returned by gmtime() or localtime() to a 24-character string of the following form:
'Tue Feb 17 23:21:05 2009'.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for asctime() method:

time.asctime([t]))

Parameters
 t -- This is a tuple of 9 elements or struct_time representing a time as
returned by gmtime() or localtime() function.

Return Value
This method returns 24-character string of the following form: 'Tue Feb 17
23:21:05 2009'.

Example
The following example shows the usage of asctime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
import time

t = time.localtime()
print "time.asctime(t): %s " % time.asctime(t)

When we run above program, it produces following result:

time.asctime(t): Tue Feb 17 09:42:58 2009

time.clock( )
The method clock() returns the current processor time as a floating point number
expressed in seconds on Unix. The precision depends on that of the C function of
the same name, but in any case, this is the function to use for benchmarking
Python or timing algorithms.

On Windows, this function returns wall-clock seconds elapsed since the first call to
this function, as a floating point number, based on the Win32 function
QueryPerformanceCounter.

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Syntax
Following is the syntax for clock() method:

time.clock()

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns the current processor time as a floating point number
expressed in seconds on Unix and in Windows it returns wall-clock seconds elapsed
since the first call to this function, as a floating point number.

Example
The following example shows the usage of clock() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
import time

def procedure():
time.sleep(2.5)

# measure process time

t0 = time.clock()
procedure()
print time.clock() - t0, "seconds process time"

# measure wall time

t0 = time.time()
procedure()
print time.time() - t0, "seconds wall time"

When we run above program, it produces following result:

0.0 seconds process time

2.50023603439 seconds wall time

Note: Not all systems can measure the true process time. On such systems
(including Windows), clock usually measures the wall time since the program was
started.

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time.ctime([secs])
The method ctime() converts a time expressed in seconds since the epoch to a
string representing local time. If secs is not provided or None, the current time as
returned by time() is used. This function is equivalent to asctime(localtime(secs)).
Locale information is not used by ctime().

Syntax
Following is the syntax for ctime() method:

time.ctime([ sec ])

Parameters
 sec -- These are the number of seconds to be converted into string
representation.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of ctime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
import time

print "time.ctime() : %s" % time.ctime()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

time.ctime() : Tue Feb 17 10:00:18 2009

time.gmtime([secs])
The method gmtime() converts a time expressed in seconds since the epoch to a
struct_time in UTC in which the dst flag is always zero. If secs is not provided or
None, the current time as returned by time() is used.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for gmtime() method:

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time.gmtime([ sec ])

Parameters
 sec -- These are the number of seconds to be converted into structure
struct_time representation.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of gmtime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
import time

print "time.gmtime() : %s" % time.gmtime()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

time.gmtime() : (2009, 2, 17, 17, 3, 38, 1, 48, 0)

time.localtime([secs])
The method localtime() is similar to gmtime() but it converts number of seconds
to local time. If secs is not provided or None, the current time as returned by time()
is used. The dst flag is set to 1 when DST applies to the given time.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for localtime() method:

time.localtime([ sec ])

Parameters
 sec -- These are the number of seconds to be converted into structure
struct_time representation.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

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Example
The following example shows the usage of localtime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
import time

print "time.localtime() : %s" % time.localtime()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

time.localtime() : (2009, 2, 17, 17, 3, 38, 1, 48, 0)

time.mktime(tupletime)
Description
The method mktime() is the inverse function of localtime(). Its argument is the
struct_time or full 9-tuple and it returns a floating point number, for compatibility
with time().

If the input value cannot be represented as a valid time, either OverflowError or

ValueErrorwill be raised.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for mktime() method:

time.mktime(t)

Parameters
 t -- This is the struct_time or full 9-tuple.

Return Value
This method returns a floating point number, for compatibility with time().

Example
The following example shows the usage of mktime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
import time

t = (2009, 2, 17, 17, 3, 38, 1, 48, 0)

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secs = time.mktime( t )
print "time.mktime(t) : %f" % secs
print "asctime(localtime(secs)): %s" % time.asctime(time.localtime(secs))

When we run above program, it produces following result:

time.mktime(t) : 1234915418.000000
asctime(localtime(secs)): Tue Feb 17 17:03:38 2009

time.sleep(secs)
The method sleep() suspends execution for the given number of seconds. The
argument may be a floating point number to indicate a more precise sleep time.

The actual suspension time may be less than that requested because any caught
signal will terminate the sleep() following execution of that signal's catching routine.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for sleep() method:

time.sleep(t)

Parameters
 t -- This is the number of seconds execution to be suspended.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of sleep() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
import time

print "Start : %s" % time.ctime()

time.sleep( 5 )
print "End : %s" % time.ctime()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

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Start : Tue Feb 17 10:19:18 2009

End : Tue Feb 17 10:19:23 2009

time.strftime(fmt[,tupletime])
The method strftime() converts a tuple or struct_time representing a time as
returned by gmtime() or localtime() to a string as specified by the format
argument.

If t is not provided, the current time as returned by localtime() is used. format

must be a string. An exception ValueError is raised if any field in t is outside of the
allowed range.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for strftime() method:

time.strftime(format[, t])

Parameters
 t -- This is the time in number of seconds to be formatted.
 format -- This is the directive which would be used to format given time.
The following directives can be embedded in the format string:

Directive
 %a - abbreviated weekday name
 %A - full weekday name
 %b - abbreviated month name
 %B - full month name
 %c - preferred date and time representation
 %C - century number (the year divided by 100, range 00 to 99)
 %d - day of the month (01 to 31)
 %D - same as %m/%d/%y
 %e - day of the month (1 to 31)
 %g - like %G, but without the century
 %G - 4-digit year corresponding to the ISO week number (see %V).
 %h - same as %b
 %H - hour, using a 24-hour clock (00 to 23)

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 %I - hour, using a 12-hour clock (01 to 12)

 %j - day of the year (001 to 366)
 %m - month (01 to 12)
 %M - minute
 %n - newline character
 %p - either am or pm according to the given time value
 %r - time in a.m. and p.m. notation
 %R - time in 24 hour notation
 %S - second
 %t - tab character
 %T - current time, equal to %H:%M:%S
 %u - weekday as a number (1 to 7), Monday=1. Warning: In Sun Solaris
Sunday=1

 %U - week number of the current year, starting with the first Sunday as the
first day of the first week

 %V - The ISO 8601 week number of the current year (01 to 53), where week
1 is the first week that has at least 4 days in the current year, and with
Monday as the first day of the week

 %W - week number of the current year, starting with the first Monday as the
first day of the first week

 %w - day of the week as a decimal, Sunday=0

 %x - preferred date representation without the time
 %X - preferred time representation without the date
 %y - year without a century (range 00 to 99)
 %Y - year including the century
 %Z or %z - time zone or name or abbreviation
 %% - a literal % character

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example

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The following example shows the usage of strftime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
import time

t = (2009, 2, 17, 17, 3, 38, 1, 48, 0)

t = time.mktime(t)
print time.strftime("%b %d %Y %H:%M:%S", time.gmtime(t))

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Feb 18 2009 00:03:38

time.strptime(str,fmt='%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y')

The method strptime() parses a string representing a time according to a format.
The return value is a struct_time as returned by gmtime() or localtime().

The format parameter uses the same directives as those used by strftime(); it
defaults to "%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y" which matches the formatting returned
by ctime().

If string cannot be parsed according to format, or if it has excess data after parsing,
ValueError is raised.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for strptime() method:

time.strptime(string[, format])

Parameters
 string -- This is the time in string format which would be parsed based on
the given format.

 format -- This is the directive which would be used to parse the given string.

The following directives can be embedded in the format string:

Directive

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 %a - abbreviated weekday name

 %A - full weekday name
 %b - abbreviated month name
 %B - full month name
 %c - preferred date and time representation
 %C - century number (the year divided by 100, range 00 to 99)
 %d - day of the month (01 to 31)
 %D - same as %m/%d/%y
 %e - day of the month (1 to 31)
 %g - like %G, but without the century
 %G - 4-digit year corresponding to the ISO week number (see %V).
 %h - same as %b
 %H - hour, using a 24-hour clock (00 to 23)
 %I - hour, using a 12-hour clock (01 to 12)
 %j - day of the year (001 to 366)
 %m - month (01 to 12)
 %M - minute
 %n - newline character
 %p - either am or pm according to the given time value
 %r - time in a.m. and p.m. notation
 %R - time in 24 hour notation
 %S - second
 %t - tab character
 %T - current time, equal to %H:%M:%S
 %u - weekday as a number (1 to 7), Monday=1. Warning: In Sun Solaris
Sunday=1

 %U - week number of the current year, starting with the first Sunday as the
first day of the first week

 %V - The ISO 8601 week number of the current year (01 to 53), where week
1 is the first week that has at least 4 days in the current year, and with
Monday as the first day of the week

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 %W - week number of the current year, starting with the first Monday as the
first day of the first week

 %w - day of the week as a decimal, Sunday=0

 %x - preferred date representation without the time
 %X - preferred time representation without the date
 %y - year without a century (range 00 to 99)
 %Y - year including the century
 %Z or %z - time zone or name or abbreviation
 %% - a literal % character

Return Value
This return value is struct_time as returned by gmtime() or localtime().

Example
The following example shows the usage of strptime() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
import time

struct_time = time.strptime("30 Nov 00", "%d %b %y")

print "returned tuple: %s " % struct_time

When we run above program, it produces following result:

returned tuple: (2000, 11, 30, 0, 0, 0, 3, 335, -1)

time.time( )
The method time() returns the time as a floating point number expressed in
seconds since the epoch, in UTC.

Note: Even though the time is always returned as a floating point number, not all
systems provide time with a better precision than 1 second. While this function
normally returns non-decreasing values, it can return a lower value than a previous
call if the system clock has been set back between the two calls.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for time() method:

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time.time()

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns the time as a floating point number expressed in seconds since
the epoch, in UTC.

Example
The following example shows the usage of time() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
import time

print "time.time(): %f " % time.time()

print time.localtime( time.time() )
print time.asctime( time.localtime(time.time()) )

When we run above program, it produces following result:

time.time(): 1234892919.655932
(2009, 2, 17, 10, 48, 39, 1, 48, 0)
Tue Feb 17 10:48:39 2009

time.tzset()
The method tzset() resets the time conversion rules used by the library routines.
The environment variable TZ specifies how this is done.

The standard format of the TZ environment variable is (whitespace added for clarity):

std offset [dst [offset [,start[/time], end[/time]]]]

 std and dst: Three or more alphanumerics giving the timezone

abbreviations. These will be propagated into time.tzname.

 offset: The offset has the form: .hh[:mm[:ss]]. This indicates the value added
the local time to arrive at UTC. If preceded by a '-', the timezone is east of
the Prime Meridian; otherwise, it is west. If no offset follows dst, summer
time is assumed to be one hour ahead of standard time.

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 start[/time], end[/time]: Indicates when to change to and back from

DST. The format of the start and end dates are one of the following:

o Jn: The Julian day n (1 <= n <= 365). Leap days are not counted, so
in all years February 28 is day 59 and March 1 is day 60.

o n: The zero-based Julian day (0 <= n <= 365). Leap days are
counted, and it is possible to refer to February 29.

o Mm.n.d: The d'th day (0 <= d <= 6) or week n of month m of the

year (1 <= n <= 5, 1 <= m <= 12, where week 5 means 'the last d
day in month m' which may occur in either the fourth or the fifth
week). Week 1 is the first week in which the d'th day occurs. Day zero
is Sunday.

o time: This has the same format as offset except that no leading sign
('- ' or '+') is allowed. The default, if time is not given, is 02:00:00.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for tzset() method:

time.tzset()

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of tzset() method.

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#!/usr/bin/python
import time
import os

os.environ['TZ'] = 'EST+05EDT,M4.1.0,M10.5.0'
time.tzset()
print time.strftime('%X %x %Z')

os.environ['TZ'] = 'AEST-10AEDT-11,M10.5.0,M3.5.0'
time.tzset()

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print time.strftime('%X %x %Z')

When we run above program, it produces following result:

13:00:40 02/17/09 EST

05:00:40 02/18/09 AEDT

There are following two important attributes available with time module:

Sr.
Attribute with Description
No.

time.timezone

1 Attribute time.timezone is the offset in seconds of the local time zone

(without DST) from UTC (>0 in the Americas; <=0 in most of Europe,
Asia, Africa).

time.tzname
2 Attribute time.tzname is a pair of locale-dependent strings, which are the
names of the local time zone without and with DST, respectively.

The calendar Module

The calendar module supplies calendar-related functions, including functions to print
a text calendar for a given month or year.

By default, calendar takes Monday as the first day of the week and Sunday as the
last one. To change this, call calendar.setfirstweekday() function.

Here is a list of functions available with the calendar module:

Sr. No. Function with Description

1 calendar.calendar(year,w=2,l=1,c=6)

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Returns a multiline string with a calendar for year formatted into three
columns separated by c spaces. w is the width in characters of each
date; each line has length 21*w+18+2*c. l is the number of lines for
each week.

calendar.firstweekday( )
2 Returns the current setting for the weekday that starts each week. By
default, when calendar is first imported, this is 0, meaning Monday.

calendar.isleap(year)
3
Returns True if year is a leap year; otherwise, False.

calendar.leapdays(y1,y2)
4
Returns the total number of leap days in the years within range(y1,y2).

calendar.month(year,month,w=2,l=1)

5 Returns a multiline string with a calendar for month of year, one line
per week plus two header lines. w is the width in characters of each
date; each line has length 7*w+6. l is the number of lines for each
week.
calendar.monthcalendar(year,month)

6 Returns a list of lists of ints. Each sublist denotes a week. Days outside
month of year are set to 0; days within the month are set to their day-
of-month, 1 and up.

calendar.monthrange(year,month)

Returns two integers. The first one is the code of the weekday for the
7 first day of the month month in year; the second one is the number of
days in the month. Weekday codes are 0 (Monday) to 6 (Sunday);
month numbers are 1 to 12.

calendar.prcal(year, w=2, l=1, c=6)

8
Like print calendar.calendar(year, w, l, c).

9 calendar.prmonth(year, month, w=2, l=1)

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Like print calendar.month(year, month, w, l).

calendar.setfirstweekday(weekday)
10 Sets the first day of each week to weekday code weekday. Weekday
codes are 0 (Monday) to 6 (Sunday).

calendar.timegm(tupletime)

11 The inverse of time.gmtime: accepts a time instant in time-tuple form

and returns the same instant as a floating-point number of seconds
since the epoch.

calendar.weekday(year,month,day)

12 Returns the weekday code for the given date. Weekday codes are 0
(Monday) to 6 (Sunday); month numbers are 1 (January) to 12
(December).

Other Modules and Functions

If you are interested, then here you would find a list of other important modules and
functions to play with date & time in Python:

 The datetime Module

 The pytz Module
 The dateutil Module

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14. Python ─ Functions Pyth

A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a single,

related action. Functions provide better modularity for your application and a high
degree of code reusing.

As you already know, Python gives you many built-in functions such as print() and
but you can also create your own functions. These functions are called user-defined
functions.

Defining a Function
You can define functions to provide the required functionality. Here are simple rules
to define a function in Python.

 Function blocks begin with the keyword def followed by the function name
and parentheses ( ( ) ).

 Any input parameters or arguments should be placed within these

parentheses. You can also define parameters inside these parentheses.

 The first statement of a function can be an optional statement - the

documentation string of the function or docstring.

 The code block within every function starts with a colon (:) and is indented.

 The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back

an expression to the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the
same as return None.

Syntax
def functionname( parameters ):
"function_docstring"
function_suite
return [expression]

By default, parameters have a positional behavior and you need to inform them in
the same order that they were defined.

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Example
The following function takes a string as input parameter and prints it on standard
screen.

def printme( str ):

"This prints a passed string into this function"
print str
return

Calling a Function
Defining a function only gives it a name, specifies the parameters that are to be
included in the function and structures the blocks of code.

Once the basic structure of a function is finalized, you can execute it by calling it
from another function or directly from the Python prompt. Following is the example
to call printme() function:

#!/usr/bin/python

# Function definition is here

def printme( str ):
"This prints a passed string into this function"
print str;
return;

# Now you can call printme function

printme("I'm first call to user defined function!");
printme("Again second call to the same function");

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

I'm first call to user defined function!

Again second call to the same function

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Passing by Reference Versus Passing by Value

All parameters (arguments) in the Python language are passed by reference. It
means if you change what a parameter refers to within a function, the change also
reflects back in the calling function. For example:

#!/usr/bin/python

# Function definition is here

def changeme( mylist ):
"This changes a passed list into this function"
mylist.append([1,2,3,4]);
print "Values inside the function: ", mylist
return

# Now you can call changeme function

mylist = [10,20,30];
changeme( mylist );
print "Values outside the function: ", mylist

Here, we are maintaining reference of the passed object and appending values in
the same object. So, this would produce the following result:

Values inside the function: [10, 20, 30, [1, 2, 3, 4]]

Values outside the function: [10, 20, 30, [1, 2, 3, 4]]

There is one more example where argument is being passed by reference and the
reference is being overwritten inside the called function.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Function definition is here

def changeme( mylist ):
"This changes a passed list into this function"
mylist = [1,2,3,4]; # This would assig new reference in mylist
print "Values inside the function: ", mylist
return

# Now you can call changeme function

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mylist = [10,20,30];
changeme( mylist );
print "Values outside the function: ", mylist

The parameter mylist is local to the function changeme. Changing mylist within the
function does not affect mylist. The function accomplishes nothing and finally this
would produce the following result:

Values inside the function: [1, 2, 3, 4]

Values outside the function: [10, 20, 30]

Function Arguments
You can call a function by using the following types of formal arguments:

 Required arguments
 Keyword arguments
 Default arguments
 Variable-length arguments

Required Arguments
Required arguments are the arguments passed to a function in correct positional
order. Here, the number of arguments in the function call should match exactly with
the function definition.

To call the function printme(), you definitely need to pass one argument, otherwise
it gives a syntax error as follows:

#!/usr/bin/python
# Function definition is here
def printme( str ):
"This prints a passed string into this function"
print str;
return;
# Now you can call printme function
printme();

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

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Traceback (most recent call last):

File "test.py", line 11, in <module>
printme();
TypeError: printme() takes exactly 1 argument (0 given)

Keyword Arguments
Keyword arguments are related to the function calls. When you use keyword
arguments in a function call, the caller identifies the arguments by the parameter
name.

This allows you to skip arguments or place them out of order because the Python
interpreter is able to use the keywords provided to match the values with
parameters. You can also make keyword calls to the printme() function in the
following ways:

#!/usr/bin/python

# Function definition is here

def printme( str ):
"This prints a passed string into this function"
print str;
return;

# Now you can call printme function

printme( str = "My string");

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

My string

The following example gives more clear picture. Note that the order of parameters
does not matter.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Function definition is here

def printinfo( name, age ):
"This prints a passed info into this function"
print "Name: ", name;

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print "Age ", age;

return;

# Now you can call printinfo function

printinfo( age=50, name="miki" );

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Name: miki
Age 50

Default Arguments
A default argument is an argument that assumes a default value if a value is not
provided in the function call for that argument. The following example gives an idea
on default arguments, it prints default age if it is not passed:

#!/usr/bin/python

# Function definition is here

def printinfo( name, age = 35 ):
"This prints a passed info into this function"
print "Name: ", name;
print "Age ", age;
return;

# Now you can call printinfo function

printinfo( age=50, name="miki" );
printinfo( name="miki" );

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Name: miki
Age 50
Name: miki
Age 35

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Variable Length Arguments

You may need to process a function for more arguments than you specified while
defining the function. These arguments are called variable-length arguments and
are not named in the function definition, unlike required and default arguments.

Syntax for a function with non-keyword variable arguments is this:

def functionname([formal_args,] *var_args_tuple ):

"function_docstring"
function_suite
return [expression]

An asterisk (*) is placed before the variable name that holds the values of all
nonkeyword variable arguments. This tuple remains empty if no additional
arguments are specified during the function call. Following is a simple example:

#!/usr/bin/python

# Function definition is here

def printinfo( arg1, *vartuple ):
"This prints a variable passed arguments"
print "Output is: "
print arg1
for var in vartuple:
print var
return;

# Now you can call printinfo function

printinfo( 10 );
printinfo( 70, 60, 50 );

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Output is:
10
Output is:
70
60
50

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The Anonymous Functions

These functions are called anonymous because they are not declared in the
standard manner by using the def keyword. You can use the lambda keyword to
create small anonymous functions.

 Lambda forms can take any number of arguments but return just one value
in the form of an expression. They cannot contain commands or multiple
expressions.

 An anonymous function cannot be a direct call to print because lambda

requires an expression.

 Lambda functions have their own local namespace and cannot access
variables other than those in their parameter list and those in the global
namespace.

 Although it appears that lambda's are a one-line version of a function, they

are not equivalent to inline statements in C or C++, whose purpose is by
passing function stack allocation during invocation for performance reasons.

Syntax
The syntax of lambda functions contains only a single statement, which is as follows:

lambda [arg1 [,arg2,.....argn]]:expression

Following is the example to show how lambda form of function works:

#!/usr/bin/python

# Function definition is here

sum = lambda arg1, arg2: arg1 + arg2;

# Now you can call sum as a function

print "Value of total : ", sum( 10, 20 )
print "Value of total : ", sum( 20, 20 )

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Value of total : 30
Value of total : 40

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The return Statement

The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an
expression to the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the same as
return None.

All the above examples are not returning any value. You can return a value from a
function as follows:

#!/usr/bin/python

# Function definition is here

def sum( arg1, arg2 ):
# Add both the parameters and return them."
total = arg1 + arg2
print "Inside the function : ", total
return total;

# Now you can call sum function

total = sum( 10, 20 );
print "Outside the function : ", total

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Inside the function : 30

Outside the function : 30

Scope of Variables
All variables in a program may not be accessible at all locations in that program.
This depends on where you have declared a variable.

The scope of a variable determines the portion of the program where you can
access a particular identifier. There are two basic scopes of variables in Python:

 Global variables
 Local variables

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Global vs. Local variables

Variables that are defined inside a function body have a local scope, and those
defined outside have a global scope.

This means that local variables can be accessed only inside the function in which
they are declared, whereas global variables can be accessed throughout the
program body by all functions. When you call a function, the variables declared
inside it are brought into scope. Following is a simple example:

#!/usr/bin/python

total = 0; # This is global variable.

# Function definition is here
def sum( arg1, arg2 ):
# Add both the parameters and return them."
total = arg1 + arg2; # Here total is local variable.
print "Inside the function local total : ", total
return total;

# Now you can call sum function

sum( 10, 20 );
print "Outside the function global total : ", total

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Inside the function local total : 30

Outside the function global total : 0

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15. Python ─ Modules Pyth

A module allows you to logically organize your Python code. Grouping related code
into a module makes the code easier to understand and use. A module is a Python
object with arbitrarily named attributes that you can bind and reference.

Simply, a module is a file consisting of Python code. A module can define functions,
classes and variables. A module can also include runnable code.

Example
The Python code for a module named aname normally resides in a file
named aname.py. Here is an example of a simple module, support.py

def print_func( par ):

print "Hello : ", par
return

The import Statement

You can use any Python source file as a module by executing an import statement
in some other Python source file. The import has the following syntax:

import module1[, module2[,... moduleN]

When the interpreter encounters an import statement, it imports the module if the
module is present in the search path. A search path is a list of directories that the
interpreter searches before importing a module. For example, to import the module
hello.py, you need to put the following command at the top of the script:

#!/usr/bin/python

# Import module support

import support

# Now you can call defined function that module as follows

support.print_func("Zara")

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Hello : Zara

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A module is loaded only once, regardless of the number of times it is imported. This
prevents the module execution from happening over and over again if multiple
imports occur.

The from...import Statement

Python's from statement lets you import specific attributes from a module into the
current namespace. The from...import has the following syntax:

from modname import name1[, name2[, ... nameN]]

For example, to import the function fibonacci from the module fib, use the following
statement:

from fib import fibonacci

This statement does not import the entire module fib into the current namespace; it
just introduces the item fibonacci from the module fib into the global symbol table
of the importing module.

The from...import * Statement:

It is also possible to import all names from a module into the current namespace by
using the following import statement:

from modname import *

This provides an easy way to import all the items from a module into the current
namespace; however, this statement should be used sparingly.

Locating Modules:
When you import a module, the Python interpreter searches for the module in the
following sequences:

 The current directory.

 If the module isn't found, Python then searches each directory in the shell
variable PYTHONPATH.

 If all else fails, Python checks the default path. On UNIX, this default path is
normally /usr/local/lib/python/.

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The module search path is stored in the system module sys as the sys.path
variable. The sys.path variable contains the current directory, PYTHONPATH, and
the installation-dependent default.

The PYTHONPATH Variable

The PYTHONPATH is an environment variable, consisting of a list of directories. The
syntax of PYTHONPATH is the same as that of the shell variable PATH.

Here is a typical PYTHONPATH from a Windows system:

set PYTHONPATH=c:\python20\lib;

And here is a typical PYTHONPATH from a UNIX system:

set PYTHONPATH=/usr/local/lib/python

Namespaces and Scoping

Variables are names (identifiers) that map to objects. A namespace is a dictionary
of variable names (keys) and their corresponding objects (values).

A Python statement can access variables in a local namespace and in the global
namespace. If a local and a global variable have the same name, the local variable
shadows the global variable.

Each function has its own local namespace. Class methods follow the same scoping
rule as ordinary functions.

Python makes educated guesses on whether variables are local or global. It

assumes that any variable assigned a value in a function is local.

Therefore, in order to assign a value to a global variable within a function, you must
first use the global statement.

The statement global VarName tells Python that VarName is a global variable.
Python stops searching the local namespace for the variable.

For example, we define a variable Money in the global namespace. Within the
functionMoney, we assign Money a value, therefore Python assumes Money as a
local variable. However, we accessed the value of the local variable Money before
setting it, so an UnboundLocalError is the result. Uncommenting the global
statement fixes the problem.

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#!/usr/bin/python

Money = 2000
def AddMoney():
# Uncomment the following line to fix the code:
# global Money
Money = Money + 1

print Money
AddMoney()
print Money

The dir( ) Function

The dir() built-in function returns a sorted list of strings containing the names
defined by a module.

The list contains the names of all the modules, variables and functions that are
defined in a module. Following is a simple example:

#!/usr/bin/python

# Import built-in module math

import math

content = dir(math)
print content;

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

[' doc ', '__file__', ' name ', 'acos', 'asin', 'atan',
'atan2', 'ceil', 'cos', 'cosh', 'degrees', 'e', 'exp',
'fabs', 'floor', 'fmod', 'frexp', 'hypot', 'ldexp', 'log',
'log10', 'modf', 'pi', 'pow', 'radians', 'sin', 'sinh',
'sqrt', 'tan', 'tanh']

Here, the special string variable name is the module's name, and file is the
filename from which the module was loaded.

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The globals() and locals() Functions

The globals() and locals() functions can be used to return the names in the global
and local namespaces depending on the location from where they are called.

 If locals() is called from within a function, it will return all the names that can
be accessed locally from that function.

 If globals() is called from within a function, it will return all the names that
can be accessed globally from that function.

The return type of both these functions is dictionary. Therefore, names can be
extracted using the keys() function.

The reload() Function

When the module is imported into a script, the code in the top-level portion of a
module is executed only once.

Therefore, if you want to reexecute the top-level code in a module, you can use
the reload()function. The reload() function imports a previously imported module
again. The syntax of the reload() function is this:

reload(module_name)

Here, module_name is the name of the module you want to reload and not the
string containing the module name. For example, to reload hello module, do the
following:

reload(hello)

Packages in Python
A package is a hierarchical file directory structure that defines a single Python
application environment that consists of modules and subpackages and sub-
subpackages, and so on.

Consider a file Pots.py available in Phone directory. This file has following line of
source code:

#!/usr/bin/python

def Pots():
print "I'm Pots Phone"

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Similar way, we have another two files having different functions with the same
name as above:

 Phone/Isdn.py file having function Isdn()

 Phone/G3.py file having function G3()

Now, create one more file init .py in Phone directory:

 Phone/ init .py

To make all of your functions available when you've imported Phone, you need to
put explicit import statements in init .py as follows:

from Pots import Pots

from Isdn import Isdn
from G3 import G3

After you add these lines to init .py, you have all of these classes available when
you import the Phone package.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Now import your Phone Package.

import Phone

Phone.Pots()
Phone.Isdn()
Phone.G3()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

I'm Pots Phone

I'm 3G Phone
I'm ISDN Phone

In the above example, we have taken example of a single functions in each file, but
you can keep multiple functions in your files. You can also define different Python
classes in those files and then you can create your packages out of those classes.

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16. Python ─ Files I/O Pyth

This chapter covers all the basic I/O functions available in Python. For more
functions, please refer to standard Python documentation.

Printing to the Screen

The simplest way to produce output is using the print statement where you can
pass zero or more expressions separated by commas. This function converts the
expressions you pass into a string and writes the result to standard output as
follows:

#!/usr/bin/python

print "Python is really a great language,", "isn't it?";

This produces the following result on your standard screen:

Python is really a great language, isn't it?

Reading Keyboard Input

Python provides two built-in functions to read a line of text from standard input,
which by default comes from the keyboard. These functions are:

 raw_input
 input

The raw_input Function

The raw_input([prompt]) function reads one line from standard input and returns it
as a string (removing the trailing newline).

#!/usr/bin/python

str = raw_input("Enter your input: ");

print "Received input is : ", str

This prompts you to enter any string and it would display same string on the
screen. When I typed "Hello Python!", its output is like this:

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Enter your input: Hello Python

Received input is : Hello Python

The input Function

The input([prompt]) function is equivalent to raw_input, except that it assumes the
input is a valid Python expression and returns the evaluated result to you.

#!/usr/bin/python

str = input("Enter your input: ");

print "Received input is : ", str

This would produce the following result against the entered input:

Enter your input: [x*5 for x in range(2,10,2)]

Recieved input is : [10, 20, 30, 40]

Opening and Closing Files

Until now, you have been reading and writing to the standard input and output.
Now, we will see how to use actual data files.

Python provides basic functions and methods necessary to manipulate files by

default. You can do your most of the file manipulation using a file object.

The open Function

Before you can read or write a file, you have to open it using Python's built-
in open()function. This function creates a file object, which would be utilized to call
other support methods associated with it.

Syntax
file object = open(file_name [, access_mode][, buffering])

Here are parameter details:

 file_name: The file_name argument is a string value that contains the name
of the file that you want to access.
 access_mode: The access_mode determines the mode in which the file has
to be opened, i.e., read, write, append, etc. A complete list of possible values

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is given below in the table. This is optional parameter and the default file
access mode is read (r).

 buffering: If the buffering value is set to 0, no buffering takes place. If the

buffering value is 1, line buffering is performed while accessing a file. If you
specify the buffering value as an integer greater than 1, then buffering action
is performed with the indicated buffer size. If negative, the buffer size is the
system default (default behavior).

Here is a list of the different modes of opening a file:

Modes Description

r Opens a file for reading only. The file pointer is placed at the beginning
of the file. This is the default mode.

rb Opens a file for reading only in binary format. The file pointer is placed
at the beginning of the file. This is the default mode.

r+ Opens a file for both reading and writing. The file pointer is placed at the
beginning of the file.

rb+ Opens a file for both reading and writing in binary format. The file
pointer is placed at the beginning of the file.

w Opens a file for writing only. Overwrites the file if the file exists. If the
file does not exist, creates a new file for writing.

wb Opens a file for writing only in binary format. Overwrites the file if the
file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for writing.

w+ Opens a file for both writing and reading. Overwrites the existing file if
the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new file for reading
and writing.

wb+ Opens a file for both writing and reading in binary format. Overwrites
the existing file if the file exists. If the file does not exist, creates a new
file for reading and writing.

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a Opens a file for appending. The file pointer is at the end of the file if the
file exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If the file does not
exist, it creates a new file for writing.

ab Opens a file for appending in binary format. The file pointer is at the end
of the file if the file exists. That is, the file is in the append mode. If the
file does not exist, it creates a new file for writing.

a+ Opens a file for both appending and reading. The file pointer is at the
end of the file if the file exists. The file opens in the append mode. If the
file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading and writing.

ab+ Opens a file for both appending and reading in binary format. The file
pointer is at the end of the file if the file exists. The file opens in the
append mode. If the file does not exist, it creates a new file for reading
and writing.

The file Object Attributes

Once a file is opened and you have one file object, you can get various information
related to that file. Here is a list of all attributes related to file object:

Attribute Description

file.closed Returns true if file is closed, false otherwise.

file.mode Returns access mode with which file was opened.

file.name Returns name of the file.

file.softspace Returns false if space explicitly required with print, true otherwise.

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Example
#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "wb")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name
print "Closed or not : ", fo.closed
print "Opening mode : ", fo.mode
print "Softspace flag : ", fo.softspace

This produces the following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

Closed or not : False
Opening mode : wb
Softspace flag : 0

The close() Method

The close() method of a file object flushes any unwritten information and closes the
file object, after which no more writing can be done.

Python automatically closes a file when the reference object of a file is reassigned to
another file. It is a good practice to use the close() method to close a file.

Syntax
fileObject.close();

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "wb")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name

# Close opend file

fo.close()

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This produces the following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

Reading and Writing Files

The file object provides a set of access methods to make our lives easier. We would
see how to use read() and write() methods to read and write files.

The write() Method

The write() method writes any string to an open file. It is important to note that
Python strings can have binary data and not just text.

The write() method does not add a newline character ('\n') to the end of the string:

Syntax
fileObject.write(string);

Here, passed parameter is the content to be written into the opened file.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "wb")
fo.write( "Python is a great language.\nYeah its great!!\n");

# Close opend file

fo.close()

The above method would create foo.txt file and would write given content in that
file and finally it would close that file. If you would open this file, it would have
following content.

Python is a great language.

Yeah its great!!

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The read() Method

The read() method reads a string from an open file. It is important to note that
Python strings can have binary data, apart from text data.

Syntax
fileObject.read([count]);

Here, passed parameter is the number of bytes to be read from the opened file.
This method starts reading from the beginning of the file and if count is missing,
then it tries to read as much as possible, maybe until the end of file.

Example
Let us take a file foo.txt, which we created above.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r+")
str = fo.read(10);
print "Read String is : ", str
# Close opend file
fo.close()

This produces the following result:

Read String is : Python is

File Positions
The tell() method tells you the current position within the file; in other words, the
next read or write will occur at that many bytes from the beginning of the file.

The seek(offset[, from]) method changes the current file position.

The offset argument indicates the number of bytes to be moved. The from
argument specifies the reference position from where the bytes are to be moved.

If from is set to 0, it means use the beginning of the file as the reference position
and 1 means use the current position as the reference position and if it is set to 2
then the end of the file would be taken as the reference position.

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Example
Let us take a file foo.txt, which we created above.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r+")
str = fo.read(10);
print "Read String is : ", str

# Check current position

position = fo.tell();
print "Current file position : ", position

# Reposition pointer at the beginning once again

position = fo.seek(0, 0);
str = fo.read(10);
print "Again read String is : ", str
# Close opend file
fo.close()

This produces the following result:

Read String is : Python is

Current file position : 10
Again read String is : Python is

Renaming and Deleting Files

Python os module provides methods that help you perform file-processing
operations, such as renaming and deleting files.

To use this module you need to import it first and then you can call any related
functions.

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The rename() Method

The rename() method takes two arguments, the current filename and the new
filename.

Syntax
os.rename(current_file_name, new_file_name)

Example
Following is the example to rename an existing file test1.txt:

#!/usr/bin/python
import os

# Rename a file from test1.txt to test2.txt

os.rename( "test1.txt", "test2.txt" )

The remove() Method

You can use the remove() method to delete files by supplying the name of the file to
be deleted as the argument.

Syntax
os.remove(file_name)

Example
Following is the example to delete an existing file test2.txt:

#!/usr/bin/python
import os

# Delete file test2.txt

os.remove("text2.txt")

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Directories in Python
All files are contained within various directories, and Python has no problem
handling these too. The os module has several methods that help you create,
remove, and change directories.

The mkdir() Method

You can use the mkdir() method of the os module to create directories in the
current directory. You need to supply an argument to this method which contains
the name of the directory to be created.

Syntax
os.mkdir("newdir")

Example
Following is the example to create a directory test in the current directory:

#!/usr/bin/python
import os

# Create a directory "test"

os.mkdir("test")

The chdir() Method

You can use the chdir() method to change the current directory. The chdir() method
takes an argument, which is the name of the directory that you want to make the
current directory.

Syntax
os.chdir("newdir")

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Example
Following is the example to go into "/home/newdir" directory:

#!/usr/bin/python
import os

# Changing a directory to "/home/newdir"

os.chdir("/home/newdir")

The getcwd() Method

The getcwd() method displays the current working directory.

Syntax
os.getcwd()

Example
Following is the example to give current directory:

#!/usr/bin/python
import os

# This would give location of the current directory

os.getcwd()

The rmdir() Method

The rmdir() method deletes the directory, which is passed as an argument in the
method.

Before removing a directory, all the contents in it should be removed.

Syntax
os.rmdir('dirname')

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Example
Following is the example to remove "/tmp/test" directory. It is required to give fully
qualified name of the directory, otherwise it would search for that directory in the
current directory.

#!/usr/bin/python
import os

# This would remove "/tmp/test" directory.

os.rmdir( "/tmp/test" )

File and Directory Related Methods

There are two important sources, which provide a wide range of utility methods to
handle and manipulate files and directories on Windows and Unix operating
systems. They are as follows:

File Object Methods: The file object provides functions to manipulate files.

OS Object Methods: This provides methods to process files as well as directories.

A file object is created using open function and here is a list of functions which can
be called on this object:
Sr. No. Methods with Description

file.close()
1
Close the file. A closed file cannot be read or written any more.

file.flush()
2 Flush the internal buffer, like stdio's fflush. This may be a no-op on some file-
like objects.

file.fileno()
3 Returns the integer file descriptor that is used by the underlying implementation
to request I/O operations from the operating system.

file.isatty()
4
Returns True if the file is connected to a tty(-like) device, else False.

file.next()
5
Returnss the next line from the file each time it is being called.

file.read([size])
6 Reads at most size bytes from the file (less if the read hits EOF before obtaining
size bytes).

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file.readline([size])
7 Reads one entire line from the file. A trailing newline character is kept in the
string.

file.readlines([sizehint])
Reads until EOF using readline() and return a list containing the lines. If the
8 optional sizehint argument is present, instead of reading up to EOF, whole lines
totalling approximately sizehint bytes (possibly after rounding up to an internal
buffer size) are read.

file.seek(offset[,whence])
9
Sets the file's current position.

file.tell()
10
Returns the file's current position

file.truncate([size])
11 Truncates the file's size. If the optional size argument is present, the file is
truncated to (at most) that size.

file.write(str)
12
Writes a string to the file. There is no return value.

file.writelines(sequence)
13 Writes a sequence of strings to the file. The sequence can be any iterable object
producing strings, typically a list of strings.

file.close()
The method close() closes the opened file. A closed file cannot be read or written
any more. Any operation, which requires that the file be opened will raise
a ValueError after the file has been closed. Calling close() more than once is
allowed.

Python automatically closes a file when the reference object of a file is reassigned
to another file. It is a good practice to use the close() method to close a file.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for close() method:

fileObject.close();

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

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Example
The following example shows the usage of close() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "wb")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name
# Close opend file
fo.close()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

File.flush()
The method flush() flushes the internal buffer, like stdio's fflush. This may be a no-
op on some file-like objects.

Python automatically flushes the files when closing them. But you may want to flush
the data before closing any file.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for flush() method:

fileObject.flush();

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of flush() method.

#!/usr/bin/python
# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "wb")

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print "Name of the file: ", fo.name

# Here it does nothing, but you can call it with read operation.
fo.flush()
# Close opend file
fo.close()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

File.fileno()
The method fileno() returns the integer file descriptor that is used by the underlying
implementation to request I/O operations from the operating system.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for fileno() method:

fileObject.fileno();

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns the integer file descriptor.

Example
The following example shows the usage of fileno() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "wb")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name

fid = fo.fileno()
print "File Descriptor: ", fid

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# Close opend file

fo.close()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

File Descriptor: 3

File.isatty()
The method isatty() returns True if the file is connected (is associated with a
terminal device) to a tty(-like) device, else False.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for isatty() method:

fileObject.isatty();

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns true if the file is connected (is associated with a terminal
device) to a tty(-like) device, else false.

Example
The following example shows the usage of isatty() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "wb")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name

ret = fo.isatty()
print "Return value : ", ret

# Close opend file

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fo.close()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

Return value : False

File.next()
The method next() is used when a file is used as an iterator, typically in a loop, the
next() method is called repeatedly. This method returns the next input line, or
raises StopIteration when EOF is hit.

Combining next() method with other file methods like readline() does not work
right. However, usingseek() to reposition the file to an absolute position will flush
the read- ahead buffer.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for next() method:

fileObject.next();

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns the next input line.

Example
The following example shows the usage of next() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name

# Assuming file has following 5 lines

# This is 1st line

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# This is 2nd line

# This is 3rd line
# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line

for index in range(5):

line = fo.next()
print "Line No %d - %s" % (index, line)

# Close opend file

fo.close()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

Line No 0 - This is 1st line
Line No 1 - This is 2nd line
Line No 2 - This is 3rd line
Line No 3 - This is 4th line
Line No 4 - This is 5th line

File.read([size])
The method read() reads at most size bytes from the file. If the read hits EOF
before obtaining size bytes, then it reads only available bytes.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for read() method:

fileObject.read( size );

Parameters
 size -- This is the number of bytes to be read from the file.

Return Value
This method returns the bytes read in string.

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Example
The following example shows the usage of read() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name

# Assuming file has following 5

lines # This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line
# This is 3rd line
# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line

line = fo.read(10)
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)

# Close opend file

fo.close()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

Read Line: This is 1s

File.readline([size])
The method readline() reads one entire line from the file. A trailing newline
character is kept in the string. If the size argument is present and non-negative, it
is a maximum byte count including the trailing newline and an incomplete line may
be returned.

An empty string is returned only when EOF is encountered immediately.

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Syntax
Following is the syntax for readline() method:

fileObject.readline( size );

Parameters
size -- This is the number of bytes to be read from the file.

Return Value
This method returns the line read from the file.

Example
The following example shows the usage of readline() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name

# Assuming file has following 5

lines # This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line
# This is 3rd line
# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line

line = fo.readline()
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)

line = fo.readline(5)
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)

# Close opend file

fo.close()

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When we run above program, it produces following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

Read Line: This is 1st line
Read Line: This

file.readline([sizehint])
The method readline() reads one entire line from the file. A trailing newline
character is kept in the string. If the size argument is present and non-negative, it
is a maximum byte count including the trailing newline and an incomplete line may
be returned.

An empty string is returned only when EOF is encountered immediately.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for readline() method:

fileObject.readline( size );

Parameters
size -- This is the number of bytes to be read from the file.

Return Value
This method returns the line read from the file.

Example
The following example shows the usage of readline() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name

# Assuming file has following 5 lines

# This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line
# This is 3rd line

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# This is 4th line

# This is 5th line

line = fo.readline()
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)

line = fo.readline(5)
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)

# Close opend file

fo.close()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

Read Line: This is 1st line
Read Line: This

file.seek(offset[,whence])
The method seek() sets the file's current position at the offset. The whence
argument is optional and defaults to 0, which means absolute file positioning, other
values are 1 which means seek relative to the current position and 2 means seek
relative to the file's end.

There is no return value. Note that if the file is opened for appending using either
'a' or 'a+', any seek() operations will be undone at the next write.

If the file is only opened for writing in append mode using 'a', this method is
essentially a no-op, but it remains useful for files opened in append mode with
reading enabled (mode 'a+').

If the file is opened in text mode using 't', only offsets returned by tell() are legal.
Use of other offsets causes undefined behavior.

Note that not all file objects are seekable.

Syntax

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Following is the syntax for seek() method:

fileObject.seek(offset[, whence])

Parameters
 offset -- This is the position of the read/write pointer within the file.

 whence -- This is optional and defaults to 0 which means absolute file

positioning, other values are 1 which means seek relative to the current
position and 2 means seek relative to the file's end.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of seek() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name

# Assuming file has following 5

lines # This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line
# This is 3rd line
# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line

line = fo.readline()
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)

# Again set the pointer to the beginning

fo.seek(0, 0)
line = fo.readline()
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)

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# Close opend file

fo.close()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

Read Line: This is 1st line
Read Line: This is 1st line

file.tel ()
The method tell() returns the current position of the file read/write pointer within
the file.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for tell() method:

fileObject.tell()

Parameters
NA

Return Value
This method returns the current position of the file read/write pointer within the file.

Example
The following example shows the usage of tell() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name

# Assuming file has following 5 lines

# This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line

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# This is 3rd line

# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line

line = fo.readline()
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)

# Get the current position of the file.

pos = fo.tell()
print "Current Position: %d" % (pos)

# Close opend file

fo.close()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

Read Line: This is 1st line
Current Position: 18

file.truncate([size])
The method truncate() truncates the file's size. If the optional size argument is
present, the file is truncated to (at most) that size..

The size defaults to the current position. The current file position is not changed.
Note that if a specifiedsize exceeds the file's current size, the result is platform-
dependent.

Note: This method would not work in case file is opened in read-only mode.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for truncate() method:

fileObject.truncate( [ size ])

Parameters
size -- If this optional argument is present, the file is truncated to (at most) that
size.

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Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of truncate() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name

# Assuming file has following 5

lines # This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line
# This is 3rd line
# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line

line = fo.readline()
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)

# Now truncate remaining file.

fo.truncate()

# Try to read file now

line = fo.readline()
print "Read Line: %s" % (line)

# Close opend file

fo.close()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

Read Line: This is 1st line

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Read Line:

file.write(str)
The method write() writes a string str to the file. There is no return value. Due to
buffering, the string may not actually show up in the file until the flush() or close()
method is called.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for write() method:

fileObject.write( str )

Parameters
str -- This is the String to be written in the file.

Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of write() method.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Open a file in write mode

fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name

# Assuming file has following 5

lines # This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line
# This is 3rd line
# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line

str = "This is 6th line"

# Write a line at the end of the file.

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fo.seek(0, 2)
line = fo.write( str )

# Now read complete file from beginning.

fo.seek(0,0)
for index in range(6):
line = fo.next()
print "Line No %d - %s" % (index, line)

# Close opend file

fo.close()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

Line No 0 - This is 1st line
Line No 1 - This is 2nd line
Line No 2 - This is 3rd line
Line No 3 - This is 4th line

Line No 4 - This is 5th line

Line No 5 - This is 6th line

file.writelines(sequence)
The method writelines() writes a sequence of strings to the file. The sequence can
be any iterable object producing strings, typically a list of strings. There is no return
value.

Syntax
Following is the syntax for writelines() method:

fileObject.writelines( sequence )

Parameters
sequence -- This is the Sequence of the strings.

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Return Value
This method does not return any value.

Example
The following example shows the usage of writelines() method.

#!/usr/bin/python'

# Open a file in witre mode

fo = open("foo.txt", "rw+")
print "Name of the file: ", fo.name
# Assuming file has following 5
lines # This is 1st line
# This is 2nd line
# This is 3rd line
# This is 4th line
# This is 5th line

seq = ["This is 6th line\n", "This is 7th line"]

# Write sequence of lines at the end of the
file. fo.seek(0, 2)
line = fo.writelines( seq )

# Now read complete file from beginning.

fo.seek(0,0)
for index in range(7):
line = fo.next()
print "Line No %d - %s" % (index, line)
# Close opend file
fo.close()

When we run above program, it produces following result:

Name of the file: foo.txt

Line No 0 - This is 1st line
Line No 1 - This is 2nd line

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Line No 2 - This is 3rd line

Line No 3 - This is 4th line
Line No 4 - This is 5th line
Line No 5 - This is 6th line
Line No 6 - This is 7th line

OS Object Methods
This provides methods to process files as well as directories.

Sr. No. Methods with Description

os.access(path,mode)
1
Use the real uid/gid to test for access to path.

os.chdir(path)
2
Change the current working directory to path

os.chflags(path, flags)
3
Set the flags of path to the numeric flags.

os.chmod(path, mode)
4
Change the mode of path to the numeric mode.

os.chown(path, uid, gid)

5
Change the owner and group id of path to the numeric uid and gid.

os.chroot(path)
6
Change the root directory of the current process to path.

os.close(fd)
7
Close file descriptor fd.

os.closerange(fd_low, fd_high)
8 Close all file descriptors from fd_low (inclusive) to fd_high (exclusive), ignoring
errors.

os.dup(fd)
9
Return a duplicate of file descriptor fd.

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os.dup2(fd, fd2)
10
Duplicate file descriptor fd to fd2, closing the latter first if necessary.

os.fchdir(fd)
11 Change the current working directory to the directory represented by the file
descriptor fd.

os.fchmod(fd, mode)
12
Change the mode of the file given by fd to the numeric mode.

os.fchown(fd, uid, gid)

13 Change the owner and group id of the file given by fd to the numeric uid and
gid.

os.fdatasync(fd)
14
Force write of file with filedescriptor fd to disk.

os.fdopen(fd[, mode[, bufsize]])

15
Return an open file object connected to the file descriptor fd.

os.fpathconf(fd, name)
16 Return system configuration information relevant to an open file. name specifies
the configuration value to retrieve.

os.fstat(fd)
17
Return status for file descriptor fd, like stat().

os.fstatvfs(fd)
18 Return information about the filesystem containing the file associated with file
descriptor fd, like statvfs().

os.fsync(fd)
19
Force write of file with filedescriptor fd to disk.

os.ftruncate(fd, length)
20 Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor fd, so that it is at most length
bytes in size.

os.getcwd()
21
Return a string representing the current working directory.

os.getcwdu()
22
Return a Unicode object representing the current working directory.

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os.isatty(fd)
23 Return True if the file descriptor fd is open and connected to a tty(-like) device,
else False.

os.lchflags(path, flags)
24 Set the flags of path to the numeric flags, like chflags(), but do not follow
symbolic links.

os.lchmod(path, mode)
25
Change the mode of path to the numeric mode.

os.lchown(path, uid, gid)

26 Change the owner and group id of path to the numeric uid and gid. This
function will not follow symbolic links.

os.link(src, dst)
27
Create a hard link pointing to src named dst.

os.listdir(path)
28
Return a list containing the names of the entries in the directory given by path.

os.lseek(fd, pos, how)

29
Set the current position of file descriptor fd to position pos, modified by how.

os.lstat(path)
30
Like stat(), but do not follow symbolic links.

os.major(device)
31
Extract the device major number from a raw device number.

os.makedev(major, minor)
32
Compose a raw device number from the major and minor device numbers.

os.makedirs(path[, mode])
33
Recursive directory creation function.

os.minor(device)
34
Extract the device minor number from a raw device number .

os.mkdir(path[, mode])
35
Create a directory named path with numeric mode mode.

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os.mkfifo(path[, mode])
36 Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named path with numeric mode mode. The
default mode is 0666 (octal).

os.mknod(filename[, mode=0600, device])

37 Create a filesystem node (file, device special file or named pipe) named
filename.

os.open(file, flags[, mode])

38 Open the file file and set various flags according to flags and possibly its mode
according to mode.

os.openpty()
39 Open a new pseudo-terminal pair. Return a pair of file descriptors (master,
slave) for the pty and the tty, respectively.

os.pathconf(path, name)
40
Return system configuration information relevant to a named file.

os.pipe()
41 Create a pipe. Return a pair of file descriptors (r, w) usable for reading and
writing, respectively.

os.popen(command[, mode[, bufsize]])

42
Open a pipe to or from command.

os.read(fd, n)
Read at most n bytes from file descriptor fd. Return a string containing the
43
bytes read. If the end of the file referred to by fd has been reached, an empty
string is returned.

os.readlink(path)
44
Return a string representing the path to which the symbolic link points.

os.remove(path)
45
Remove the file path.

os.removedirs(path)
46
Remove directories recursively.

os.rename(src, dst)
47
Rename the file or directory src to dst.

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os.renames(old, new)
48
Recursive directory or file renaming function.

os.rmdir(path)
49
Remove the directory path

os.stat(path)
50
Perform a stat system call on the given path.

os.stat_float_times([newvalue])
51
Determine whether stat_result represents time stamps as float objects.

os.statvfs(path)
52
Perform a statvfs system call on the given path.

os.symlink(src, dst)
53
Create a symbolic link pointing to src named dst.

os.tcgetpgrp(fd)
54 Return the process group associated with the terminal given by fd (an open file
descriptor as returned by open()).

os.tcsetpgrp(fd, pg)
55 Set the process group associated with the terminal given by fd (an open file
descriptor as returned by open()) to pg.

os.tempnam([dir[, prefix]])
56
Return a unique path name that is reasonable for creating a temporary file.

os.tmpfile()
57
Return a new file object opened in update mode (w+b).

os.tmpnam()
58
Return a unique path name that is reasonable for creating a temporary file.

os.ttyname(fd)
Return a string which specifies the terminal device associated with file
59
descriptor fd. If fd is not associated with a terminal device, an exception is
raised.

os.unlink(path)
60
Remove the file path.

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os.utime(path, times)
61
Set the access and modified times of the file specified by path.

os.walk(top[, topdown=True[, onerror=None[, followlinks=False]]])

62 Generate the file names in a directory tree by walking the tree either top-down
or bottom-up.

os.write(fd, str)
63 Write the string str to file descriptor fd. Return the number of bytes actually
written.

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17. Python ─ Exceptions Pyth

Python provides two very important features to handle any unexpected error in your
Python programs and to add debugging capabilities in them:

 Exception Handling: This would be covered in this tutorial. Here is a list

standard Exceptions available in Python: Standard Exceptions.
 Assertions: This would be covered in Assertions in Python tutorial.

List of Standard Exceptions

Exception Name Description

Exception Base class for all exceptions

Raised when the next() method of an iterator does not

StopIteration
point to any object.

SystemExit Raised by the sys.exit() function.

Base class for all built-in exceptions except StopIteration

StandardError
and SystemExit.

ArithmeticError Base class for all errors that occur for numeric calculation.

Raised when a calculation exceeds maximum limit for a

OverflowError
numeric type.

FloatingPointError Raised when a floating point calculation fails.

Raised when division or modulo by zero takes place for all

ZeroDivisonError
numeric types.

AssertionError Raised in case of failure of the Assert statement.

AttributeError Raised in case of failure of attribute reference or

assignment.
Raised when there is no input from either the raw_input()
EOFError
or input() function and the end of file is reached.

ImportError Raised when an import statement fails.

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Raised when the user interrupts program execution, usually

KeyboardInterrupt
by pressing Ctrl+c.

LookupError Base class for all lookup errors.

IndexError Raised when an index is not found in a sequence.

KeyError Raised when the specified key is not found in the dictionary.

Raised when an identifier is not found in the local or global

NameError
namespace.

Raised when trying to access a local variable in a function

UnboundLocalError
or method but no value has been assigned to it.

Base class for all exceptions that occur outside the Python
EnvironmentError
environment.

Raised when an input/ output operation fails, such as the

IOError print statement or the open() function when trying to open
a file that does not exist.

OSError Raised for operating system-related errors.

SyntaxError Raised when there is an error in Python syntax.

IndentationError Raised when indentation is not specified properly.

Raised when the interpreter finds an internal problem, but

SystemError when this error is encountered the Python interpreter does
not exit.

Raised when Python interpreter is quit by using the

SystemExit sys.exit() function. If not handled in the code, causes the
interpreter to exit.

Raised when an operation or function is attempted that is

TypeError
invalid for the specified data type.

Raised when the built-in function for a data type has the
ValueError valid type of arguments, but the arguments have invalid
values specified.

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Raised when a generated error does not fall into any

RuntimeError
category.

Raised when an abstract method that needs to be

NotImplementedError implemented in an inherited class is not actually
implemented.

Assertions in Python
An assertion is a sanity-check that you can turn on or turn off when you are done
with your testing of the program.

The easiest way to think of an assertion is to liken it to a raise-if statement (or to

be more accurate, a raise-if-not statement). An expression is tested, and if the
result comes up false, an exception is raised.

Assertions are carried out by the assert statement, the newest keyword to Python,
introduced in version 1.5.

Programmers often place assertions at the start of a function to check for valid
input, and after a function call to check for valid output.

The assert Statement

When it encounters an assert statement, Python evaluates the accompanying
expression, which is hopefully true. If the expression is false, Python raises
an AssertionError exception.

The syntax for assert is:

assert Expression[, Arguments]

If the assertion fails, Python uses ArgumentExpression as the argument for the
AssertionError. AssertionError exceptions can be caught and handled like any other
exception using the try-except statement, but if not handled, they will terminate
the program and produce a traceback.

Example
Here is a function that converts a temperature from degrees Kelvin to degrees
Fahrenheit. Since zero degrees Kelvin is as cold as it gets, the function bails out if it
sees a negative temperature:

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#!/usr/bin/python

def KelvinToFahrenheit(Temperature):
assert (Temperature >= 0),"Colder than absolute zero!"
return ((Temperature-273)*1.8)+32

print KelvinToFahrenheit(273)
print int(KelvinToFahrenheit(505.78))
print KelvinToFahrenheit(-5)

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

32.0
451
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 9, in <module>
print KelvinToFahrenheit(-5)
File "test.py", line 4, in KelvinToFahrenheit
assert (Temperature >= 0),"Colder than absolute zero!"
AssertionError: Colder than absolute zero!

What is Exception?
An exception is an event, which occurs during the execution of a program that
disrupts the normal flow of the program's instructions. In general, when a Python
script encounters a situation that it cannot cope with, it raises an exception. An
exception is a Python object that represents an error.

When a Python script raises an exception, it must either handle the exception
immediately otherwise it terminates and quits.

Handling an Exception
If you have some suspicious code that may raise an exception, you can defend your
program by placing the suspicious code in a try: block. After the try: block, include
an except: statement, followed by a block of code which handles the problem as
elegantly as possible.

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Syntax
Here is simple syntax of try....except...else blocks:

try:
You do your operations here;
......................
except ExceptionI:
If there is ExceptionI, then execute this block.
except ExceptionII:
If there is ExceptionII, then execute this block.
......................
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.

Here are few important points about the above-mentioned syntax:

 A single try statement can have multiple except statements. This is useful
when the try block contains statements that may throw different types of
exceptions.

 You can also provide a generic except clause, which handles any exception.

 After the except clause(s), you can include an else-clause. The code in the
else-block executes if the code in the try: block does not raise an exception.

 The else-block is a good place for code that does not need the try: block's
protection.

Example
This example opens a file, writes content in the, file and comes out gracefully
because there is no problem at all:

#!/usr/bin/python

try:
fh = open("testfile", "w")
fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!")
except IOError:
print "Error: can\'t find file or read data"
else:
print "Written content in the file successfully"

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fh.close()

This produces the following result:

Written content in the file successfully

Example
This example tries to open a file where you do not have write permission, so it raises
an exception:

#!/usr/bin/python

try:
fh = open("testfile", "r")
fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!")
except IOError:
print "Error: can\'t find file or read data"
else:
print "Written content in the file successfully"

This produces the following result:

Error: can't find file or read data

The except Clause with No Exceptions

You can also use the except statement with no exceptions defined as follows:

try:
You do your operations here;
......................
except:
If there is any exception, then execute this block.
......................
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.

This kind of a try-except statement catches all the exceptions that occur. Using this
kind of try-except statement is not considered a good programming practice though,

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because it catches all exceptions but does not make the programmer identify the
root cause of the problem that may occur.

The except Clause with Multiple Exceptions

You can also use the same except statement to handle multiple exceptions as follows:

try:
You do your operations here;
......................
except(Exception1[, Exception2[,...ExceptionN]]]):
If there is any exception from the given exception list,
then execute this block.
......................
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.

The try-final y Clause

You can use a finally: block along with a try: block. The finally block is a place to
put any code that must execute, whether the try-block raised an exception or not.
The syntax of the try-finally statement is this:

try:
You do your operations here;
......................
Due to any exception, this may be skipped.
finally:
This would always be executed.
......................

Note that you can provide except clause(s), or a finally clause, but not both. You
cannot use else clause as well along with a finally clause.

Example

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#!/usr/bin/python
try:
fh = open("testfile", "w")
fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!")
finally:
print "Error: can\'t find file or read data"

If you do not have permission to open the file in writing mode, then this will
produce the following result:

Error: can't find file or read data

Same example can be written more cleanly as follows:

#!/usr/bin/python

try:
fh = open("testfile", "w")
try:
fh.write("This is my test file for exception handling!!")
finally:
print "Going to close the file"
fh.close()
except IOError:
print "Error: can\'t find file or read data"

When an exception is thrown in the try block, the execution immediately passes to
the finally block. After all the statements in the finally block are executed, the
exception is raised again and is handled in the except statements if present in the
next higher layer of the try-except statement.

Argument of an Exception
An exception can have an argument, which is a value that gives additional
information about the problem. The contents of the argument vary by exception.
You can capture an exception's argument by supplying a variable in the except
clause as follows:

try:
You do your operations here;

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......................
except ExceptionType, Argument:
You can print value of Argument here...

If you write the code to handle a single exception, you can have a variable follow
the name of the exception in the except statement. If you are trapping multiple
exceptions, you can have a variable follow the tuple of the exception.

This variable receives the value of the exception mostly containing the cause of the
exception. The variable can receive a single value or multiple values in the form of
a tuple. This tuple usually contains the error string, the error number, and an error
location.

Example
Following is an example for a single exception:

#!/usr/bin/python

# Define a function here.

def temp_convert(var):
try:
return int(var)
except ValueError, Argument:
print "The argument does not contain numbers\n", Argument

# Call above function here.

temp_convert("xyz");

This produces the following result:

The argument does not contain numbers

invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'xyz'

Raising an Exception
You can raise exceptions in several ways by using the raise statement. The general
syntax for the raise statement is as follows.

Syntax

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raise [Exception [, args [, traceback]]]

Here, Exception is the type of exception (For example, NameError) and argument is
a value for the exception argument. The argument is optional; if not supplied, the
exception argument is None.

The final argument, traceback, is also optional (and rarely used in practice), and if
present, is the traceback object used for the exception.

Example
An exception can be a string, a class or an object. Most of the exceptions that the
Python core raises are classes, with an argument that is an instance of the class.
Defining new exceptions is quite easy and can be done as follows:

def functionName( level ):

if level < 1:
raise "Invalid level!", level
# The code below to this would not be executed
# if we raise the exception

Note: In order to catch an exception, an "except" clause must refer to the same
exception thrown either class object or simple string. For example, to capture above
exception, we must write the except clause as follows:

try:
Business Logic here...
except "Invalid level!":
Exception handling here...
else:
Rest of the code here...

User-Defined Exceptions
Python also allows you to create your own exceptions by deriving classes from the
standard built-in exceptions.

Here is an example related to RuntimeError. Here, a class is created that is

subclassed from RuntimeError. This is useful when you need to display more
specific information when an exception is caught.

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In the try block, the user-defined exception is raised and caught in the except block.
The variable e is used to create an instance of the class Networkerror.

class Networkerror(RuntimeError):
def init__(self, arg):
self.args = arg

So once you defined above class, you can raise the exception as follows:

try:
raise Networkerror("Bad hostname")
except Networkerror,e:
print e.args

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18. Python ─ Classes and Objects Pyth

Python has been an object-oriented language since it existed. Because of this,

creating and using classes and objects are downright easy. This chapter helps you
become an expert in using Python's object-oriented programming support.

If you do not have any previous experience with object-oriented (OO)

programming, you may want to consult an introductory course on it or at least a
tutorial of some sort so that you have a grasp of the basic concepts.

However, here is small introduction of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) to bring

you at speed:

Overview of OOP Terminology

 Class: A user-defined prototype for an object that defines a set of attributes
that characterize any object of the class. The attributes are data members
(class variables and instance variables) and methods, accessed via dot
notation.

 Class variable: A variable that is shared by all instances of a class. Class

variables are defined within a class but outside any of the class's methods.
Class variables are not used as frequently as instance variables are.

 Data member: A class variable or instance variable that holds data

associated with a class and its objects.

 Function overloading: The assignment of more than one behavior to a

particular function. The operation performed varies by the types of objects or
arguments involved.

 Instance variable: A variable that is defined inside a method and belongs

only to the current instance of a class.

 Inheritance: The transfer of the characteristics of a class to other classes

that are derived from it.

 Instance: An individual object of a certain class. An object obj that belongs

to a class Circle, for example, is an instance of the class Circle.

 Instantiation: The creation of an instance of a class.

 Method: A special kind of function that is defined in a class definition.

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 Object: A unique instance of a data structure that's defined by its class. An

object comprises both data members (class variables and instance variables)
and methods.

 Operator overloading: The assignment of more than one function to a

particular operator.

Creating Classes
The class statement creates a new class definition. The name of the class
immediately follows the keyword class followed by a colon as follows:

class ClassName:
'Optional class documentation string'
class_suite

 The class has a documentation string, which can be accessed

viaClassName. doc .

 The class_suite consists of all the component statements defining class

members, data attributes and functions.

Example
Following is the example of a simple Python class:

class Employee:
'Common base class for all employees'
empCount = 0

def init__(self, name, salary):

self.name = name
self.salary = salary
Employee.empCount += 1

def displayCount(self):
print "Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount

def displayEmployee(self):
print "Name : ", self.name, ", Salary: ", self.salary

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 The variable empCount is a class variable whose value is shared among all
instances of a this class. This can be accessed as Employee.empCount from
inside the class or outside the class.

 The first method init () is a special method, which is called class

constructor or initialization method that Python calls when you create a new
instance of this class.

 You declare other class methods like normal functions with the exception that
the first argument to each method is self. Python adds the self argument to
the list for you; you do not need to include it when you call the methods.

Creating Instance Objects

To create instances of a class, you call the class using class name and pass in
whatever arguments its init method accepts.

"This would create first object of Employee class"

emp1 = Employee("Zara", 2000)
"This would create second object of Employee class"
emp2 = Employee("Manni", 5000)

Accessing Attributes
You access the object's attributes using the dot operator with object. Class variable
would be accessed using class name as follows:

emp1.displayEmployee()
emp2.displayEmployee()
print "Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount

Now, putting all the concepts together:

#!/usr/bin/python

class Employee:
'Common base class for all employees'
empCount = 0

def init__(self, name, salary):

self.name = name

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self.salary = salary
Employee.empCount += 1

def displayCount(self):
print "Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount

def displayEmployee(self):
print "Name : ", self.name, ", Salary: ", self.salary

"This would create first object of Employee class"

emp1 = Employee("Zara", 2000)
"This would create second object of Employee class"
emp2 = Employee("Manni", 5000)
emp1.displayEmployee()
emp2.displayEmployee()
print "Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Name : Zara ,Salary: 2000

Name : Manni ,Salary: 5000
Total Employee 2

You can add, remove, or modify attributes of classes and objects at any time:

emp1.age = 7 # Add an 'age' attribute.

emp1.age = 8 # Modify 'age' attribute.
del emp1.age # Delete 'age' attribute.

Instead of using the normal statements to access attributes, you can use the
following functions:

 The getattr(obj, name[, default]) : to access the attribute of object.

 The hasattr(obj,name) : to check if an attribute exists or not.

 The setattr(obj,name,value) : to set an attribute. If attribute does not

exist, then it would be created.

 The delattr(obj, name) : to delete an attribute.

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hasattr(emp1, 'age') # Returns true if 'age' attribute

exists getattr(emp1, 'age') # Returns value of 'age'
attribute setattr(emp1, 'age', 8) # Set attribute 'age' at 8
delattr(empl, 'age') # Delete attribute 'age'

Built-In Class At ributes

Every Python class keeps following built-in attributes and they can be accessed
using dot operator like any other attribute:

 dict : Dictionary containing the class's namespace.

 doc : Class documentation string or none, if undefined.

 name : Class name.

 module : Module name in which the class is defined. This attribute is

" main " in interactive mode.

 bases : A possibly empty tuple containing the base classes, in the order
of their occurrence in the base class list.

For the above class let us try to access all these attributes:

#!/usr/bin/python

class Employee:
'Common base class for all employees'
empCount = 0

def init__(self, name, salary):

self.name = name
self.salary = salary
Employee.empCount += 1

def displayCount(self):
print "Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount

def displayEmployee(self):
print "Name : ", self.name, ", Salary: ", self.salary

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print "Employee. doc :", Employee. doc

print "Employee. name :", Employee. name
print "Employee. module :", Employee. module
print "Employee. bases :", Employee. bases
print "Employee. dict :", Employee. dict

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Employee. doc : Common base class for all employees

Employee. name : Employee
Employee. module : main
Employee. bases : ()
Employee. dict : {' module ': '__main__', 'displayCount':
<function displayCount at 0xb7c84994>, 'empCount': 2,
'displayEmployee': <function displayEmployee at 0xb7c8441c>,
' doc ': 'Common base class for all employees',
' init ': <function init at 0xb7c846bc>}

Destroying Objects (Garbage Collection)

Python deletes unneeded objects (built-in types or class instances) automatically to
free the memory space. The process by which Python periodically reclaims blocks of
memory that no longer are in use is termed Garbage Collection.

Python's garbage collector runs during program execution and is triggered when an
object's reference count reaches zero. An object's reference count changes as the
number of aliases that point to it changes.

An object's reference count increases when it is assigned a new name or placed in a

container (list, tuple, or dictionary). The object's reference count decreases when
it's deleted with del, its reference is reassigned, or its reference goes out of scope.
When an object's reference count reaches zero, Python collects it automatically.

a = 40 # Create object <40>

b = a # Increase ref. count of <40>
c = [b] # Increase ref. count of <40>

del a # Decrease ref. count of <40>

b = 100 # Decrease ref. count of <40>

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c[0] = -1 # Decrease ref. count of <40>

You normally will not notice when the garbage collector destroys an orphaned
instance and reclaims its space. But a class can implement the special
method del (), called a destructor, that is invoked when the instance is about to
be destroyed. This method might be used to clean up any non-memory resources
used by an instance.

Example
This del () destructor prints the class name of an instance that is about to be
destroyed:

#!/usr/bin/python

class Point:
def init( self, x=0, y=0):
self.x = x
self.y = y
def del (self):
class_name = self. class . name
print class_name, "destroyed"

pt1 = Point()
pt2 = pt1
pt3 = pt1
print id(pt1), id(pt2), id(pt3) # prints the ids of the obejcts
del pt1
del pt2
del pt3

When the above code is executed, it produces following result:

3083401324 3083401324 3083401324

Point destroyed

Note: Ideally, you should define your classes in separate file, then you should
import them in your main program file using import statement.

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Class Inheritance
Instead of starting from scratch, you can create a class by deriving it from a
preexisting class by listing the parent class in parentheses after the new class
name.

The child class inherits the attributes of its parent class, and you can use those
attributes as if they were defined in the child class. A child class can also override
data members and methods from the parent.

Syntax
Derived classes are declared much like their parent class; however, a list of base
classes to inherit from is given after the class name:

class SubClassName (ParentClass1[, ParentClass2, ...]):

'Optional class documentation string'
class_suite

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

class Parent: # define parent

class parentAttr = 100
def init__(self):
print "Calling parent constructor"

def parentMethod(self):
print 'Calling parent method'

def setAttr(self, attr):

Parent.parentAttr = attr

def getAttr(self):
print "Parent attribute :", Parent.parentAttr

class Child(Parent): # define child class

def init__(self):
print "Calling child constructor"

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def childMethod(self):
print 'Calling child method'

c = Child() # instance of child

c.childMethod() # child calls its method
c.parentMethod() # calls parent's method
c.setAttr(200) # again call parent's method
c.getAttr() # again call parent's method

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Calling child constructor

Calling child method
Calling parent method
Parent attribute : 200

Similar way, you can drive a class from multiple parent classes as follows:

class A: # define your class A

.....

class B: # define your calss B

.....

class C(A, B): # subclass of A and B

.....

You can use issubclass() or isinstance() functions to check a relationships of two

classes and instances.

 The issubclass(sub, sup) boolean function returns true if the given

subclass sub is indeed a subclass of the superclass sup.

 The isinstance(obj, Class) boolean function returns true if obj is an

instance of class Class or is an instance of a subclass of Class

Over iding Methods

You can always override your parent class methods. One reason for overriding
parent's methods is because you may want special or different functionality in your
subclass.

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Example
#!/usr/bin/python

class Parent: # define parent

class def myMethod(self):
print 'Calling parent method'

class Child(Parent): # define child class

def myMethod(self):
print 'Calling child method'

c = Child() # instance of child

c.myMethod() # child calls overridden
method
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Calling child method

Base Overloading Methods

Following table lists some generic functionality that you can override in your own
classes:

Sr. No. Method, Description, and Sample Call

init ( self [,args...] )

1 Constructor (with any optional arguments)
Sample Call : obj = className(args)

del ( self )
2 Destructor, deletes an object
Sample Call : del obj

repr ( self )
3 Evaluatable string representation
Sample Call : repr(obj)

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str ( self )
4 Printable string representation
Sample Call : str(obj)

cmp ( self, x ) Object

5 comparison Sample Call :
cmp(obj, x)

Overloading Operators
Suppose you have created a Vector class to represent two-dimensional vectors,
what happens when you use the plus operator to add them? Most likely Python will
yell at you.

You could, however, define the add method in your class to perform vector
addition and then the plus operator would behave as per expectation:

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

class Vector:
def init__(self, a, b):
self.a = a
self.b = b

def str (self):

return 'Vector (%d, %d)' % (self.a, self.b)

def add (self,other):

return Vector(self.a + other.a, self.b + other.b)

v1 = Vector(2,10)
v2 = Vector(5,-2)
print v1 + v2

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

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Vector(7,8)

Data Hiding
An object's attributes may or may not be visible outside the class definition. You
need to name attributes with a double underscore prefix, and those attributes then
are not be directly visible to outsiders.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

class JustCounter:
secretCount = 0

def count(self):
self. secretCount += 1
print self. secretCount

counter = JustCounter()
counter.count()
counter.count()
print counter. secretCount

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

1
2
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 12, in <module>
print counter. secretCount
AttributeError: JustCounter instance has no attribute ' secretCount'

Python protects those members by internally changing the name to include the
class name. You can access such attributes as object._className attrName. If you
would replace your last line as following, then it works for you:

.........................
print counter._JustCounter secretCount

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When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

1
2
2

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19. Python ─ Regular Expressions Pyth

A regular expression is a special sequence of characters that helps you match or

find other strings or sets of strings, using a specialized syntax held in a pattern.
Regular expressions are widely used in UNIX world.

The module re provides full support for Perl-like regular expressions in Python. The
re module raises the exception re.error if an error occurs while compiling or using a
regular expression.

We would cover two important functions, which would be used to handle regular
expressions. But a small thing first: There are various characters, which would have
special meaning when they are used in regular expression. To avoid any confusion
while dealing with regular expressions, we would use Raw Strings as
r'expression'.

The match Function

This function attempts to match RE pattern to string with optional flags.

Here is the syntax for this function:

re.match(pattern, string, flags=0)

Here is the description of the parameters:

Parameter Description

pattern This is the regular expression to be matched.

This is the string, which would be searched to match the pattern

string
at the beginning of string.

You can specify different flags using bitwise OR (|). These are
flags
modifiers, which are listed in the table below.

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The re.match function returns a match object on success, none on failure. We

usegroup(num) or groups() function of match object to get matched expression.

Match Object Description

Methods

group(num=0) This method returns entire match (or specific subgroup num)

groups() This method returns all matching subgroups in a tuple (empty if

there weren't any)

Example
#!/usr/bin/python
import re

line = "Cats are smarter than dogs"

matchObj = re.match( r'(.*) are (.*?) .*', line, re.M|re.I)

if matchObj:
print "matchObj.group() : ", matchObj.group()
print "matchObj.group(1) : ", matchObj.group(1)
print "matchObj.group(2) : ", matchObj.group(2)
else:
print "No match!!"

When the above code is executed, it produces following result:

matchObj.group() : Cats are smarter than

dogs matchObj.group(1) : Cats
matchObj.group(2) : smarter

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The search Function

This function searches for first occurrence of RE pattern within string
with optional flags.

Here is the syntax for this function:

re.search(pattern, string, flags=0)

Here is the description of the parameters:

Parameter Description

pattern This is the regular expression to be matched.

This is the string, which is searched to match the pattern anywhere

string
in the string.

You can specify different flags using bitwise OR (|). These are
flags
modifiers, which are listed in the table below.

The re.search function returns a match object on success, none on failure. We use
group(num) or groups() function of match object to get matched expression.

Match Object
Description
Methods

group(num=0) This method returns entire match (or specific subgroup num).

This method returns all matching subgroups in a tuple

groups()
(empty if there weren't any).

Example
#!/usr/bin/python
import re

line = "Cats are smarter than dogs";

searchObj = re.search( r'(.*) are (.*?) .*', line, re.M|re.I)

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if searchObj:
print "searchObj.group() : ", searchObj.group()
print "searchObj.group(1) : ", searchObj.group(1)
print "searchObj.group(2) : ", searchObj.group(2)
else:
print "Nothing found!!"

When the above code is executed, it produces following result:

matchObj.group() : Cats are smarter than

dogs matchObj.group(1) : Cats
matchObj.group(2) : smarter

Matching Versus Searching

Python offers two different primitive operations based on regular expressions:
match checks for a match only at the beginning of the string, while search checks
for a match anywhere in the string (this is what Perl does by default).

Example
#!/usr/bin/python
import re

line = "Cats are smarter than dogs";

matchObj = re.match( r'dogs', line, re.M|re.I)
if matchObj:
print "match --> matchObj.group() : ", matchObj.group()
else:
print "No match!!"

searchObj = re.search( r'dogs', line, re.M|re.I)

if searchObj:
print "search --> searchObj.group() : ", searchObj.group()
else:
print "Nothing found!!"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

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No match!!
search --> matchObj.group() : dogs

Search and Replace

One of the most important re methods that use regular expressions is sub.

Syntax
re.sub(pattern, repl, string, max=0)

This method replaces all occurrences of the RE pattern in string with repl,
substituting all occurrences unless max provided. This method returns modified
string.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python
import re

phone = "2004-959-559 # This is Phone Number"

# Delete Python-style comments

num = re.sub(r'#.*$', "", phone)
print "Phone Num : ", num

# Remove anything other than digits

num = re.sub(r'\D', "", phone)
print "Phone Num : ", num

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Phone Num : 2004-959-559

Phone Num : 2004959559

Regular-Expression Modifiers: Option Flags

Regular expression literals may include an optional modifier to control various
aspects of matching. The modifiers are specified as an optional flag. You can provide
multiple
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modifiers using exclusive OR (|), as shown previously and may be represented by

one of these:

Modifier Description

re.I Performs case-insensitive matching.

Interprets words according to the current locale. This interpretation

re.L affects the alphabetic group (\w and \W), as well as word
boundary behavior (\b and \B).

Makes $ match the end of a line (not just the end of the string) and
re.M
makes ^ match the start of any line (not just the start of the
string).
re.S Makes a period (dot) match any character, including a newline.

Interprets letters according to the Unicode character set. This flag

re.U
affects the behavior of \w, \W, \b, \B.

Permits "cuter" regular expression syntax. It ignores whitespace

re.X (except inside a set [] or when escaped by a backslash) and treats
unescaped # as a comment marker.

Regular-Expression Patterns
Except for control characters, (+ ? . * ^ $ ( ) [ ] { } | \), all characters match
themselves. You can escape a control character by preceding it with a backslash.

Following table lists the regular expression syntax that is available in Python:

Pattern Description

^ Matches beginning of line.

$ Matches end of line.

. Matches any single character except newline. Using m option allows

it to match newline as well.

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[...] Matches any single character in brackets.

[^...] Matches any single character not in brackets

re* Matches 0 or more occurrences of preceding expression.

re+ Matches 1 or more occurrence of preceding expression.

re? Matches 0 or 1 occurrence of preceding expression.

re{ n} Matches exactly n number of occurrences of preceding expression.

re{ n,} Matches n or more occurrences of preceding expression.

re{ n, m} Matches at least n and at most m occurrences of preceding

expression.

a| b Matches either a or b.

(re) Groups regular expressions and remembers matched text.

(?imx) Temporarily toggles on i, m, or x options within a regular

expression. If in parentheses, only that area is affected.

(?-imx) Temporarily toggles off i, m, or x options within a regular

expression. If in parentheses, only that area is affected.

(?: re) Groups regular expressions without remembering matched text.

(?imx: re) Temporarily toggles on i, m, or x options within parentheses.

(?-imx: re) Temporarily toggles off i, m, or x options within parentheses.

(?#...) Comment.

(?= re) Specifies position using a pattern. Doesn't have a range.

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(?! re) Specifies position using pattern negation. Does not have a range.

(?> re) Matches independent pattern without backtracking.

\w Matches word characters.

\W Matches non-word characters.

\s Matches whitespace. Equivalent to [\t\n\r\f].

\S Matches non-whitespace.

\d Matches digits. Equivalent to [0-9].

\D Matches non-digits.

\A Matches beginning of string.

\Z Matches end of string. If a newline exists, it matches just before

newline.

\z Matches end of string.

\G Matches point where last match finished.

\b Matches word boundaries when outside brackets. Matches

backspace (0x08) when inside brackets.

\B Matches non-word boundaries.

\n, \t, etc. Matches newlines, carriage returns, tabs, etc.

\1...\9 Matches nth grouped subexpression.

\10 Matches nth grouped subexpression if it matched already.

Otherwise refers to the octal representation of a character code.

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 Pyth

Regular-Expression Examples
Literal characters
Example Description

python Match "python".

Character classes
Example Description

[Pp]ython Match "Python" or "python"

rub[ye] Match "ruby" or "rube"

[aeiou] Match any one lowercase vowel

[0-9] Match any digit; same as [0123456789]

[a-z] Match any lowercase ASCII letter

[A-Z] Match any uppercase ASCII letter

[a-zA-Z0-9] Match any of the above

[^aeiou] Match anything other than a lowercase vowel

[^0-9] Match anything other than a digit

Special Character Classes

Example Description

. Match any character except newline

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\d Match a digit: [0-9]

\D Match a non-digit: [^0-9]

\s Match a whitespace character: [ \t\r\n\f]

\S Match non-whitespace: [^ \t\r\n\f]

\w Match a single word character: [A-Za-z0-9_]

\W Match a non-word character: [^A-Za-z0-9_]

Repetition Cases
Example Description

ruby? Match "rub" or "ruby": the y is optional.

ruby* Match "rub" plus 0 or more ys.

ruby+ Match "rub" plus 1 or more ys.

\d{3} Match exactly 3 digits.

\d{3,} Match 3 or more digits.

\d{3,5} Match 3, 4, or 5 digits.

Nongreedy repetition
This matches the smallest number of repetitions:

Example Description

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<.*> Greedy repetition: matches "<python>perl>".

<.*?> Nongreedy: matches "<python>" in "<python>perl>".

Grouping with Parentheses

Example Description

\D\d+ No group: + repeats \d.

(\D\d)+ Grouped: + repeats \D\d pair.

([Pp]ython(, )?)+ Match "Python", "Python, python, python", etc.

Backreferences
This matches a previously matched group again:

Example Description

([Pp])ython&\1ails Match python&pails or Python&Pails.

(['"])[^\1]*\1 Single or double-quoted string. \1 matches whatever the 1st

group matched. \2 matches whatever the 2nd group
matched, etc.

Alternatives
Example Description

python|perl Match "python" or "perl".

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 Pyth

rub(y|le)) Match "ruby" or "ruble".

Python(!+|\?) "Python" followed by one or more ! or one ?

Anchors
This needs to specify match position.

Example Description

^Python Match "Python" at the start of a string or internal line.

Python$ Match "Python" at the end of a string or line.

\APython Match "Python" at the start of a string.

Python\Z Match "Python" at the end of a string.

\bPython\b Match "Python" at a word boundary.

\brub\B \B is non-word boundary: match "rub" in "rube" and "ruby"

but not alone.

Python(?=!) Match "Python", if followed by an exclamation point.

Python(?!!) Match "Python", if not followed by an exclamation point.

Special Syntax with Parentheses

Example Description

R(?#comment) Matches "R". All the rest is a comment.

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 Pyth

R(?i)uby Case-insensitive while matching "uby".

R(?i:uby) Same as above

rub(?:y|le)) Group only without creating \1 back reference.

26
20. Python ─ CGI Programming Pyth

The Common Gateway Interface, or CGI, is a set of standards that define how
information is exchanged between the web server and a custom script. The CGI
specs are currently maintained by the NCSA and NCSA.

What is CGI?
 The Common Gateway Interface, or CGI, is a standard for external gateway
programs to interface with information servers such as HTTP servers.

 The current version is CGI/1.1 and CGI/1.2 is under progress.

Web Browsing
To understand the concept of CGI, let us see what happens when we click a hyper
link to browse a particular web page or URL.

 Your browser contacts the HTTP web server and demands for the URL, i.e.,
filename.

 Web Server parses the URL and looks for the filename. If it finds that file
then sends it back to the browser, otherwise sends an error message
indicating that you requested a wrong file.

 Web browser takes response from web server and displays either the
received file or error message.

However, it is possible to set up the HTTP server so that whenever a file in a certain
directory is requested that file is not sent back; instead it is executed as a program,
and whatever that program outputs is sent back for your browser to display. This
function is called the Common Gateway Interface or CGI and the programs are
called CGI scripts. These CGI programs can be a Python Script, PERL Script, Shell
Script, C or C++ program, etc.

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 Pyth

CGI Architecture
The CGI architecture is as follows:

Web Server Support and Configuration

Before you proceed with CGI Programming, make sure that your Web Server
supports CGI and it is configured to handle CGI Programs. All the CGI Programs to
be executed by the HTTP server are kept in a pre-configured directory. This
directory is called CGI Directory and by convention it is named as /var/www/cgi-
bin. By convention, CGI files have extension as.cgi, but you can keep your files
with python extension .py as well.

By default, the Linux server is configured to run only the scripts in the cgi-bin
directory in /var/www. If you want to specify any other directory to run your CGI
scripts, comment the following lines in the httpd.conf file:

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 Pyth

<Directory "/var/www/cgi-bin">
AllowOverride None
Options ExecCGI
Order allow,deny
Allow from all
</Directory>

<Directory "/var/www/cgi-bin">
Options All
</Directory>

Here, we assume that you have Web Server up and running successfully and you
are able to run any other CGI program like Perl or Shell, etc.

First CGI Program

Here is a simple link, which is linked to a CGI script called hello.py. This file is kept in
/var/www/cgi-bin directory and it has following content. Before running your CGI
program, make sure you have change mode of file using chmod 755 hello.py
UNIX command to make file executable.

#!/usr/bin/python

print "Content-type:text/html\r\n\r\n"
print '<html>'
print '<head>'
print '<title>Hello Word - First CGI Program</title>'
print '</head>'
print '<body>'
print '<h2>Hello Word! This is my first CGI program</h2>'
print '</body>'
print '</html>'

If you click hello.py, then this produces the following output:

Hello Word! This is my first CGI program

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 Pyth

This hello.py script is a simple Python script, which writes its output on STDOUT
file, i.e., screen. There is one important and extra feature available which is first
line to be printed Content-type:text/html\r\n\r\n. This line is sent back to the
browser and it specifies the content type to be displayed on the browser screen.

By now you must have understood basic concept of CGI and you can write many
complicated CGI programs using Python. This script can interact with any other
external system also to exchange information such as RDBMS.

HTTP Header
The line Content-type:text/html\r\n\r\n is part of HTTP header which is sent
to the browser to understand the content. All the HTTP header will be in the
following form:

HTTP Field Name: Field Content

For Example
Content-type: text/html\r\n\r\n

There are few other important HTTP headers, which you will use frequently in your
CGI Programming.

Header Description

A MIME string defining the format of the file being

Content-type:
returned. Example is Content-type:text/html

The date the information becomes invalid. It is used by

the browser to decide when a page needs to be
Expires: Date
refreshed. A valid date string is in the format 01 Jan
1998 12:00:00 GMT.

The URL that is returned instead of the URL requested.

Location: URL
You can use this field to redirect a request to any file.

Last-modified: Date The date of last modification of the resource.

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 Pyth

The length, in bytes, of the data being returned. The

Content-length: N browser uses this value to report the estimated download
time for a file.

Set-Cookie: String Set the cookie passed through the string.

CGI Environment Variables

All the CGI programs have access to the following environment variables. These
variables play an important role while writing any CGI program.

Variable Name Description

The data type of the content. Used when the client is

CONTENT_TYPE sending attached content to the server. For example, file
upload.

The length of the query information. It is available only for

CONTENT_LENGTH
POST requests.

HTTP_COOKIE Returns the set cookies in the form of key & value pair.

The User-Agent request-header field contains information

HTTP_USER_AGENT about the user agent originating the request. It is name of
the web browser.

PATH_INFO The path for the CGI script.

The URL-encoded information that is sent with GET method

QUERY_STRING
request.

The IP address of the remote host making the request. This

REMOTE_ADDR
is useful for logging or authentication.

The fully qualified name of the host making the request. If

REMOTE_HOST this information is not available, then REMOTE_ADDR can
be used to get IR address.

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 Pyth

The method used to make the request. The most common

REQUEST_METHOD
methods are GET and POST.

SCRIPT_FILENAME The full path to the CGI script.

SCRIPT_NAME The name of the CGI script.

SERVER_NAME The server's hostname or IP Address

SERVER_SOFTWARE The name and version of the software the server is running.

Here is a small CGI program to list out all the CGI variables. Click this link to see
the result Get Environment

#!/usr/bin/python

import os

print "Content-type: text/html\r\n\r\n";

print "<font size=+1>Environment</font><\br>";
for param in os.environ.keys():
print "<b>%20s</b>: %s<\br>" % (param, os.environ[param])

GET and POST Methods

You must have come across many situations when you need to pass some
information from your browser to web server and ultimately to your CGI Program.
Most frequently, browser uses two methods two pass this information to web
server. These methods are GET Method and POST Method.

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 Pyth

Passing Information using GET method:

The GET method sends the encoded user information appended to the page
request. The page and the encoded information are separated by the ? character as
follows:

http://www.test.com/cgi-bin/hello.py?key1=value1&key2=value2

The GET method is the default method to pass information from browser to web
server and it produces a long string that appears in your browser's Location:box.
Never use GET method if you have password or other sensitive information to pass
to the server. The GET method has size limtation: only 1024 characters can be sent
in a request string. The GET method sends information using QUERY_STRING
header and will be accessible in your CGI Program through QUERY_STRING
environment variable.

You can pass information by simply concatenating key and value pairs along with
any URL or you can use HTML <FORM> tags to pass information using GET method.

Simple URL Example : Get Method

Here is a simple URL, which passes two values to hello_get.py program using GET
method.
/cgi-bin/hello_get.py?first_name=ZARA&last_name=ALI

Below is hello_get.py script to handle input given by web browser. We are going
to use cgi module, which makes it very easy to access passed information:

#!/usr/bin/python

# Import modules for CGI handling

import cgi, cgitb

# Create instance of FieldStorage

form = cgi.FieldStorage()

# Get data from fields

first_name = form.getvalue('first_name')
last_name = form.getvalue('last_name')

print "Content-type:text/html\r\n\r\n"
print "<html>"

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 Pyth

print "<head>"
print "<title>Hello - Second CGI Program</title>"
print "</head>"
print "<body>"
print "<h2>Hello %s %s</h2>" % (first_name, last_name)
print "</body>"
print "</html>"

This would generate the following result:

Hello ZARA ALI

Simple FORM Example: GET Method

This example passes two values using HTML FORM and submit button. We use same
CGI script hello_get.py to handle this imput.

<form action="/cgi-bin/hello_get.py" method="get">

First Name: <input type="text" name="first_name"> <br />

Last Name: <input type="text" name="last_name" />

<input type="submit" value="Submit" />
</form>

Here is the actual output of the above form, you enter First and Last Name and then
click submit button to see the result.

First Name:
Submit
Last Name:

Bottom of Form

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 Pyth

Passing Information Using POST Method

A generally more reliable method of passing information to a CGI program is the
POST method. This packages the information in exactly the same way as GET
methods, but instead of sending it as a text string after a ? in the URL it sends it
as
a separate message. This message comes into the CGI script in the form of t
standard input.
Below is same hello_get.py script which handles GET as well as POST method.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Import modules for CGI

handling import cgi, cgitb

# Create instance of
FieldStorage form =
cgi.FieldStorage()

# Get data from fields

first_name =
form.getvalue('first_name') last_name=
form.getvalue('last_name')

print "Content-type:text/html\r\n\r\
n" print "<html>"
print "<head>"
print "<title>Hello - Second CGI
Program</title>" print "</head>"
print "<body>"
print "<h2>Hello %s %s</h2>" % (first_name,
last_name) print "</body>"
Let us take again same example as above which passes two values using HTML
FORM and submit button. We use same CGI script hello_get.py to handle this

<form action="/cgi-bin/hello_get.py" method="post">

First Name: <input type="text"
name="first_name"><br /> Last Name: <input
type="text" name="last_name" />

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 Pyth

<input type="submit" value="Submit" />

</form>

Here is the actual output of the above form. You enter First and Last Name and
then click submit button to see the result.

Fir Nam
Sub
Last Name: mit

Bottom of
Form

Passing Checkbox Data to CGI Program

Checkboxes are used when more than one option is required to be

selected. Here is example HTML code for a form with two checkboxes:

<form action="/cgi-bin/checkbox.cgi" method="POST" target="_blank">

<input type="checkbox" name="maths" value="on" /> Maths
<input type="checkbox" name="physics" value="on" /> Physics
<input type="submit" value="Select Subject" />
</form>

The result of this code is the following

Sub
Mat Physi mit

Bottom of Form
Below is checkbox.cgi script to handle input
given by browser for
button.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Import modules for CGI

handling import cgi, cgitb

# Create instance of
FieldStorage form =
cgi.FieldStorage()

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 Pyth

if form.getvalue('maths'):
math_flag = "ON"
else:
math_flag = "OFF"

if form.getvalue('physics'):
physics_flag = "ON"
else:
physics_flag = "OFF"

print "Content-type:text/html\r\n\r\n"
print "<html>"
print "<head>"
print "<title>Checkbox - Third CGI Program</title>"
print "</head>"
print "<body>"
print "<h2> CheckBox Maths is : %s</h2>" % math_flag
print "<h2> CheckBox Physics is : %s</h2>" % physics_flag
print "</body>"
print "</html>"

Passing Radio But on Data to CGI Program

Radio Buttons are used when only one option is required to be selected.

Here is example HTML code for a form with two radio buttons:

<form action="/cgi-bin/radiobutton.py" method="post" target="_blank">

<input type="radio" name="subject" value="maths" /> Maths
<input type="radio" name="subject" value="physics" /> Physics
<input type="submit" value="Select Subject" />
</form>

The result of this code is the following form:

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 Pyth

Submit
Maths Physics

Bottom of Form

Below is radiobutton.py script to handle input given by web browser for radio button:

#!/usr/bin/python

# Import modules for CGI handling

import cgi, cgitb

# Create instance of FieldStorage

form = cgi.FieldStorage()

# Get data from fields

if form.getvalue('subject'):
subject = form.getvalue('subject')
else:
subject = "Not set"

print "Content-type:text/html\r\n\r\n"
print "<html>"
print "<head>"
print "<title>Radio - Fourth CGI Program</title>"
print "</head>"
print "<body>"
print "<h2> Selected Subject is %s</h2>" % subject
print "</body>"
print "</html>"

Passing Text Area Data to CGI Program

TEXTAREA element is used when multiline text has to be passed to the CGI Program.

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 Pyth

Here is example HTML code for a form with a TEXTAREA box:

<form action="/cgi-bin/textarea.py" method="post" target="_blank">

<textarea name="textcontent" cols="40" rows="4">
Type your text here...
</textarea>
<input type="submit" value="Submit" />
</form>

The result of this code is the following form:

Submit

Bottom of Form

Below is textarea.cgi script to handle input given by web browser:

#!/usr/bin/python

# Import modules for CGI handling

import cgi, cgitb

# Create instance of FieldStorage

form = cgi.FieldStorage()

# Get data from fields

if form.getvalue('textcontent'):
text_content = form.getvalue('textcontent')
else:
text_content = "Not entered"

print "Content-type:text/html\r\n\r\n"
print "<html>"
print "<head>";
print "<title>Text Area - Fifth CGI Program</title>"
print "</head>"
print "<body>"

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 Pyth

print "<h2> Entered Text Content is %s</h2>" % text_content

print "</body>"

Passing Drop Down Box Data to CGI Program

Drop Down Box is used when we have many options available but only one or two
will be selected.

Here is example HTML code for a form with one drop down box:

<form action="/cgi-bin/dropdown.py" method="post" target="_blank">

<select name="dropdown">
<option value="Maths" selected>Maths</option>
<option value="Physics">Physics</option>
</select>
<input type="submit" value="Submit"/>
</form>

The result of this code is the following form:

Submit

Bottom of Form

Below is dropdown.py script to handle input given by web browser.

#!/usr/bin/python

# Import modules for CGI handling

import cgi, cgitb

# Create instance of FieldStorage

form = cgi.FieldStorage()

# Get data from fields

if form.getvalue('dropdown'):
subject = form.getvalue('dropdown')
else:
subject = "Not entered"

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 Pyth

print "Content-type:text/html\r\n\r\n"
print "<html>"
print "<head>"
print "<title>Dropdown Box - Sixth CGI Program</title>"
print "</head>"
print "<body>"
print "<h2> Selected Subject is %s</h2>" % subject
print "</body>"
print "</html>"

Using Cookies in CGI

HTTP protocol is a stateless protocol. For a commercial website, it is required to
maintain session information among different pages. For example, one user
registration ends after completing many pages. How to maintain user's session
information across all the web pages?

In many situations, using cookies is the most efficient method of remembering and
tracking preferences, purchases, commissions, and other information required for
better visitor experience or site statistics.

How It Works?
Your server sends some data to the visitor's browser in the form of a cookie. The
browser may accept the cookie. If it does, it is stored as a plain text record on the
visitor's hard drive. Now, when the visitor arrives at another page on your site, the
cookie is available for retrieval. Once retrieved, your server knows/remembers what
was stored.

Cookies are a plain text data record of 5 variable-length fields:

 Expires: The date the cookie will expire. If this is blank, the cookie will
expire when the visitor quits the browser.

 Domain: The domain name of your site.

 Path: The path to the directory or web page that sets the cookie. This may
be blank if you want to retrieve the cookie from any directory or page.

 Secure: If this field contains the word "secure", then the cookie may only be
retrieved with a secure server. If this field is blank, no such restriction exists.

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 Pyth

 Name=Value: Cookies are set and retrieved in the form of key and value
pairs.

Set ing up Cookies

It is very easy to send cookies to browser. These cookies are sent along with HTTP
Header before to Content-type field. Assuming you want to set UserID and
Password as cookies. Setting the cookies is done as follows:

#!/usr/bin/python

print "Set-Cookie:UserID=XYZ;\r\n"
print "Set-Cookie:Password=XYZ123;\r\
n"
print "Set-Cookie:Expires=Tuesday, 31-Dec-2007 23:12:40 GMT";\r\
n" print "Set-Cookie:Domain=www.tutorialspoint.com;\r\n"
print "Set-Cookie:Path=/perl;\n"
print "Content-type:text/html\r\n\r\
n"
From this example, you must have understood how to set cookies. We use Set-
Cookie HTTP header to set cookies.
It is optional to set cookies attributes like Expires, Domain, and Path. It is notable
that cookies are set before sending magic line "Content-type:text/html\r\n\r\
n.

Retrieving Cookies
It is very easy to retrieve all the set cookies. Cookies are stored in CGI
environment variable HTTP_COOKIE and they will have following form:

key1=value1;key2=value2;key3=value3....

Here is an example of how to retrieve

#!/usr/bin/python
# Import modules for CGI
handling from os import environ
import cgi, cgitb

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if environ.has_key('HTTP_COOKIE'):
for cookie in map(strip, split(environ['HTTP_COOKIE'], ';')):
(key, value ) = split(cookie, '=');
if key == "UserID":
user_id = value

if key == "Password":
password = value
print "User ID = %s" % user_id
print "Password = %s" % password

This produces the following result for the cookies set by above script:

User ID = XYZ
Password = XYZ123

File Upload Example

To upload a file, the HTML form must have the enctype attribute set
to multipart/form-data. The input tag with the file type creates a "Browse"
button.

<html>
<body>
<form enctype="multipart/form-data"
action="save_file.py" method="post">
<p>File: <input type="file" name="filename" /></p>
<p><input type="submit" value="Upload" /></p>
</form>
</body>
</html>

The result of this code is the following form:

File:

Reset

Bottom of Form

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 Pyth

Above example has been disabled intentionally to save people uploading file on our
server, but you can try above code with your server.

Here is the script save_file.py to handle file upload:

#!/usr/bin/python

import cgi, os
import cgitb; cgitb.enable()

form = cgi.FieldStorage()

# Get filename here.

fileitem = form['filename']

# Test if the file was uploaded

if fileitem.filename:
# strip leading path from file name to avoid
# directory traversal attacks
fn = os.path.basename(fileitem.filename)
open('/tmp/' + fn, 'wb').write(fileitem.file.read())

message = 'The file "' + fn + '" was uploaded successfully'

else:
message = 'No file was uploaded'

print """\
Content-Type: text/html\n
<html>
<body>
<p>%s</p>
</body>
</html>
""" % (message,)

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If you run the above script on Unix/Linux, then you need to take care of replacing
file separator as follows, otherwise on your windows machine above open()
statement should work fine.

fn = os.path.basename(fileitem.filename.replace("\\", "/" ))

How To Raise a "File Download" Dialog Box?

Sometimes, it is desired that you want to give option where a user can click a link
and it will pop up a "File Download" dialogue box to the user instead of displaying
actual content. This is very easy and can be achieved through HTTP header. This
HTTP header is be different from the header mentioned in previous section.

For example, if you want make a FileName file downloadable from a given link,
then its syntax is as follows:

#!/usr/bin/python

# HTTP Header
print "Content-Type:application/octet-stream; name=\"FileName\"\r\n";
print "Content-Disposition: attachment; filename=\"FileName\"\r\n\n";

# Actual File Content will go hear.

fo = open("foo.txt", "rb")

str = fo.read();
print str

# Close opend file

fo.close()

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21. Python ─ Database Access Pyth

The Python standard for database interfaces is the Python DB-API. Most Python
database interfaces adhere to this standard.

You can choose the right database for your application. Python Database API
supports a wide range of database servers such as:

 GadFly
 mSQL
 MySQL
 PostgreSQL
 Microsoft SQL Server 2000
 Informix
 Interbase
 Oracle
 Sybase

Here is the list of available Python database interfaces: Python Database Interfaces and
APIs .You must download a separate DB API module for each database you need to
access. For example, if you need to access an Oracle database as well as a MySQL
database, you must download both the Oracle and the MySQL database modules.

The DB API provides a minimal standard for working with databases using Python
structures and syntax wherever possible. This API includes the following:

 Importing the API module.

 Acquiring a connection with the database.
 Issuing SQL statements and stored procedures.
 Closing the connection

We would learn all the concepts using MySQL, so let us talk about MySQLdb module.

What is MySQLdb?
MySQLdb is an interface for connecting to a MySQL database server from Python. It
implements the Python Database API v2.0 and is built on top of the MySQL C API.

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How do I Instal MySQLdb?

Before proceeding, you make sure you have MySQLdb installed on your machine.
Just type the following in your Python script and execute it:

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

If it produces the following result, then it means MySQLdb module is not installed:

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "test.py", line 3, in <module>
import MySQLdb
ImportError: No module named MySQLdb

To install MySQLdb module, download it from MySQLdb Download page and proceed as
follows:

$ gunzip MySQL-python-1.2.2.tar.gz
$ tar -xvf MySQL-python-1.2.2.tar
$ cd MySQL-python-1.2.2
$ python setup.py build
$ python setup.py install

Note: Make sure you have root privilege to install above module.

Database Connection
Before connecting to a MySQL database, make sure of the followings:

 You have created a database TESTDB.

 You have created a table EMPLOYEE in TESTDB.
 This table has fields FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, AGE, SEX and INCOME.
 User ID "testuser" and password "test123" are set to access TESTDB.
 Python module MySQLdb is installed properly on your machine.
 You have gone through MySQL tutorial to understand MySQL Basics.

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Example
Following is the example of connecting with MySQL database "TESTDB"

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection

db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method

cursor = db.cursor()

# execute SQL query using execute() method.

cursor.execute("SELECT VERSION()")

# Fetch a single row using fetchone() method.

data = cursor.fetchone()

print "Database version : %s " % data

# disconnect from server

db.close()

While running this script, it is producing the following result in my Linux machine.

Database version : 5.0.45

If a connection is established with the datasource, then a Connection Object is

returned and saved into db for further use, otherwise db is set to None.
Next, db object is used to create a cursor object, which in turn is used to execute
SQL queries. Finally, before coming out, it ensures that database connection is
closed and resources are released.

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Creating Database Table

Once a database connection is established, we are ready to create tables or records
into the database tables using execute method of the created cursor.

Example
Let us create Database table EMPLOYEE:

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection

db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method

cursor = db.cursor()

# Drop table if it already exist using execute() method.

cursor.execute("DROP TABLE IF EXISTS EMPLOYEE")

# Create table as per requirement

sql = """CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (
FIRST_NAME CHAR(20) NOT NULL,
LAST_NAME CHAR(20),
AGE INT,
SEX CHAR(1),
INCOME FLOAT )"""

cursor.execute(sql)

# disconnect from server

db.close()

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INSERT Operation
It is required when you want to create your records into a database table.

Example
The following example executes SQL INSERT statement to create a record into
EMPLOYEE table:

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection

db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method

cursor = db.cursor()

# Prepare SQL query to INSERT a record into the database.

sql = """INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(FIRST_NAME,
LAST_NAME, AGE, SEX, INCOME)
VALUES ('Mac', 'Mohan', 20, 'M', 2000)"""
try:
# Execute the SQL command
cursor.execute(sql)
# Commit your changes in the database
db.commit()
except:
# Rollback in case there is any error
db.rollback()

# disconnect from server

db.close()

Above example can be written as follows to create SQL queries dynamically:

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 Pyth

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection

db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method

cursor = db.cursor()

# Prepare SQL query to INSERT a record into the database.

sql = "INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(FIRST_NAME, \
LAST_NAME, AGE, SEX, INCOME) \
VALUES ('%s', '%s', '%d', '%c', '%d' )" % \
('Mac', 'Mohan', 20, 'M', 2000)
try:
# Execute the SQL command
cursor.execute(sql)
# Commit your changes in the database
db.commit()
except:
# Rollback in case there is any error
db.rollback()

# disconnect from server

db.close()

Example
Following code segment is another form of execution where you can pass
parameters directly:

..................................
user_id = "test123"
password = "password"

con.execute('insert into Login values("%s", "%s")' % \

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(user_id, password))
..................................

READ Operation
READ Operation on any database means to fetch some useful information from the
database.

Once our database connection is established, you are ready to make a query into
this database. You can use either fetchone() method to fetch single
record or fetchall() method to fetch multiple values from a database table.

 fetchone(): It fetches the next row of a query result set. A result set is an
object that is returned when a cursor object is used to query a table.

 fetchall(): It fetches all the rows in a result set. If some rows have already
been extracted from the result set, then it retrieves the remaining rows from
the result set.

 rowcount: This is a read-only attribute and returns the number of rows that
were affected by an execute() method.

Example
The following procedure querries all the records from EMPLOYEE table having salary
more than 1000:

#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection

db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method

cursor = db.cursor()

# Prepare SQL query to INSERT a record into the database.

sql = "SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE \
WHERE INCOME > '%d'" % (1000)
try:

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# Execute the SQL command

cursor.execute(sql)
# Fetch all the rows in a list of lists.
results = cursor.fetchall()
for row in results:
fname = row[0]
lname = row[1]
age = row[2]
sex = row[3]
income = row[4]
# Now print fetched result
print "fname=%s,lname=%s,age=%d,sex=%s,income=%d" % \
(fname, lname, age, sex, income )
except:
print "Error: unable to fecth data"

# disconnect from server

db.close()

This will produce the following result:

fname=Mac, lname=Mohan, age=20, sex=M, income=2000

Update Operation
UPDATE Operation on any database means to update one or more records, which
are already available in the database.

The following procedure updates all the records having SEX as 'M'. Here, we
increase AGE of all the males by one year.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection

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db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method

cursor = db.cursor()

# Prepare SQL query to UPDATE required records

sql = "UPDATE EMPLOYEE SET AGE = AGE + 1
WHERE SEX = '%c'" % ('M')
try:
# Execute the SQL command
cursor.execute(sql)
# Commit your changes in the database
db.commit()
except:
# Rollback in case there is any error
db.rollback()

# disconnect from server

db.close()

DELETE Operation
DELETE operation is required when you want to delete some records from your
database. Following is the procedure to delete all the records from EMPLOYEE
where AGE is more than 20:

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

import MySQLdb

# Open database connection

db = MySQLdb.connect("localhost","testuser","test123","TESTDB" )

# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method

cursor = db.cursor()

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# Prepare SQL query to DELETE required records

sql = "DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE > '%d'" % (20)
try:
# Execute the SQL command
cursor.execute(sql)
# Commit your changes in the database
db.commit()
except:
# Rollback in case there is any error
db.rollback()

# disconnect from server

db.close()

Performing Transactions
Transactions are a mechanism that ensures data consistency. Transactions have the
following four properties:

 Atomicity: Either a transaction completes or nothing happens at all.

 Consistency: A transaction must start in a consistent state and leave the

system in a consistent state.

 Isolation: Intermediate results of a transaction are not visible outside the

current transaction.

 Durability: Once a transaction was committed, the effects are persistent,

even after a system failure.
The Python DB API 2.0 provides two methods to either commit or rollback a
transaction.

Example
You already know how to implement transactions. Here is again similar example:

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# Prepare SQL query to DELETE required records

sql = "DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE > '%d'" % (20)
try:
# Execute the SQL command
cursor.execute(sql)
# Commit your changes in the database
db.commit()
except:
# Rollback in case there is any error
db.rollback()

COMMIT Operation
Commit is the operation, which gives a green signal to database to finalize the
changes, and after this operation, no change can be reverted back.

Here is a simple example to call commit method.

db.commit()

ROLLBACK Operation
If you are not satisfied with one or more of the changes and you want to revert back
those changes completely, then use rollback() method.

Here is a simple example to call rollback() method.

db.rollback()

Disconnecting Database
To disconnect Database connection, use close() method.

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db.close()

If the connection to a database is closed by the user with the close() method, any
outstanding transactions are rolled back by the DB. However, instead of depending
on any of DB lower level implementation details, your application would be better
off calling commit or rollback explicitly.

Handling Er ors
There are many sources of errors. A few examples are a syntax error in an
executed SQL statement, a connection failure, or calling the fetch method for an
already canceled or finished statement handle.

The DB API defines a number of errors that must exist in each database module.
The following table lists these exceptions.

Exception Description

Warning Used for non-fatal issues. Must subclass StandardError.

Error Base class for errors. Must subclass StandardError.

Used for errors in the database module, not the database

InterfaceError
itself. Must subclass Error.

DatabaseError Used for errors in the database. Must subclass Error.

DataError Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to errors in the data.

Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to errors such as the

OperationalError loss of a connection to the database. These errors are
generally outside of the control of the Python scripter.

Subclass of DatabaseError for situations that would damage

IntegrityError the relational integrity, such as uniqueness constraints or
foreign keys.

Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to errors internal to the

InternalError
database module, such as a cursor no longer being active.

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Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to errors such as a

ProgrammingError bad table name and other things that can safely be blamed
on you.

Subclass of DatabaseError that refers to trying to call

NotSupportedError
unsupported functionality.

Your Python scripts should handle these errors, but before using any of the above
exceptions, make sure your MySQLdb has support for that exception. You can get
more information about them by reading the DB API 2.0 specification.

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22. Python ─ Network Programming Pyth

Python provides two levels of access to network services. At a low level, you can
access the basic socket support in the underlying operating system, which allows
you to implement clients and servers for both connection-oriented and
connectionless protocols.

Python also has libraries that provide higher-level access to specific application-
level network protocols, such as FTP, HTTP, and so on.

This chapter gives you understanding on most famous concept in Networking -

Socket Programming.

What is Sockets?
Sockets are the endpoints of a bidirectional communications channel. Sockets may
communicate within a process, between processes on the same machine, or
between processes on different continents.

Sockets may be implemented over a number of different channel types: Unix

domain sockets, TCP, UDP, and so on. The socket library provides specific classes
for handling the common transports as well as a generic interface for handling the
rest.

Sockets have their own vocabulary:

Term Description

The family of protocols that is used as the transport mechanism.

domain These values are constants such as AF_INET, PF_INET, PF_UNIX,
PF_X25, and so on.

The type of communications between the two endpoints, typically

type SOCK_STREAM for connection-oriented protocols and
SOCK_DGRAM for connectionless protocols.

Typically zero, this may be used to identify a variant of a protocol

protocol
within a domain and type.

The identifier of a network interface:

hostname A string, which can be a host name, a dotted-quad address, or an
IPV6 address in colon (and possibly dot) notation

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 Pyth

A string "<broadcast>", which specifies an INADDR_BROADCAST

address.

A zero-length string, which specifies INADDR_ANY, or

An Integer, interpreted as a binary address in host byte order.

Each server listens for clients calling on one or more ports. A port
port may be a Fixnum port number, a string containing a port
number, or the name of a service.

The socket Module

To create a socket, you must use the socket.socket() function available
in socket module, which has the general syntax:

s = socket.socket (socket_family, socket_type, protocol=0)

Here is the description of the parameters:

 socket_family: This is either AF_UNIX or AF_INET, as explained earlier.

 socket_type: This is either SOCK_STREAM or SOCK_DGRAM.
 protocol: This is usually left out, defaulting to 0.

Once you have socket object, then you can use required functions to create your
client or server program. Following is the list of functions required:

Server Socket Methods

Method Description

This method binds address (hostname, port number pair) to

s.bind()
socket.

s.listen() This method sets up and start TCP listener.

This passively accept TCP client connection, waiting until

s.accept()
connection arrives (blocking).

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Client Socket Methods

Method Description

s.connect() This method actively initiates TCP server connection.

General Socket Methods

Method Description

s.recv() This method receives TCP message

s.send() This method transmits TCP message

s.recvfrom() This method receives UDP message

s.sendto() This method transmits UDP message

s.close() This method closes socket

socket.gethostname() Returns the hostname.

A Simple Server
To write Internet servers, we use the socket function available in socket module to
create a socket object. A socket object is then used to call other functions to setup
a socket server.

Now call bind(hostname, port) function to specify a port for your service on the
given host.

Next, call the accept method of the returned object. This method waits until a client
connects to the port you specified, and then returns a connection object that
represents the connection to that client.

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#!/usr/bin/python # This is server.py file

import socket # Import socket module

s = socket.socket() # Create a socket object

host = socket.gethostname() # Get local machine name
port = 12345 # Reserve a port for your service.
s.bind((host, port)) # Bind to the port

s.listen(5) # Now wait for client connection.

while True:
c, addr = s.accept() # Establish connection with
client. print 'Got connection from', addr
c.send('Thank you for connecting')
c.close() # Close the connection

A Simple Client
Let us write a very simple client program which opens a connection to a given port
12345 and given host. This is very simple to create a socket client using
Python's socketmodule function.

The socket.connect(hosname, port ) opens a TCP connection to hostname on

the port. Once you have a socket open, you can read from it like any IO object.
When done, remember to close it, as you would close a file.

The following code is a very simple client that connects to a given host and port,
reads any available data from the socket, and then exits:

#!/usr/bin/python # This is client.py file

import socket # Import socket module

s = socket.socket() # Create a socket object

host = socket.gethostname() # Get local machine name
port = 12345 # Reserve a port for your service.

s.connect((host, port))

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print s.recv(1024)
s.close # Close the socket when done

Now run this server.py in background and then run above client.py to see the result.

# Following would start a server in background.

$ python server.py &

# Once server is started run client as follows:

$ python client.py

This would produce following result:

Got connection from ('127.0.0.1', 48437)

Thank you for connecting

Python Internet modules

A list of some important modules in Python Network/Internet programming:

Protocol Common function Port No Python module

HTTP Web pages 80 httplib, urllib, xmlrpclib

NNTP Usenet news 119 Nntplib

FTP File transfers 20 ftplib, urllib

SMTP Sending email 25 Smtplib

POP3 Fetching email 110 Poplib

IMAP4 Fetching email 143 Imaplib

Telnet Command lines 23 telnetlib

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Gopher Document transfers 70 gopherlib, urllib

Please check all the libraries mentioned above to work with FTP, SMTP, POP, and
IMAP protocols.

Further Readings
This was a quick start with Socket Programming. It is a vast subject. It is
recommended to go through the following link to find more detail:

Unix Socket Programming.

Python Socket Library and Modules.

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23. Python ─ Sending Email Pyth

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a protocol, which handles sending e-mail
and routing e-mail between mail servers.

Python provides smtplib module, which defines an SMTP client session object that
can be used to send mail to any Internet machine with an SMTP or ESMTP listener
daemon.

Here is a simple syntax to create one SMTP object, which can later be used to send
an e-mail:

import smtplib
smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP( [host [, port [, local_hostname]]] )

Here is the detail of the parameters:

 host: This is the host running your SMTP server. You can specify IP address
of the host or a domain name like tutorialspoint.com. This is optional
argument.

 port: If you are providing host argument, then you need to specify a port,
where SMTP server is listening. Usually this port would be 25.

 local_hostname: If your SMTP server is running on your local machine,

then you can specify just localhost as of this option.

An SMTP object has an instance method called sendmail, which is typically used to
do the work of mailing a message. It takes three parameters:

 The sender - A string with the address of the sender.

 The receivers - A list of strings, one for each recipient.
 The message - A message as a string formatted as specified in the various
RFCs.

Example
Here is a simple way to send one e-mail using Python script. Try it once:

30
#!/usr/bin/python
import smtplib
sender = '[email protected]'
receivers = ['[email protected]']

message = """From: From Person <[email protected]>

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 Pyth

To: To Person <[email protected]>

Subject: SMTP e-mail test

This is a test e-mail message.

"""

try:
smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
smtpObj.sendmail(sender, receivers, message)
print "Successfully sent email"
except SMTPException:
print "Error: unable to send email"

Here, you have placed a basic e-mail in message, using a triple quote, taking care
to format the headers correctly. An e-mail requires a From, To, and Subject
header, separated from the body of the e-mail with a blank line.

To send the mail you use smtpObj to connect to the SMTP server on the local
machine and then use the sendmail method along with the message, the from
address, and the destination address as parameters (even though the from and to
addresses are within the e-mail itself, these aren't always used to route mail).

If you are not running an SMTP server on your local machine, you can
use smtplib client to communicate with a remote SMTP server. Unless you are using
a webmail service (such as Hotmail or Yahoo! Mail), your e-mail provider must have
provided you with outgoing mail server details that you can supply them, as
follows:

smtplib.SMTP('mail.your-domain.com', 25)

Sending an HTML e-mail using Python

When you send a text message using Python, then all the content are treated as
simple text. Even if you include HTML tags in a text message, it is displayed as
simple text and HTML tags will not be formatted according to HTML syntax. But
Python provides option to send an HTML message as actual HTML message.

While sending an e-mail message, you can specify a Mime version, content type,
and character set to send an HTML e-mail.

Exampl

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 Pyth

Following is the example to send HTML content as an e-mail. Try it once:

#!/usr/bin/python

import smtplib

message = """From: From Person <[email protected]>

To: To Person <[email protected]>
MIME-Version: 1.0
Content-type: text/html
Subject: SMTP HTML e-mail test

This is an e-mail message to be sent in HTML format

<b>This is HTML message.</b>

<h1>This is headline.</h1>
"""

try:
smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
smtpObj.sendmail(sender, receivers, message)
print "Successfully sent email"
except SMTPException:
print "Error: unable to send email"

Sending At achments as an E-mail

To send an e-mail with mixed content requires to set Content-type header
tomultipart/mixed. Then, text and attachment sections can be specified
within boundaries.

A boundary is started with two hyphens followed by a unique number, which cannot
appear in the message part of the e-mail. A final boundary denoting the e-mail's
final section must also end with two hyphens.

Attached files should be encoded with the pack("m") function to have base64
encoding before transmission.

Exampl

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 Pyth

Following is the example, which sends a file /tmp/test.txt as an attachment. Try it

once:

#!/usr/bin/python

import smtplib
import base64

filename = "/tmp/test.txt"

# Read a file and encode it into base64 format

fo = open(filename, "rb")
filecontent = fo.read()
encodedcontent = base64.b64encode(filecontent) # base64

sender = '[email protected]'
reciever = '[email protected]'

marker = "AUNIQUEMARKER"

body ="""
This is a test email to send an attachement.
"""
# Define the main headers.
part1 = """From: From Person <[email protected]>
To: To Person <[email protected]>
Subject: Sending Attachement
MIME-Version: 1.0
Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary=%s
--%s
""" % (marker, marker)

# Define the message action

part2 = """Content-Type: text/plain
Content-Transfer-Encoding:8bit

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 Pyth

%s
--%s
""" % (body,marker)

# Define the attachment section

part3 = """Content-Type: multipart/mixed; name=\"%s\"
Content-Transfer-Encoding:base64
Content-Disposition: attachment; filename=%s

%s
--%s--
""" %(filename, filename, encodedcontent, marker)
message = part1 + part2 + part3

try:
smtpObj = smtplib.SMTP('localhost')
smtpObj.sendmail(sender, reciever, message)
print "Successfully sent email"
except Exception:
print "Error: unable to send email"

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24. Python ─ Multithreading Pyth

Running several threads is similar to running several different programs

concurrently, but with the following benefits:

 Multiple threads within a process share the same data space with the main
thread and can therefore share information or communicate with each other
more easily than if they were separate processes.

 Threads sometimes called light-weight processes and they do not require

much memory overhead; they care cheaper than processes.

A thread has a beginning, an execution sequence, and a conclusion. It has an

instruction pointer that keeps track of where within its context it is currently
running.

 It can be pre-empted (interrupted)

 It can temporarily be put on hold (also known as sleeping) while other
threads are running - this is called yielding.

Starting a New Thread

To spawn another thread, you need to call following method available
in thread module:

thread.start_new_thread ( function, args[, kwargs] )

This method call enables a fast and efficient way to create new threads in both Linux
and Windows.

The method call returns immediately and the child thread starts and calls function
with the passed list of agrs. When function returns, the thread terminates.

Here, args is a tuple of arguments; use an empty tuple to call function without
passing any arguments. kwargs is an optional dictionary of keyword arguments.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

import thread
import time

# Define a function for the thread

def print_time( threadName, delay):

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count = 0
while count < 5:
time.sleep(delay)
count += 1
print "%s: %s" % ( threadName, time.ctime(time.time()) )

# Create two threads as follows

try:
thread.start_new_thread( print_time, ("Thread-1", 2, ) )
thread.start_new_thread( print_time, ("Thread-2", 4, ) )
except:
print "Error: unable to start thread"

while 1:
pass

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:17 2009

Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:19 2009
Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:19 2009
Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:21 2009
Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:23 2009
Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:23 2009
Thread-1: Thu Jan 22 15:42:25 2009
Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:27 2009
Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:31 2009
Thread-2: Thu Jan 22 15:42:35 2009

Although it is very effective for low-level threading, but the thread module is very
limited compared to the newer threading module.

The Threading Module

The newer threading module included with Python 2.4 provides much more
powerful, high-level support for threads than the thread module discussed in the
previous section.

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The threading module exposes all the methods of the thread module and provides
some additional methods:

 threading.activeCount(): Returns the number of thread objects that are

active.

 threading.currentThread(): Returns the number of thread objects in the

caller's thread control.

 threading.enumerate(): Returns a list of all thread objects that are

currently active.

In addition to the methods, the threading module has the Thread class that
implements threading. The methods provided by the Thread class are as follows:

 run(): The run() method is the entry point for a thread.

 start(): The start() method starts a thread by calling the run method.
 join([time]): The join() waits for threads to terminate.
 isAlive(): The isAlive() method checks whether a thread is still executing.
 getName(): The getName() method returns the name of a thread.
 setName(): The setName() method sets the name of a thread.

Creating Thread Using Threading Module:

To implement a new thread using the threading module, you have to do the following:

 Define a new subclass of the Thread class.

 Override the init_(self [,args]) method to add additional arguments.
 Then, override the run(self [,args]) method to implement what the thread
should do when started.

Once you have created the new Thread subclass, you can create an instance of it
and then start a new thread by invoking the start(), which in turn calls run()
method.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

import threading

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import time

exitFlag = 0

class myThread (threading.Thread):

def init (self, threadID, name, counter):
threading.Thread. init (self)
self.threadID = threadID
self.name = name
self.counter = counter
def run(self):
print "Starting " + self.name
print_time(self.name, self.counter, 5)
print "Exiting " + self.name

def print_time(threadName, delay, counter):

while counter:
if exitFlag:
thread.exit()
time.sleep(delay)
print "%s: %s" % (threadName, time.ctime(time.time()))
counter -= 1

# Create new threads

thread1 = myThread(1, "Thread-1", 1)
thread2 = myThread(2, "Thread-2", 2)

# Start new Threads

thread1.start()
thread2.start()
print "Exiting Main Thread"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Starting Thread-1
Starting Thread-2

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Exiting Main Thread

Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:03 2013
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:04 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:04 2013
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:05 2013
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:06 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:06 2013
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:10:07 2013
Exiting Thread-1
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:08 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:10 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:10:12 2013
Exiting Thread-2

Synchronizing Threads
The threading module provided with Python includes a simple-to-implement locking
mechanism that allows you to synchronize threads. A new lock is created by calling
theLock() method, which returns the new lock.

The acquire(blocking) method of the new lock object is used to force threads to run
synchronously. The optional blocking parameter enables you to control whether the
thread waits to acquire the lock.

If blocking is set to 0, the thread returns immediately with a 0 value if the lock
cannot be acquired and with a 1 if the lock was acquired. If blocking is set to 1, the
thread blocks and wait for the lock to be released.

The release() method of the new lock object is used to release the lock when it is
no longer required.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

import threading
import time

class myThread (threading.Thread):

def init (self, threadID, name, counter):

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threading.Thread. init (self)

self.threadID = threadID
self.name = name
self.counter = counter
def run(self):
print "Starting " + self.name
# Get lock to synchronize threads
threadLock.acquire()
print_time(self.name, self.counter, 3)
# Free lock to release next thread
threadLock.release()

def print_time(threadName, delay, counter):

while counter:
time.sleep(delay)
print "%s: %s" % (threadName, time.ctime(time.time()))
counter -= 1

threadLock = threading.Lock()
threads = []

# Create new threads

thread1 = myThread(1, "Thread-1", 1)
thread2 = myThread(2, "Thread-2", 2)

# Start new Threads

thread1.start()
thread2.start()

# Add threads to thread list

threads.append(thread1)
threads.append(thread2)

# Wait for all threads to complete

for t in threads:

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t.join()
print "Exiting Main Thread"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Starting Thread-1
Starting Thread-2
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:11:28 2013
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:11:29 2013
Thread-1: Thu Mar 21 09:11:30 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:11:32 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:11:34 2013
Thread-2: Thu Mar 21 09:11:36 2013
Exiting Main Thread

Multithreaded Priority Queue

The Queue module allows you to create a new queue object that can hold a specific
number of items. There are following methods to control the Queue:

 get(): The get() removes and returns an item from the queue.

 put(): The put adds item to a queue.

 qsize() : The qsize() returns the number of items that are currently in the
queue.

 empty(): The empty( ) returns True if queue is empty; otherwise, False.

 full(): the full() returns True if queue is full; otherwise, False.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

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import Queue
import threading
import time

exitFlag = 0

class myThread (threading.Thread):

def init (self, threadID, name, q):
threading.Thread. init (self)
self.threadID = threadID
self.name = name
self.q = q
def run(self):
print "Starting " + self.name
process_data(self.name, self.q)
print "Exiting " + self.name

def process_data(threadName, q):

while not exitFlag:
queueLock.acquire()
if not workQueue.empty():
data = q.get()
queueLock.release()
print "%s processing %s" % (threadName, data)
else:
queueLock.release()
time.sleep(1)

threadList = ["Thread-1", "Thread-2", "Thread-3"]

nameList = ["One", "Two", "Three", "Four", "Five"]
queueLock = threading.Lock()
workQueue = Queue.Queue(10)
threads = []
threadID = 1

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# Create new threads

for tName in threadList:
thread = myThread(threadID, tName, workQueue)
thread.start()
threads.append(thread)
threadID += 1

# Fill the queue

queueLock.acquire()
for word in nameList:
workQueue.put(word)
queueLock.release()

# Wait for queue to empty

while not workQueue.empty():
pass

# Notify threads it's time to exit

exitFlag = 1

# Wait for all threads to complete

for t in threads:
t.join()
print "Exiting Main Thread"

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Starting Thread-1
Starting Thread-2

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Starting Thread-3
Thread-1 processing One
Thread-2 processing Two
Thread-3 processing Three
Thread-1 processing Four
Thread-2 processing Five
Exiting Thread-3
Exiting Thread-1
Exiting Thread-2
Exiting Main Thread

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25. Python ─ XML Processing Pyth

XML is a portable, open source language that allows programmers to develop

applications that can be read by other applications, regardless of operating system
and/or developmental language.

What is XML?
The Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language much like HTML or
SGML. This is recommended by the World Wide Web Consortium and available as
an open standard.

XML is extremely useful for keeping track of small to medium amounts of data
without requiring a SQL-based backbone.

XML Parser Architectures and APIs:

The Python standard library provides a minimal but useful set of interfaces to work
with XML.

The two most basic and broadly used APIs to XML data are the SAX and DOM
interfaces.

 Simple API for XML (SAX) : Here, you register callbacks for events of
interest and then let the parser proceed through the document. This is useful
when your documents are large or you have memory limitations, it parses
the file as it reads it from disk and the entire file is never stored in memory.

 Document Object Model (DOM) API : This is a World Wide Web

Consortium recommendation wherein the entire file is read into memory and
stored in a hierarchical (tree-based) form to represent all the features of an
XML document.

SAX obviously cannot process information as fast as DOM can when working with
large files. On the other hand, using DOM exclusively can really kill your resources,
especially if used on a lot of small files.

SAX is read-only, while DOM allows changes to the XML file. Since these two
different APIs literally complement each other, there is no reason why you can not
use them both for large projects.

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For all our XML code examples, let's use a simple XML file movies.xml as an
input:

<collection shelf="New Arrivals">

<movie title="Enemy Behind">
<type>War, Thriller</type>
<format>DVD</format>
<year>2003</year>
<rating>PG</rating>
<stars>10</stars>
<description>Talk about a US-Japan war</description>
</movie>
<movie title="Transformers">
<type>Anime, Science Fiction</type>
<format>DVD</format>
<year>1989</year>
<rating>R</rating>
<stars>8</stars>
<description>A schientific fiction</description>
</movie>
<movie title="Trigun">
<type>Anime, Action</type>
<format>DVD</format>
<episodes>4</episodes>
<rating>PG</rating>
<stars>10</stars>
<description>Vash the Stampede!</description>
</movie>
<movie title="Ishtar">
<type>Comedy</type>
<format>VHS</format>
<rating>PG</rating>
<stars>2</stars>
<description>Viewable boredom</description>
</movie>
</collection>

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Parsing XML with SAX APIs

SAX is a standard interface for event-driven XML parsing. Parsing XML with SAX
generally requires you to create your own ContentHandler by subclassing
xml.sax.ContentHandler.

Your ContentHandler handles the particular tags and attributes of your flavor(s) of
XML. A ContentHandler object provides methods to handle various parsing events.
Its owning parser calls ContentHandler methods as it parses the XML file.

The methods startDocument and endDocument are called at the start and the end
of the XML file. The method characters(text) is passed character data of the XML
file via the parameter text.

The ContentHandler is called at the start and end of each element. If the parser is
not in namespace mode, the methods startElement(tag, attributes) and
endElement(tag) are called; otherwise, the corresponding methods startElementNS
and endElementNS are called. Here, tag is the element tag, and attributes is an
Attributes object.

Here are other important methods to understand before proceeding:

The make_parser Method

Following method creates a new parser object and returns it. The parser object
created will be of the first parser type the system finds.

xml.sax.make_parser( [parser_list] )

Here is the detail of the parameters:

 parser_list: The optional argument consisting of a list of parsers to use

which must all implement the make_parser method.

The parse Method

Following method creates a SAX parser and uses it to parse a document.

xml.sax.parse( xmlfile, contenthandler[, errorhandler])

Here is the detail of the parameters:

 xmlfile: This is the name of the XML file to read from.

 contenthandler: This must be a ContentHandler object.
 errorhandler: If specified, errorhandler must be a SAX ErrorHandler object.

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The parseString Method

There is one more method to create a SAX parser and to parse the specified XML
string.

xml.sax.parseString(xmlstring, contenthandler[, errorhandler])

Here is the detail of the parameters:

 xmlstring: This is the name of the XML string to read from.

 contenthandler: This must be a ContentHandler object.
 errorhandler: If specified, errorhandler must be a SAX ErrorHandler object.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

import xml.sax

class MovieHandler( xml.sax.ContentHandler ):

def init__(self):
self.CurrentData = ""
self.type = ""
self.format = ""
self.year = ""
self.rating = ""
self.stars = ""
self.description = ""

# Call when an element starts

def startElement(self, tag, attributes):
self.CurrentData = tag
if tag == "movie":
print "*****Movie*****"
title = attributes["title"]
print "Title:", title

# Call when an elements ends

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def endElement(self, tag):

if self.CurrentData == "type":
print "Type:", self.type
elif self.CurrentData == "format":
print "Format:", self.format
elif self.CurrentData == "year":
print "Year:", self.year
elif self.CurrentData == "rating":
print "Rating:", self.rating
elif self.CurrentData == "stars":
print "Stars:", self.stars
elif self.CurrentData == "description":
print "Description:", self.description
self.CurrentData = ""

# Call when a character is read

def characters(self, content):
if self.CurrentData == "type":
self.type = content
elif self.CurrentData == "format":
self.format = content
elif self.CurrentData == "year":
self.year = content
elif self.CurrentData == "rating":
self.rating = content
elif self.CurrentData == "stars":
self.stars = content
elif self.CurrentData == "description":
self.description = content

if ( name == " main "): # create an

XMLReader parser = xml.sax.make_parser()
# turn off namepsaces
parser.setFeature(xml.sax.handler.feature_namespaces, 0)

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# override the default ContextHandler

Handler = MovieHandler()
parser.setContentHandler( Handler )

parser.parse("movies.xml")

This would produce following result:

*****Movie*****
Title: Enemy Behind
Type: War, Thriller
Format: DVD
Year: 2003
Rating: PG
Stars: 10
Description: Talk about a US-Japan war
*****Movie*****
Title: Transformers
Type: Anime, Science Fiction
Format: DVD
Year: 1989
Rating: R
Stars: 8
Description: A schientific fiction
*****Movie*****
Title: Trigun
Type: Anime, Action
Format: DVD
Rating: PG
Stars: 10
Description: Vash the Stampede!
*****Movie*****
Title: Ishtar
Type: Comedy
Format: VHS
Rating: PG

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Stars: 2
Description: Viewable boredom

For a complete detail on SAX API documentation, please refer to standard Python SAX
APIs.

Parsing XML with DOM APIs

The Document Object Model (DOM) is a cross-language API from the World Wide
Web Consortium (W3C) for accessing and modifying XML documents.

The DOM is extremely useful for random-access applications. SAX only allows you a
view of one bit of the document at a time. If you are looking at one SAX element,
you have no access to another.

Here is the easiest way to quickly load an XML document and to create a minidom
object using the xml.dom module. The minidom object provides a simple parser
method that quickly creates a DOM tree from the XML file.

The sample phrase calls the parse( file [,parser] ) function of the minidom object to
parse the XML file designated by file into a DOM tree object.

#!/usr/bin/python

from xml.dom.minidom import parse

import xml.dom.minidom

# Open XML document using minidom parser

DOMTree = xml.dom.minidom.parse("movies.xml")
collection = DOMTree.documentElement
if collection.hasAttribute("shelf"):
print "Root element : %s" % collection.getAttribute("shelf")

# Get all the movies in the collection

movies = collection.getElementsByTagName("movie")

# Print detail of each movie.

for movie in movies:
print "*****Movie*****"
if movie.hasAttribute("title"):

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print "Title: %s" % movie.getAttribute("title")

type = movie.getElementsByTagName('type')[0]
print "Type: %s" % type.childNodes[0].data
format = movie.getElementsByTagName('format')[0]
print "Format: %s" % format.childNodes[0].data
rating = movie.getElementsByTagName('rating')[0]
print "Rating: %s" % rating.childNodes[0].data
description = movie.getElementsByTagName('description')[0]
print "Description: %s" % description.childNodes[0].data

This would produce the following result:

Root element : New Arrivals

*****Movie*****
Title: Enemy Behind
Type: War, Thriller
Format: DVD
Rating: PG
Description: Talk about a US-Japan war
*****Movie*****
Title: Transformers
Type: Anime, Science Fiction
Format: DVD
Rating: R
Description: A schientific fiction
*****Movie*****
Title: Trigun
Type: Anime, Action
Format: DVD
Rating: PG
Description: Vash the Stampede!
*****Movie*****
Title: Ishtar
Type: Comedy
Format: VHS

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Rating: PG
Description: Viewable boredom

For a complete detail on DOM API documentation, please refer to standard Python
DOM APIs.

33
26. Python ─ GUI Programming Pyth

Python provides various options for developing graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
Most important are listed below:

 Tkinter: Tkinter is the Python interface to the Tk GUI toolkit shipped with
Python. We would look this option in this chapter.

 wxPython: This is an open-source Python interface for

wxWindowshttp://wxpython.org.

 JPython: JPython is a Python port for Java which gives Python scripts
seamless access to Java class libraries on the local
machine http://www.jython.org.

There are many other interfaces available, which you can find them on the net.

Tkinter Programming
Tkinter is the standard GUI library for Python. Python when combined with Tkinter
provides a fast and easy way to create GUI applications. Tkinter provides a powerful
object-oriented interface to the Tk GUI toolkit.

Creating a GUI application using Tkinter is an easy task. All you need to do is
perform the following steps:

 Import the Tkinter module.

 Create the GUI application main window.
 Add one or more of the above-mentioned widgets to the GUI application.
 Enter the main event loop to take action against each event triggered by the
user.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python

import Tkinter
top = Tkinter.Tk()
# Code to add widgets will go here...
top.mainloop()

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This would create the following window:

Tkinter Widgets
Tkinter provides various controls, such as buttons, labels and text boxes used in a
GUI application. These controls are commonly called widgets.

There are currently 15 types of widgets in Tkinter. We present these widgets as well
as a brief description in the following table:

Operator Description

Button The Button widget is used to display buttons in your application.

The Canvas widget is used to draw shapes, such as lines, ovals,

Canvas
polygons and rectangles, in your application.

The Checkbutton widget is used to display a number of options as

Checkbutton
checkboxes. The user can select multiple options at a time.

The Entry widget is used to display a single-line text field for

Entry
accepting values from a user.

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The Frame widget is used as a container widget to organize other

Frame
widgets.

The Label widget is used to provide a single-line caption for other

Label
widgets. It can also contain images.

Listbox The Listbox widget is used to provide a list of options to a user.

The Menubutton widget is used to display menus in your

Menubutton
application.

The Menu widget is used to provide various commands to a user.

Menu
These commands are contained inside Menubutton.

The Message widget is used to display multiline text fields for

Message
accepting values from a user.

The Radiobutton widget is used to display a number of options as

Radiobutton
radio buttons. The user can select only one option at a time.

Scale The Scale widget is used to provide a slider widget.

The Scrollbar widget is used to add scrolling capability to various

Scrollbar
widgets, such as list boxes.

Text The Text widget is used to display text in multiple lines.

Toplevel The Toplevel widget is used to provide a separate window

container.
The Spinbox widget is a variant of the standard Tkinter Entry
Spinbox
widget, which can be used to select from a fixed number of values.

A PanedWindow is a container widget that may contain any number

PanedWindow
of panes, arranged horizontally or vertically.

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A labelframe is a simple container widget. Its primary purpose is to

LabelFrame
act as a spacer or container for complex window layouts.

tkMessageBox This module is used to display message boxes in your applications.

But on
The Button widget is used to add buttons in a Python application. These buttons can
display text or images that convey the purpose of the buttons. You can attach a
function or a method to a button which is called automatically when you click the
button.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Button ( master, option=value, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

activebackground Background color when the button is under the cursor.

activeforeground Foreground color when the button is under the cursor.

bd Border width in pixels. Default is 2.

bg Normal background color.

command Function or method to be called when the button is clicked.

fg Normal foreground (text) color.

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 Pyth

font Text font to be used for the button's label.

Height of the button in text lines (for textual buttons) or pixels

height
(for images).

highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the widget has focus.

image Image to be displayed on the button (instead of text).

How to show multiple text lines: LEFT to left-justify each line;

justify
CENTER to center them; or RIGHT to right-justify.

padx Additional padding left and right of the text.

pady Additional padding above and below the text.

Relief specifies the type of the border. Some of the values are
relief
SUNKEN, RAISED, GROOVE, and RIDGE.

Set this option to DISABLED to gray out the button and make
state it unresponsive. Has the value ACTIVE when the mouse is
over it. Default is NORMAL.

Default is -1, meaning that no character of the text on the

underline button will be underlined. If nonnegative, the corresponding
text character will be underlined.

Width of the button in letters (if displaying text) or pixels (if

width
displaying an image).

If this value is set to a positive number, the text lines will be

wraplength
wrapped to fit within this length.

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Methods
Following are commonly used methods for this widget:

Medthod Description

Causes the button to flash several times between active and

flash() normal colors. Leaves the button in the state it was in originally.
Ignored if the button is disabled.

Calls the button's callback, and returns what that function returns.
invoke()
Has no effect if the button is disabled or there is no callback.

Example
Try the following example yourself:

import Tkinter
import tkMessageBox
top = Tkinter.Tk()

def helloCallBack():
tkMessageBox.showinfo( "Hello Python", "Hello World")

B = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="Hello", command = helloCallBack)

B.pack()
top.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

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Canvas
The Canvas is a rectangular area intended for drawing pictures or other complex
layouts. You can place graphics, text, widgets2. or frames on a Canvas.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Canvas ( master, option=value, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

bd Border width in pixels. Default is 2.

bg Normal background color.

If true (the default), the canvas cannot be scrolled outside of

confine
the scrollregion.

cursor Cursor used in the canvas like arrow, circle, dot etc.

height Size of the canvas in the Y dimension.

highlightcolor Color shown in the focus highlight.

Relief specifies the type of the border. Some of the values are
relief
SUNKEN, RAISED, GROOVE, and RIDGE.

A tuple (w, n, e, s) that defines over how large an area the

scrollregion canvas can be scrolled, where w is the left side, n the top, e
the right side, and s the bottom.

width Size of the canvas in the X dimension.

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If you set this option to some positive dimension, the canvas

can be positioned only on multiples of that distance, and the
xscrollincrement
value will be used for scrolling by scrolling units, such as when
the user clicks on the arrows at the ends of a scrollbar.

If the canvas is scrollable, this attribute should be the .set()

xscrollcommand
method of the horizontal scrollbar.

yscrollincrement Works like xscrollincrement, but governs vertical movement.

If the canvas is scrollable, this attribute should be the .set()

yscrollcommand
method of the vertical scrollbar.

The Canvas widget can support the following standard items:

arc . Creates an arc item, which can be a chord, a pieslice or a simple arc.

coord = 10, 50, 240, 210

arc = canvas.create_arc(coord, start=0, extent=150, fill="blue")

image . Creates an image item, which can be an instance of either the

BitmapImage or the PhotoImage classes.

filename = PhotoImage(file = "sunshine.gif")

image = canvas.create_image(50, 50, anchor=NE, image=filename)

line . Creates a line item.

line = canvas.create_line(x0, y0, x1, y1, ..., xn, yn, options)

oval . Creates a circle or an ellipse at the given coordinates. It takes two pairs of
coordinates; the top left and bottom right corners of the bounding rectangle for the
oval.

oval = canvas.create_oval(x0, y0, x1, y1, options)

polygon . Creates a polygon item that must have at least three vertices.

oval = canvas.create_polygon(x0, y0, x1, y1,...xn, yn, options)

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Example
Try the following example yourself:

import Tkinter
import tkMessageBox

top = Tkinter.Tk()

C = Tkinter.Canvas(top, bg="blue", height=250, width=300)

coord = 10, 50, 240, 210

arc = C.create_arc(coord, start=0, extent=150, fill="red")

C.pack()
top.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Checkbut on
The Checkbutton widget is used to display a number of options to a user as toggle
buttons. The user can then select one or more options by clicking the button
corresponding to each option.

You can also display images in place of text.

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Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Checkbutton ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

activebackground Background color when the checkbutton is under the cursor.

activeforeground Foreground color when the checkbutton is under the cursor.

The normal background color displayed behind the label and

bg
indicator.

bitmap To display a monochrome image on a button.

bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2

pixels.
A procedure to be called every time the user changes the
command
state of this checkbutton.

If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the
cursor mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the
checkbutton.

The foreground color used to render the text of a disabled

disabledforeground checkbutton. The default is a stippled version of the default
foreground color.

font The font used for the text.

fg The color used to render the text.

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height The number of lines of text on the checkbutton. Default is 1.

The color of the focus highlight when the checkbutton has the
highlightcolor
focus.

image To display a graphic image on the button.

If the text contains multiple lines, this option controls how

justify
the text is justified: CENTER, LEFT, or RIGHT.

Normally, a checkbutton's associated control variable will be

offvalue set to 0 when it is cleared (off). You can supply an alternate
value for the off state by setting offvalue to that value.

Normally, a checkbutton's associated control variable will be

onvalue set to 1 when it is set (on). You can supply an alternate
value for the on state by setting onvalue to that value.

How much space to leave to the left and right of the

padx
checkbutton and text. Default is 1 pixel.

How much space to leave above and below the checkbutton

pady
and text. Default is 1 pixel.

With the default value, relief=FLAT, the checkbutton does

relief not stand out from its background. You may set this option
to any of the other styles

The color of the checkbutton when it is set. Default is

selectcolor
selectcolor="red".

If you set this option to an image, that image will appear in

selectimage
the checkbutton when it is set.

The default is state=NORMAL, but you can use

state=DISABLED to gray out the control and make it
state
unresponsive. If the cursor is currently over the
checkbutton, the state is ACTIVE.

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The label displayed next to the checkbutton. Use newlines

text
("\n") to display multiple lines of text.

With the default value of -1, none of the characters of the

text label are underlined. Set this option to the index of a
underline
character in the text (counting from zero) to underline that
character.

The control variable that tracks the current state of the

checkbutton. Normally this variable is an IntVar, and 0
variable
means cleared and 1 means set, but see the offvalue and
onvalue options above.

The default width of a checkbutton is determined by the size

of the displayed image or text. You can set this option to a
width
number of characters and the checkbutton will always have
room for that many characters.

Normally, lines are not wrapped. You can set this option to a
wraplength number of characters and all lines will be broken into pieces
no longer than that number.

Methods
Following are commonly used methods for this widget:

Medthod Description

deselect() Clears (turns off) the checkbutton.

Flashes the checkbutton a few times between its active and

flash()
normal colors, but leaves it the way it started.

You can call this method to get the same actions that would occur
invoke()
if the user clicked on the checkbutton to change its state.

select() Sets (turns on) the checkbutton.

toggle() Clears the checkbutton if set, sets it if cleared.

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Example
Try the following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

import tkMessageBox
import Tkinter

top = Tkinter.Tk()
CheckVar1 = IntVar()
CheckVar2 = IntVar()
C1 = Checkbutton(top, text = "Music", variable = CheckVar1, \
onvalue = 1, offvalue = 0, height=5, \
width = 20)
C2 = Checkbutton(top, text = "Video", variable = CheckVar2, \
onvalue = 1, offvalue = 0, height=5, \
width = 20)
C1.pack()
C2.pack()
top.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Entry
The Entry widget is used to accept single-line text strings from a user.

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 If you want to display multiple lines of text that can be edited, then you
should use the Text widget.

 If you want to display one or more lines of text that cannot be modified by
the user, then you should use the Label widget.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Entry( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

The normal background color displayed behind the label and

bg
indicator.

bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels.

A procedure to be called every time the user changes the

command
state of this checkbutton.

If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the
cursor mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the
checkbutton.

font The font used for the text.

By default, if you select text within an Entry widget, it is

exportselection automatically exported to the clipboard. To avoid this
exportation, use exportselection=0.

fg The color used to render the text.

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The color of the focus highlight when the checkbutton has the
highlightcolor
focus.

If the text contains multiple lines, this option controls how the
justify
text is justified: CENTER, LEFT, or RIGHT.

With the default value, relief=FLAT, the checkbutton does not

relief stand out from its background. You may set this option to any
of the other styles

selectbackground The background color to use displaying selected text.

The width of the border to use around selected text. The

selectborderwidth
default is one pixel.

selectforeground The foreground (text) color of selected text.

Normally, the characters that the user types appear in the

show entry. To make a .password. entry that echoes each
character as an asterisk, set show="*".

The default is state=NORMAL, but you can use

state=DISABLED to gray out the control and make it
state
unresponsive. If the cursor is currently over the checkbutton,
the state is ACTIVE.

In order to be able to retrieve the current text from your

textvariable entry widget, you must set this option to an instance of the
StringVar class.

The default width of a checkbutton is determined by the size

of the displayed image or text. You can set this option to a
width
number of characters and the checkbutton will always have
room for that many characters.

If you expect that users will often enter more text than the
xscrollcommand onscreen size of the widget, you can link your entry widget to
a scrollbar.

Methods

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Following are commonly used methods for this widget:

Medthod Description

Deletes characters from the widget, starting with

the one at index first, up to but not including the
delete ( first, last=None ) character at position last. If the second argument
is omitted, only the single character at position
first is deleted.

get() Returns the entry's current text as a string.

Set the insertion cursor just before the character

icursor ( index )
at the given index.

Shift the contents of the entry so that the

character at the given index is the leftmost
index ( index )
visible character. Has no effect if the text fits
entirely within the entry.

Inserts string s before the character at the given

insert ( index, s )
index.

This method is used to make sure that the

select_adjust ( index ) selection includes the character at the specified
index.

Clears the selection. If there isn't currently a

select_clear()
selection, has no effect.

Sets the ANCHOR index position to the character

select_from ( index )
selected by index, and selects that character.

If there is a selection, returns true, else returns

select_present()
false.

select_range ( start, end ) Sets the selection under program control. Selects
the text starting at the start index, up to but not

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including the character at the end index. The

start position must be before the end position.

Selects all the text from the ANCHOR position up

select_to ( index ) to but not including the character at the given
index.

This method is useful in linking the Entry widget

xview ( index )
to a horizontal scrollbar.

Used to scroll the entry horizontally. The what

argument must be either UNITS, to scroll by
character widths, or PAGES, to scroll by chunks
xview_scroll ( number, what )
the size of the entry widget. The number is
positive to scroll left to right, negative to scroll
right to left.

Example
Try the following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

top = Tk()
L1 = Label(top, text="User Name")
L1.pack( side = LEFT)
E1 = Entry(top, bd =5)

E1.pack(side = RIGHT)

top.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

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Frame
The Frame widget is very important for the process of grouping and organizing
other widgets in a somehow friendly way. It works like a container, which is
responsible for arranging the position of other widgets.

It uses rectangular areas in the screen to organize the layout and to provide
padding of these widgets. A frame can also be used as a foundation class to
implement complex widgets.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Frame ( master, option, ... )

Parameters:
 master: This represents the parent window.
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

The normal background color displayed behind the label and

bg
indicator.

The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2

bd
pixels.

If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.),

cursor the mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is
over the checkbutton.

height The vertical dimension of the new frame.

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Color of the focus highlight when the frame does not have
highlightbackground
focus.

Color shown in the focus highlight when the frame has the
highlightcolor
focus.

highlightthickness Thickness of the focus highlight.

With the default value, relief=FLAT, the checkbutton does

relief not stand out from its background. You may set this option
to any of the other styles

The default width of a checkbutton is determined by the

size of the displayed image or text. You can set this option
width
to a number of characters and the checkbutton will always
have room for that many characters.

Example
Try the following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

root = Tk()
frame = Frame(root)
frame.pack()

bottomframe = Frame(root)
bottomframe.pack( side = BOTTOM )

redbutton = Button(frame, text="Red", fg="red")

redbutton.pack( side = LEFT)

greenbutton = Button(frame, text="Brown", fg="brown")

greenbutton.pack( side = LEFT )

bluebutton = Button(frame, text="Blue", fg="blue")

bluebutton.pack( side = LEFT )

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blackbutton = Button(bottomframe, text="Black", fg="black")

blackbutton.pack( side = BOTTOM)

root.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result::

Label
This widget implements a display box where you can place text or images. The text
displayed by this widget can be updated at any time you want.

It is also possible to underline part of the text (like to identify a keyboard shortcut)
and span the text across multiple lines.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Label ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

This options controls where the text is positioned if the widget

anchor has more space than the text needs. The default is
anchor=CENTER, which centers the text in the available space.

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The normal background color displayed behind the label and

bg
indicator.

Set this option equal to a bitmap or image object and the label will
bitmap
display that graphic.

bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels.

If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the
cursor
mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the
checkbutton.
If you are displaying text in this label (with the text or
font textvariable option, the font option specifies in what font that
text will be displayed.

If you are displaying text or a bitmap in this label, this option

specifies the color of the text. If you are displaying a bitmap, this
fg
is the color that will appear at the position of the 1-bits in the
bitmap.

height The vertical dimension of the new frame.

To display a static image in the label widget, set this option to an

image
image object.

Specifies how multiple lines of text will be aligned with respect to

justify each other: LEFT for flush left, CENTER for centered (the
default), or RIGHT for right-justified.

Extra space added to the left and right of the text within the
padx
widget. Default is 1.

Extra space added above and below the text within the widget.
pady
Default is 1.

Specifies the appearance of a decorative border around the label.

relief
The default is FLAT; for other values.

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To display one or more lines of text in a label widget, set this

text option to a string containing the text. Internal newlines ("\n") will
force a line break.

To slave the text displayed in a label widget to a control variable

textvariable
of class StringVar, set this option to that variable.

You can display an underline (_) below the nth letter of the text,
underline counting from 0, by setting this option to n. The default is
underline=-1, which means no underlining.

Width of the label in characters (not pixels!). If this option is not

width
set, the label will be sized to fit its contents.

You can limit the number of characters in each line by setting this
wraplength option to the desired number. The default value, 0, means that
lines will be broken only at newlines.

Example
Try the following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

root = Tk()

var = StringVar()
label = Label( root, textvariable=var, relief=RAISED )

var.set("Hey!? How are you doing?")

label.pack()
root.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

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Listbox
The Listbox widget is used to display a list of items from which a user can select a
number of items

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Listbox ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

The normal background color displayed behind the label and

bg
indicator.

bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2

pixels.
cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the listbox.

font The font used for the text in the listbox.

fg The color used for the text in the listbox.

Number of lines (not pixels!) shown in the listbox. Default is

height
10.

Color shown in the focus highlight when the widget has the
highlightcolor
focus.

highlightthickness Thickness of the focus highlight.

Selects three-dimensional border shading effects. The default

relief
is SUNKEN.

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selectbackground The background color to use displaying selected text.

Determines how many items can be selected, and how

mouse drags affect the selection:

BROWSE: Normally, you can only select one line out of a

listbox. If you click on an item and then drag to a different
line, the selection will follow the mouse. This is the default.

selectmode SINGLE: You can only select one line, and you can't drag the
mouse.wherever you click button 1, that line is selected.

MULTIPLE: You can select any number of lines at once.

Clicking on any line toggles whether or not it is selected.

EXTENDED: You can select any adjacent group of lines at

once by clicking on the first line and dragging to the last
line.
width The width of the widget in characters. The default is 20.

If you want to allow the user to scroll the listbox horizontally,

xscrollcommand
you can link your listbox widget to a horizontal scrollbar.

If you want to allow the user to scroll the listbox vertically,

yscrollcommand
you can link your listbox widget to a vertical scrollbar.

Methods
Methods on listbox objects include:

Option Description

activate ( index ) Selects the line specifies by the given index.

Returns a tuple containing the line numbers of

curselection() the selected element or elements, counting from
0. If nothing is selected, returns an empty tuple.

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Deletes the lines whose indices are in the range

delete ( first, last=None ) [first, last]. If the second argument is omitted,
the single line with index first is deleted.

Returns a tuple containing the text of the lines

with indices from first to last, inclusive. If the
get ( first, last=None )
second argument is omitted, returns the text of
the line closest to first.

If possible, positions the visible part of the listbox

index ( i ) so that the line containing index i is at the top of
the widget.

Insert one or more new lines into the listbox

before the line specified by index. Use END as the
insert ( index, *elements )
first argument if you want to add new lines to the
end of the listbox.

Return the index of the visible line closest to the

nearest ( y )
y-coordinate y relative to the listbox widget.

Adjust the position of the listbox so that the line

see ( index )
referred to by index is visible.

size() Returns the number of lines in the listbox.

To make the listbox horizontally scrollable, set

xview() the command option of the associated horizontal
scrollbar to this method.

Scroll the listbox so that the leftmost fraction of

xview_moveto ( fraction ) the width of its longest line is outside the left side
of the listbox. Fraction is in the range [0,1].

Scrolls the listbox horizontally. For the what

xview_scroll ( number, what ) argument, use either UNITS to scroll by
characters, or PAGES to scroll by pages, that is,
by

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the width of the listbox. The number argument

tells how many to scroll.

To make the listbox vertically scrollable, set the

yview() command option of the associated vertical
scrollbar to this method.

Scroll the listbox so that the top fraction of the

yview_moveto ( fraction ) width of its longest line is outside the left side of
the listbox. Fraction is in the range [0,1].

Scrolls the listbox vertically. For the what

argument, use either UNITS to scroll by lines, or
yview_scroll ( number, what ) PAGES to scroll by pages, that is, by the height of
the listbox. The number argument tells how
many to scroll.

Example
Try the following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

import tkMessageBox
import Tkinter

top = Tk()

Lb1 = Listbox(top)
Lb1.insert(1, "Python")
Lb1.insert(2, "Perl")
Lb1.insert(3, "C")
Lb1.insert(4, "PHP")
Lb1.insert(5, "JSP")
Lb1.insert(6, "Ruby")

Lb1.pack()
top.mainloop()

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When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

MenuBut on
A menubutton is the part of a drop-down menu that stays on the screen all the
time. Every menubutton is associated with a Menu widget that can display the
choices for that menubutton when the user clicks on it.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Menubutton ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

The background color when the mouse is over the

activebackground
menubutton.

The foreground color when the mouse is over the

activeforeground
menubutton.

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This options controls where the text is positioned if the

anchor widget has more space than the text needs. The default is
anchor=CENTER, which centers the text.

The normal background color displayed behind the label and

bg
indicator.

To display a bitmap on the menubutton, set this option to a

bitmap
bitmap name.

The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2

bd
pixels.

The cursor that appears when the mouse is over this

cursor
menubutton.

Set direction=LEFT to display the menu to the left of the

button; use direction=RIGHT to display the menu to the
direction
right of the button; or use direction='above' to place the
menu above the button.

The foreground color shown on this menubutton when it is

disabledforeground
disabled.

The foreground color when the mouse is not over the

fg
menubutton.

The height of the menubutton in lines of text (not pixels!).

height
The default is to fit the menubutton's size to its contents.

Color shown in the focus highlight when the widget has the
highlightcolor
focus.

image To display an image on this menubutton,

justify This option controls where the text is located when the text
doesn't fill the menubutton: use justify=LEFT to left-justify

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the text (this is the default); use justify=CENTER to center it,

or justify=RIGHT to right-justify.

To associate the menubutton with a set of choices, set this

option to the Menu object containing those choices. That
menu menu object must have been created by passing the
associated menubutton to the constructor as its first
argument.

How much space to leave to the left and right of the text of
padx
the menubutton. Default is 1.

How much space to leave above and below the text of the
pady
menubutton. Default is 1.

Selects three-dimensional border shading effects. The default

relief
is RAISED.

Normally, menubuttons respond to the mouse. Set

state state=DISABLED to gray out the menubutton and make it
unresponsive.

To display text on the menubutton, set this option to the

text string containing the desired text. Newlines ("\n") within the
string will cause line breaks.

You can associate a control variable of class StringVar with

textvariable this menubutton. Setting that control variable will change
the displayed text.

Normally, no underline appears under the text on the

underline menubutton. To underline one of the characters, set this
option to the index of that character.

width The width of the widget in characters. The default is 20.

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Normally, lines are not wrapped. You can set this option to a
wraplength number of characters and all lines will be broken into pieces
no longer than that number.

Example
Try the following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

import tkMessageBox
import Tkinter

top = Tk()

mb= Menubutton ( top, text="condiments", relief=RAISED )

mb.grid()
mb.menu = Menu ( mb, tearoff = 0 )
mb["menu"] = mb.menu

mayoVar = IntVar()
ketchVar = IntVar()

mb.menu.add_checkbutton ( label="mayo",
variable=mayoVar )
mb.menu.add_checkbutton ( label="ketchup",
variable=ketchVar )

mb.pack()
top.mainloop()

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When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Menu
The goal of this widget is to allow us to create all kinds of menus that can be used
by our applications. The core functionality provides ways to create three menu
types: pop-up, toplevel and pull-down.

It is also possible to use other extended widgets to implement new types of menus,
such as the OptionMenu widget, which implements a special type that generates a
pop-up list of items within a selection.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Menu ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

The background color that will appear on a choice when it is

activebackground
under the mouse.

Specifies the width of a border drawn around a choice when

activeborderwidth
it is under the mouse. Default is 1 pixel.

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The foreground color that will appear on a choice when it is

activeforeground
under the mouse.

bg The background color for choices not under the mouse.

bd The width of the border around all the choices. Default is 1.

The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the choices,
cursor
but only when the menu has been torn off.

disabledforeground The color of the text for items whose state is DISABLED.

font The default font for textual choices.

fg The foreground color used for choices not under the mouse.

You can set this option to a procedure, and that procedure

postcommand
will be called every time someone brings up this menu.

relief The default 3-D effect for menus is relief=RAISED.

image To display an image on this menubutton.

Specifies the color displayed in checkbuttons and

selectcolor
radiobuttons when they are selected.

Normally, a menu can be torn off, the first position (position

0) in the list of choices is occupied by the tear-off element,
tearoff and the additional choices are added starting at position 1.
If you set tearoff=0, the menu will not have a tear-off
feature, and choices will be added starting at position 0.

Normally, the title of a tear-off menu window will be the

same as the text of the menubutton or cascade that lead to
title
this menu. If you want to change the title of that window,
set the title option to that string.

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Methods
These methods are available on Menu objects:

Option Description

add_command (options) Adds a menu item to the menu.

add_radiobutton( options ) Creates a radio button menu item.

add_checkbutton( options ) Creates a check button menu item.

Creates a new hierarchical menu by associating

add_cascade(options)
a given menu to a parent menu

add_separator() Adds a separator line to the menu.

add( type, options ) Adds a specific type of menu item to the menu.

Deletes the menu items ranging from startindex

delete( startindex [, endindex ])
to endindex.

Allows you to modify a menu item, which is

entryconfig( index, options )
identified by the index, and change its options.

Returns the index number of the given menu

index(item)
item label.

Insert a new separator at the position specified

insert_separator ( index )
by index.

Calls the command callback associated with the

choice at position index. If a checkbutton, its
invoke ( index )
state is toggled between set and cleared; if a
radiobutton, that choice is set.

Returns the type of the choice specified by

index: either "cascade", "checkbutton",
type ( index )
"command", "radiobutton", "separator", or
"tearoff".

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Example
Try the following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

def donothing():
filewin = Toplevel(root)
button = Button(filewin, text="Do nothing button")
button.pack()

root = Tk()
menubar = Menu(root)
filemenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0)
filemenu.add_command(label="New", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Open", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Save", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Save as...", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Close", command=donothing)

filemenu.add_separator()

filemenu.add_command(label="Exit", command=root.quit)
menubar.add_cascade(label="File", menu=filemenu)
editmenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0)
editmenu.add_command(label="Undo", command=donothing)

editmenu.add_separator()

editmenu.add_command(label="Cut", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Copy", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Paste", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Delete", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Select All", command=donothing)

menubar.add_cascade(label="Edit", menu=editmenu)
helpmenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0)
helpmenu.add_command(label="Help Index", command=donothing)

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helpmenu.add_command(label="About...", command=donothing)
menubar.add_cascade(label="Help", menu=helpmenu)

root.config(menu=menubar)
root.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Message
This widget provides a multiline and noneditable object that displays texts,
automatically breaking lines and justifying their contents.

Its functionality is very similar to the one provided by the Label widget, except that
it can also automatically wrap the text, maintaining a given width or aspect ratio.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Message ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
1. master: This represents the parent window.
2. options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

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Option Description

This options controls where the text is positioned if the widget

anchor has more space than the text needs. The default is
anchor=CENTER, which centers the text in the available space.

The normal background color displayed behind the label and

bg
indicator.

Set this option equal to a bitmap or image object and the label will
bitmap
display that graphic.

bd The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2 pixels.

If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.), the
cursor
mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is over the
checkbutton.
If you are displaying text in this label (with the text or
font textvariable option, the font option specifies in what font that
text will be displayed.

If you are displaying text or a bitmap in this label, this option

specifies the color of the text. If you are displaying a bitmap, this
fg
is the color that will appear at the position of the 1-bits in the
bitmap.

height The vertical dimension of the new frame.

To display a static image in the label widget, set this option to an

image
image object.

Specifies how multiple lines of text will be aligned with respect to

justify each other: LEFT for flush left, CENTER for centered (the
default), or RIGHT for right-justified.

Extra space added to the left and right of the text within the
padx
widget. Default is 1.

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Extra space added above and below the text within the widget.
pady
Default is 1.

Specifies the appearance of a decorative border around the label.

relief
The default is FLAT; for other values.

To display one or more lines of text in a label widget, set this

text option to a string containing the text. Internal newlines ("\n") will
force a line break.

To slave the text displayed in a label widget to a control variable

textvariable
of class StringVar, set this option to that variable.

You can display an underline (_) below the nth letter of the text,
underline counting from 0, by setting this option to n. The default is
underline=-1, which means no underlining.

Width of the label in characters (not pixels!). If this option is not

width
set, the label will be sized to fit its contents.

You can limit the number of characters in each line by setting this
wraplength option to the desired number. The default value, 0, means that
lines will be broken only at newlines.

Example
Try the following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

root = Tk()

var = StringVar()
label = Message( root, textvariable=var, relief=RAISED )

var.set("Hey!? How are you doing?")

label.pack()
root.mainloop()

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When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Radiobut on
This widget implements a multiple-choice button, which is a way to offer many
possible selections to the user and lets user choose only one of them.

In order to implement this functionality, each group of radiobuttons must be

associated to the same variable and each one of the buttons must symbolize a
single value. You can use the Tab key to switch from one radionbutton to another.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Radiobutton ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

The background color when the mouse is over the

activebackground
radiobutton.

The foreground color when the mouse is over the

activeforeground
radiobutton.

If the widget inhabits a space larger than it needs, this

anchor option specifies where the radiobutton will sit in that space.
The default is anchor=CENTER.

bg The normal background color behind the indicator and label.

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To display a monochrome image on a radiobutton, set this

bitmap
option to a bitmap.

The size of the border around the indicator part itself.

borderwidth
Default is 2 pixels.

A procedure to be called every time the user changes the

command
state of this radiobutton.

If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.),

cursor the mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is
over the radiobutton.

font The font used for the text.

fg The color used to render the text.

The number of lines (not pixels) of text on the radiobutton.

height
Default is 1.

The color of the focus highlight when the radiobutton does

highlightbackground
not have focus.

The color of the focus highlight when the radiobutton has

highlightcolor
the focus.

To display a graphic image instead of text for this

image
radiobutton, set this option to an image object.

If the text contains multiple lines, this option controls how

justify
the text is justified: CENTER (the default), LEFT, or RIGHT.

How much space to leave to the left and right of the

padx
radiobutton and text. Default is 1.

How much space to leave above and below the radiobutton

pady
and text. Default is 1.

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Specifies the appearance of a decorative border around the

relief
label. The default is FLAT; for other values.

selectcolor The color of the radiobutton when it is set. Default is red.

If you are using the image option to display a graphic

instead of text when the radiobutton is cleared, you can set
selectimage
the selectimage option to a different image that will be
displayed when the radiobutton is set.

The default is state=NORMAL, but you can set

state=DISABLED to gray out the control and make it
state
unresponsive. If the cursor is currently over the
radiobutton, the state is ACTIVE.

The label displayed next to the radiobutton. Use newlines

text
("\n") to display multiple lines of text.

To slave the text displayed in a label widget to a control

textvariable
variable of class StringVar, set this option to that variable.

You can display an underline (_) below the nth letter of the
underline text, counting from 0, by setting this option to n. The
default is underline=-1, which means no underlining.

When a radiobutton is turned on by the user, its control

variable is set to its current value option. If the control
variable is an IntVar, give each radiobutton in the group a
value
different integer value option. If the control variable is
a StringVar, give each radiobutton a different string value
option.

The control variable that this radiobutton shares with the

variable other radiobuttons in the group. This can be either an
IntVar or a StringVar.

Width of the label in characters (not pixels!). If this option

width
is not set, the label will be sized to fit its contents.

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You can limit the number of characters in each line by

wraplength setting this option to the desired number. The default
value, 0, means that lines will be broken only at newlines.

Methods
Methods Description

deselect() Clears (turns off) the radiobutton.

Flashes the radiobutton a few times between its active and normal
flash()
colors, but leaves it the way it started.

You can call this method to get the same actions that would occur
invoke()
if the user clicked on the radiobutton to change its state.

select() Sets (turns on) the radiobutton.

Example:
Try the following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

def sel():
selection = "You selected the option " + str(var.get())
label.config(text = selection)

root = Tk()
var = IntVar()
R1 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 1", variable=var, value=1,
command=sel)
R1.pack( anchor = W )

R2 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 2", variable=var, value=2,

command=sel)
R2.pack( anchor = W )

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R3 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 3", variable=var, value=3,

command=sel)
R3.pack( anchor = W)

label = Label(root)
label.pack()
root.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Scale
The Scale widget provides a graphical slider object that allows you to select values
from a specific scale.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Scale ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

activebackground The background color when the mouse is over the scale.

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The background color of the parts of the widget that are

bg
outside the trough.

Width of the 3-d border around the trough and slider.

bd
Default is 2 pixels.

A procedure to be called every time the slider is moved.

This procedure will be passed one argument, the new scale
command value. If the slider is moved rapidly, you may not get a
callback for every possible position, but you'll certainly get
a callback when it settles.

If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.),

cursor the mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is
over the scale.

The way your program reads the current value shown in a

scale widget is through a control variable. The control
variable for a scale can be an IntVar, a DoubleVar (float),
digits
or a StringVar. If it is a string variable, the digits option
controls how many digits to use when the numeric scale
value is converted to a string.

font The font used for the label and annotations.

fg The color of the text used for the label and annotations.

A float or integer value that defines one end of the scale's

from_
range.

The color of the focus highlight when the scale does not
highlightbackground
have focus.

highlightcolor The color of the focus highlight when the scale has the
focus.
You can display a label within the scale widget by setting
this option to the label's text. The label appears in the top
label
left corner if the scale is horizontal, or the top right corner
if vertical. The default is no label.

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The length of the scale widget. This is the x dimension if

length the scale is horizontal, or the y dimension if vertical. The
default is 100 pixels.

Set orient=HORIZONTAL if you want the scale to run along

orient the x dimension, or orient=VERTICAL to run parallel to the
y-axis. Default is horizontal.

Specifies the appearance of a decorative border around the

relief
label. The default is FLAT; for other values.

This option controls how long button 1 has to be held down

in the trough before the slider starts moving in that
repeatdelay
direction repeatedly. Default is repeatdelay=300, and the
units are milliseconds.

Normally, the user will only be able to change the scale in

whole units. Set this option to some other value to change
the smallest increment of the scale's value. For example, if
resolution
from_=-1.0 and to=1.0, and you set resolution=0.5, the
scale will have 5 possible values: -1.0, -0.5, 0.0, +0.5, and
+1.0.

Normally, the current value of the scale is displayed in text

form by the slider (above it for horizontal scales, to the left
showvalue
for vertical scales). Set this option to 0 to suppress that
label.

Normally the slider is 30 pixels along the length of the

sliderlength scale. You can change that length by setting the
sliderlength option to your desired length.

Normally, scale widgets respond to mouse events, and

state when they have the focus, also keyboard events. Set
state=DISABLED to make the widget unresponsive.

Normally, the focus will cycle through scale widgets. Set

takefocus
this option to 0 if you don't want this behavior.

tickinterval To display periodic scale values, set this option to a

number, and ticks will be displayed on multiples of that
value. For

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example, if from_=0.0, to=1.0, and tickinterval=0.25,

labels will be displayed along the scale at values 0.0, 0.25,
0.50, 0.75, and 1.00. These labels appear below the scale
if horizontal, to its left if vertical. Default is 0, which
suppresses display of ticks.

A float or integer value that defines one end of the scale's

range; the other end is defined by the from_ option,
discussed above. The to value can be either greater than or
to
less than the from_ value. For vertical scales, the to value
defines the bottom of the scale; for horizontal scales, the
right end.

troughcolor The color of the trough.

The control variable for this scale, if any. Control variables

may be from class IntVar, DoubleVar (float), or StringVar.
variable
In the latter case, the numerical value will be converted to
a string.

The width of the trough part of the widget. This is the x

width dimension for vertical scales and the y dimension if the
scale has orient=HORIZONTAL. Default is 15 pixels.

Methods
Scale objects have these methods:

Methods Description

get() This method returns the current value of the scale.

set ( value ) Sets the scale's value.

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Example
Try the following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

def sel():
selection = "Value = " + str(var.get())
label.config(text = selection)

root = Tk()
var = DoubleVar()
scale = Scale( root, variable = var )
scale.pack(anchor=CENTER)

button = Button(root, text="Get Scale Value", command=sel)

button.pack(anchor=CENTER)

label = Label(root)
label.pack()

root.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

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Scrol bar
This widget provides a slide controller that is used to implement vertical scrolled
widgets, such as Listbox, Text and Canvas. Note that you can also create horizontal
scrollbars on Entry widgets.

Syntax:
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Scrollbar ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is

activebackground
over them.

The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is

bg
not over them.

The width of the 3-d borders around the entire perimeter

of the trough, and also the width of the 3-d effects on the
bd arrowheads and slider. Default is no border around the
trough, and a 2-pixel border around the arrowheads and
slider.

command A procedure to be called whenever the scrollbar is moved.

The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the

cursor
scrollbar.

The width of the borders around the arrowheads and slider.

elementborderwidth The default is elementborderwidth=-1, which means to use
the value of the borderwidth option.

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The color of the focus highlight when the scrollbar does not
highlightbackground
have focus.

The color of the focus highlight when the scrollbar has the
highlightcolor
focus.

The thickness of the focus highlight. Default is 1. Set to 0 to

highlightthickness
suppress display of the focus highlight.

This option controls what happens when a user drags the

slider. Normally (jump=0), every small drag of the slider
jump causes the command callback to be called. If you set this
option to 1, the callback isn't called until the user releases
the mouse button.

Set orient=HORIZONTAL for a horizontal scrollbar,

orient
orient=VERTICAL for a vertical one.

This option controls how long button 1 has to be held down

in the trough before the slider starts moving in that
repeatdelay
direction repeatedly. Default is repeatdelay=300, and the
units are milliseconds.

repeatinterval repeatinterval

Normally, you can tab the focus through a scrollbar widget.

takefocus
Set takefocus=0 if you don't want this behavior.

troughcolor The color of the trough.

Width of the scrollbar (its y dimension if horizontal, and its

width
x dimension if vertical). Default is 16.

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Methods
Scrollbar objects have these methods:

Methods Description

Returns two numbers (a, b) describing the current position of

the slider. The a value gives the position of the left or top edge
get()
of the slider, for horizontal and vertical scrollbars respectively;
the b value gives the position of the right or bottom edge.

To connect a scrollbar to another widget w, set w's

xscrollcommand or yscrollcommand to the scrollbar's set()
set ( first, last )
method. The arguments have the same meaning as the values
returned by the get() method.

Example
Try the following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

root = Tk()
scrollbar = Scrollbar(root)
scrollbar.pack( side = RIGHT, fill=Y )

mylist = Listbox(root, yscrollcommand = scrollbar.set )

for line in range(100):
mylist.insert(END, "This is line number " + str(line))

mylist.pack( side = LEFT, fill = BOTH )

scrollbar.config( command = mylist.yview )

mainloop()

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When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Text
Text widgets provide advanced capabilities that allow you to edit a multiline text
and format the way it has to be displayed, such as changing its color and font.

You can also use elegant structures like tabs and marks to locate specific sections
of the text, and apply changes to those areas. Moreover, you can embed windows
and images in the text because this widget was designed to handle both plain and
formatted text.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Text ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.

 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

bg The default background color of the text widget.

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The width of the border around the text widget. Default is 2

bd
pixels.

The cursor that will appear when the mouse is over the text
cursor
widget.

Normally, text selected within a text widget is exported to

exportselection be the selection in the window manager. Set
exportselection=0 if you don't want that behavior.

font The default font for text inserted into the widget.

The color used for text (and bitmaps) within the widget.
fg You can change the color for tagged regions; this option is
just the default.

The height of the widget in lines (not pixels!), measured

height
according to the current font size.

The color of the focus highlight when the text widget does
highlightbackground
not have focus.

The color of the focus highlight when the text widget has
highlightcolor
the focus.

The thickness of the focus highlight. Default is 1. Set

highlightthickness highlightthickness=0 to suppress display of the focus
highlight.

insertbackground The color of the insertion cursor. Default is black.

Size of the 3-D border around the insertion cursor. Default

insertborderwidth
is 0.

The number of milliseconds the insertion cursor is off

insertofftime during its blink cycle. Set this option to zero to suppress
blinking. Default is 300.

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The number of milliseconds the insertion cursor is on during

insertontime
its blink cycle. Default is 600.

Width of the insertion cursor (its height is determined by

insertwidth
the tallest item in its line). Default is 2 pixels.

The size of the internal padding added to the left and right
padx
of the text area. Default is one pixel.

The size of the internal padding added above and below the
pady
text area. Default is one pixel.

The 3-D appearance of the text widget. Default is

relief
relief=SUNKEN.

selectbackground The background color to use displaying selected text.

selectborderwidth The width of the border to use around selected text.

This option specifies how much extra vertical space is put

above each line of text. If a line wraps, this space is added
spacing1
only before the first line it occupies on the display. Default
is 0.

This option specifies how much extra vertical space to add

spacing2 between displayed lines of text when a logical line wraps.
Default is 0.

This option specifies how much extra vertical space is

added below each line of text. If a line wraps, this space is
spacing3
added only after the last line it occupies on the display.
Default is 0.

Normally, text widgets respond to keyboard and mouse

events; set state=NORMAL to get this behavior. If you set
state state=DISABLED, the text widget will not respond, and you
won't be able to modify its contents programmatically
either.

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tabs This option controls how tab characters position text.

The width of the widget in characters (not pixels!),

width
measured according to the current font size.

This option controls the display of lines that are too wide.
Set wrap=WORD and it will break the line after the last
wrap
word that will fit. With the default behavior, wrap=CHAR,
any line that gets too long will be broken at any character.

To make the text widget horizontally scrollable, set this

xscrollcommand
option to the set() method of the horizontal scrollbar.

To make the text widget vertically scrollable, set this option

yscrollcommand
to the set() method of the vertical scrollbar.

Methods
Text objects have these methods:

Methods & Description

delete(startindex [,endindex])
This method deletes a specific character or a range of text.

get(startindex [,endindex])
This method returns a specific character or a range of text.

index(index)
Returns the absolute value of an index based on the given index.

insert(index [,string]...)
This method inserts strings at the specified index location.

see(index)
This method returns true if the text located at the index position is visible.

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Text widgets support three distinct helper structures: Marks, Tabs, and Indexes:

Marks are used to bookmark positions between two characters within a given text.
We have the following methods available when handling marks:

Methods & Description

index(mark)
Returns the line and column location of a specific mark.

mark_gravity(mark [,gravity])
Returns the gravity of the given mark. If the second argument is provided, the
gravity is set for the given mark.

mark_names()
Returns all marks from the Text widget.

mark_set(mark, index)
Informs a new position to the given mark.

mark_unset(mark)
Removes the given mark from the Text widget.

Tags are used to associate names to regions of text which makes easy the task of
modifying the display settings of specific text areas. Tags are also used to bind
event callbacks to specific ranges of text.

Following are the available methods for handling tabs:

Methods and Description

tag_add(tagname, startindex[,endindex] ...)

This method tags either the position defined by startindex, or a range delimited
by the positions startindex and endindex.

tag_config
You can use this method to configure the tag properties, which include,
justify(center, left, or right), tabs(this property has the same functionality of the
Text widget tabs's property), and underline(used to underline the tagged text).

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tag_delete(tagname)
This method is used to delete and remove a given tag.

tag_remove(tagname [,startindex[.endindex]] ...)

After applying this method, the given tag is removed from the provided area
without deleting the actual tag definition.

Example
Try the following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

def onclick():
pass

root = Tk()
text = Text(root)
text.insert(INSERT, "Hello.. . .")
text.insert(END, "Bye Bye.. . .")
text.pack()

text.tag_add("here", "1.0", "1.4")

text.tag_add("start", "1.8", "1.13")
text.tag_config("here", background="yellow", foreground="blue")
text.tag_config("start", background="black", foreground="green")
root.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

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TopLevel
Toplevel widgets work as windows that are directly managed by the window
manager. They do not necessarily have a parent widget on top of them.

Your application can use any number of top-level windows.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Toplevel ( option, ... )

Parameters:
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

bg The background color of the window.

bd Border width in pixels; default is 0.

cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is in this window.

Normally, text selected within a text widget is exported to be the

class_ selection in the window manager. Set exportselection=0 if you
don't want that behavior.

font The default font for text inserted into the widget.

The color used for text (and bitmaps) within the widget. You can
fg
change the color for tagged regions; this option is just the default.

height Window height.

Normally, a top-level window will have no 3-d borders around it.

relief To get a shaded border, set the bd option larger that its default
value of zero, and set the relief option to one of the constants.

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width The desired width of the window.

Methods
Toplevel objects have these methods:

Methods and Description

deiconify()
Displays the window, after using either the iconify or the withdraw methods.

frame()
Returns a system-specific window identifier.

group(window)
Adds the window to the window group administered by the given window.

iconify()
Turns the window into an icon, without destroying it.

protocol(name, function)
Registers a function as a callback which will be called for the given protocol.

iconify()
Turns the window into an icon, without destroying it.

state()
Returns the current state of the window. Possible values are normal, iconic,
withdrawn and icon.

transient([master])
Turns the window into a temporary(transient) window for the given master or to
the window's parent, when no argument is given.

withdraw()

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Removes the window from the screen, without destroying it.

maxsize(width, height)
Defines the maximum size for this window.

minsize(width, height)
Defines the minimum size for this window.

positionfrom(who)
Defines the position controller.

resizable(width, height)
Defines the resize flags, which control whether the window can be resized.

sizefrom(who)
Defines the size controller.

title(string)
Defines the window title.

Example
Try following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

root = Tk()
top = Toplevel()

top.mainloop()

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When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

SpinBox
The Spinbox widget is a variant of the standard Tkinter Entry widget, which can be
used to select from a fixed number of values.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = Spinbox( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.
 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget.
These options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is

activebackground
over them.

The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is

bg
not over them.

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The width of the 3-d borders around the entire perimeter of

the trough, and also the width of the 3-d effects on the
bd arrowheads and slider. Default is no border around the
trough, and a 2-pixel border around the arrowheads and
slider.

command A procedure to be called whenever the scrollbar is moved.

The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the

cursor
scrollbar.

disabledbackground The background color to use when the widget is disabled.

disabledforeground The text color to use when the widget is disabled.

fg Text color.

font The font to use in this widget.

format Format string. No default value.

The minimum value. Used together with to to limit the

from_
spinbox range.

justify Default is LEFT

relief Default is SUNKEN.

Together with repeatinterval, this option controls button

repeatdelay
auto-repeat. Both values are given in milliseconds.

repeatinterval See repeatdelay.

One of NORMAL, DISABLED, or "readonly". Default is

state
NORMAL.

textvariable No default value.

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to See from.

validate Validation mode. Default is NONE.

validatecommand Validation callback. No default value.

A tuple containing valid values for this widget. Overrides

values
from/to/increment.

vcmd Same as validatecommand.

width Widget width, in character units. Default is 20.

wrap If true, the up and down buttons will wrap around.

Used to connect a spinbox field to a horizontal scrollbar.

xscrollcommand This option should be set to the set method of the
corresponding scrollbar.

Methods
Spinbox objects have these methods:

Methods and Description

delete(startindex [,endindex])
This method deletes a specific character or a range of text.

get(startindex [,endindex])
This method returns a specific character or a range of text.

identify(x, y)
Identifies the widget element at the given location.

index(index)
Returns the absolute value of an index based on the given index.

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insert(index [,string]...)
This method inserts strings at the specified index location.

invoke(element)
Invokes a spinbox button.

Example
Try the following example yourself:

from Tkinter import *

master = Tk()

w = Spinbox(master, from_=0, to=10)

w.pack()

mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

PanelWindow
A PanedWindow is a container widget that may contain any number of panes,
arranged horizontally or vertically.

Each pane contains one widget and each pair of panes is separated by a moveable
(via mouse movements) sash. Moving a sash causes the widgets on either side of
the sash to be resized.

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Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = PanedWindow( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.

 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

Option Description

The color of the slider and arrowheads when the mouse is not
bg
over them.

The width of the 3-d borders around the entire perimeter of the
trough, and also the width of the 3-d effects on the arrowheads
bd
and slider. Default is no border around the trough, and a 2-pixel
border around the arrowheads and slider.

borderwidth Default is 2.

cursor The cursor that appears when the mouse is over the window.

handlepad Default is 8.

handlesize Default is 8.

height No default value.

orient Default is HORIZONTAL.

relief Default is FLAT.

sashcursor No default value.

sashrelief Default is RAISED.

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sashwidth Default is 2.

showhandle No default value

width No default value.

Methods
PanedWindow objects have these methods:

Methods and Description

add(child, options)
Adds a child window to the paned window.

get(startindex [,endindex])
This method returns a specific character or a range of text.

config(options)
Modifies one or more widget options. If no options are given, the method returns
a dictionary containing all current option values.

Example
Try the following example yourself. Here's how to create a 3-pane widget:

from Tkinter import *

m1 = PanedWindow()
m1.pack(fill=BOTH, expand=1)

left = Label(m1, text="left pane")

m1.add(left)

m2 = PanedWindow(m1, orient=VERTICAL)
m1.add(m2)

top = Label(m2, text="top pane")

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m2.add(top)

bottom = Label(m2, text="bottom pane")

m2.add(bottom)

mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

LabelFrame
A labelframe is a simple container widget. Its primary purpose is to act as a spacer
or container for complex window layouts.

This widget has the features of a frame plus the ability to display a label.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

w = LabelFrame( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master: This represents the parent window.

 options: Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These
options can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.

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Option Description

The normal background color displayed behind the label and

bg
indicator.

The size of the border around the indicator. Default is 2

bd
pixels.

If you set this option to a cursor name (arrow, dot etc.),

cursor the mouse cursor will change to that pattern when it is
over the checkbutton.

font The vertical dimension of the new frame.

height The vertical dimension of the new frame.

labelAnchor Specifies where to place the label.

Color of the focus highlight when the frame does not have
highlightbackground
focus.

Color shown in the focus highlight when the frame has the
highlightcolor
focus.

highlightthickness Thickness of the focus highlight.

With the default value, relief=FLAT, the checkbutton does

relief not stand out from its background. You may set this option
to any of the other styles

text Specifies a string to be displayed inside the widget.

width Specifies the desired width for the window.

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Example
Try the following example yourself. Here is how to create a labelframe widget:

from Tkinter import *

root = Tk()

labelframe = LabelFrame(root, text="This is a LabelFrame")

labelframe.pack(fill="both", expand="yes")

left = Label(labelframe, text="Inside the LabelFrame")

left.pack()

root.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

tkMessageBox
The tkMessageBox module is used to display message boxes in your applications.
This module provides a number of functions that you can use to display an
appropriate message.

Some of these functions are showinfo, showwarning, showerror, askquestion,

askokcancel, askyesno, and askretryignore.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget:

tkMessageBox.FunctionName(title, message [, options])

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Parameters
 FunctionName: This is the name of the appropriate message box function.

 title: This is the text to be displayed in the title bar of a message box.

 message: This is the text to be displayed as a message.

 options: options are alternative choices that you may use to tailor a standard
message box. Some of the options that you can use are default and parent. The
default option is used to specify the default button, such as ABORT, RETRY, or
IGNORE in the message box. The parent option is used to specify the window on top
of which the message box is to be displayed.

You could use one of the following functions with dialogue box:
 showinfo()
 showwarning()
 showerror ()
 askquestion()
 askokcancel()
 askyesno ()
 askretrycancel ()

Example
Try the following example yourself:

import Tkinter
import tkMessageBox

top = Tkinter.Tk()
def hello():
tkMessageBox.showinfo("Say Hello", "Hello World")

B1 = Tkinter.Button(top, text = "Say Hello", command = hello)

B1.pack()

top.mainloop()

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When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Standard At ributes
Let us take a look at how some of their common attributes,such as sizes, colors, and
fonts are specified.
 Dimensions
 Colors
 Fonts
 Anchors
 Relief styles
 Bitmaps
 Cursors

Dimensions
Various lengths, widths, and other dimensions of widgets can be described in many
different units.
 If you set a dimension to an integer, it is assumed to be in pixels.

 You can specify units by setting a dimension to a string containing a number followed
by.

Character Description

c Centimeters

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i Inches

m Millimeters

p Printer's points (about 1/72")

Length Options
Tkinter expresses a length as an integer number of pixels. Here is the list of
common length options:
 borderwidth: Width of the border which gives a three-dimensional look to the widget.

 highlightthickness: Width of the highlight rectangle when the widget has focus.

 padX padY: Extra space the widget requests from its layout manager beyond the
minimum the widget needs to display its contents in the x and y directions.

 selectborderwidth: Width of the three-dimentional border around selected items of

the widget.

 wraplength: Maximum line length for widgets that perform word wrapping.

 height: Desired height of the widget; must be greater than or equal to 1.

 underline: Index of the character to underline in the widget's text (0 is the first
character, 1 the second one, and so on).

 width: Desired width of the widget.

Colors
Tkinter represents colors with strings. There are two general ways to specify colors
in Tkinter:
 You can use a string specifying the proportion of red, green and blue in hexadecimal
digits. For example, "#fff" is white, "#000000" is black, "#000fff000" is pure green,
and "#00ffff" is pure cyan (green plus blue).

 You can also use any locally defined standard color name. The colors "white",
"black", "red", "green", "blue", "cyan", "yellow", and "magenta" will always be
available.

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Color options
The common color options are:
 activebackground: Background color for the widget when the widget is active.

 activeforeground: Foreground color for the widget when the widget is active.

 background: Background color for the widget. This can also be represented as bg.

 disabledforeground: Foreground color for the widget when the widget is disabled.

 foreground: Foreground color for the widget. This can also be represented as fg.

 highlightbackground: Background color of the highlight region when the widget

has focus.

 highlightcolor: Foreground color of the highlight region when the widget has focus.

 selectbackground: Background color for the selected items of the widget.

 selectforeground: Foreground color for the selected items of the widget.

Fonts
There may be up to three ways to specify type style.

Simple Tuple Fonts

As a tuple whose first element is the font family, followed by a size in points,
optionally followed by a string containing one or more of the style modifiers bold,
italic, underline and overstrike.

Example
 ("Helvetica", "16") for a 16-point Helvetica regular.
 ("Times", "24", "bold italic") for a 24-point Times bold italic.

Font object Fonts

You can create a "font object" by importing the tkFont module and using its Font
class constructor:

import tkFont

font = tkFont.Font ( option, ... )

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Here is the list of options:

 family: The font family name as a string.
 size: The font height as an integer in points. To get a font n pixels high, use -n.
 weight: "bold" for boldface, "normal" for regular weight.
 slant: "italic" for italic, "roman" for unslanted.
 underline: 1 for underlined text, 0 for normal.
 overstrike: 1 for overstruck text, 0 for normal.

Example
helv36 = tkFont.Font(family="Helvetica",size=36,weight="bold")

X Window Fonts
If you are running under the X Window System, you can use any of the X font names.

For example, the font named "-*-lucidatypewriter-medium-r-*-*-*-140-*-*-*-*-*-

*" is the author's favorite fixed-width font for onscreen use. Use the xfontsel
program to help you select pleasing fonts.

Anchors
Anchors are used to define where text is positioned relative to a reference point.

Here is list of possible constants, which can be used for Anchor attribute.
 NW
 N
 NE
 W
 CENTER
 E
 SW
 S
 SE

For example, if you use CENTER as a text anchor, the text will be centered
horizontally and vertically around the reference point.

Anchor NW will position the text so that the reference point coincides with the
northwest (top left) corner of the box containing the text.

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Anchor W will center the text vertically around the reference point, with the left
edge of the text box passing through that point, and so on.

If you create a small widget inside a large frame and use the anchor=SE option, the
widget will be placed in the bottom right corner of the frame. If you used anchor=N
instead, the widget would be centered along the top edge.

Example
The anchor constants are shown in this diagram:

Relief styles
The relief style of a widget refers to certain simulated 3-D effects around the
outside of the widget. Here is a screenshot of a row of buttons exhibiting all the
possible relief styles:

Here is a list of possible constants which can be used for relief attribute.
 FLAT
 RAISED
 SUNKEN
 GROOVE
 RIDGE

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Example
from Tkinter import *
import Tkinter

top = Tkinter.Tk()

B1 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="FLAT", relief=FLAT )

B2 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="RAISED", relief=RAISED )
B3 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="SUNKEN", relief=SUNKEN )
B4 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="GROOVE", relief=GROOVE )
B5 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="RIDGE", relief=RIDGE )

B1.pack()
B2.pack()
B3.pack()
B4.pack()
B5.pack()
top.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

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Bitmaps
This attribute to displays a bitmap. There are following type of bitmaps available:

 "error"
 "gray75"
 "gray50"
 "gray25"
 "gray12"
 "hourglass"
 "info"
 "questhead"
 "question"
 "warning"

Example
from Tkinter import *
import Tkinter

top = Tkinter.Tk()

B1 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="error", relief=RAISED,\

bitmap="error")
B2 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="hourglass", relief=RAISED,\
bitmap="hourglass")
B3 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="info", relief=RAISED,\
bitmap="info")
B4 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="question", relief=RAISED,\
bitmap="question")
B5 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="warning", relief=RAISED,\
bitmap="warning")
B1.pack()
B2.pack()
B3.pack()
B4.pack()

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B5.pack()
top.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Cursors
Python Tkinter supports quite a number of different mouse cursors available. The
exact graphic may vary according to your operating system.

Here is the list of interesting ones:

 "arrow"
 "circle"
 "clock"
 "cross"
 "dotbox"
 "exchange"
 "fleur"
 "heart"
 "heart"
 "man"
 "mouse"
 "pirate"

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 "plus"
 "shuttle"
 "sizing"
 "spider"
 "spraycan"
 "star"
 "target"
 "tcross"
 "trek"
 "watch"

Example
Try the following example by moving cursor on different buttons:

from Tkinter import *

import Tkinter

top = Tkinter.Tk()

B1 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="circle", relief=RAISED,\

cursor="circle")
B2 = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="plus", relief=RAISED,\
cursor="plus")
B1.pack()
B2.pack()
top.mainloop()

Geometry Management
All Tkinter widgets have access to specific geometry management methods, which
have the purpose of organizing widgets throughout the parent widget area. Tkinter
exposes the following geometry manager classes: pack, grid, and place.
 The pack() Method - This geometry manager organizes widgets in blocks before
placing them in the parent widget.

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 The grid() Method - This geometry manager organizes widgets in a table-like

structure in the parent widget.

 The place() Method -This geometry manager organizes widgets by placing them in
a specific position in the parent widget.

Python Tkinter pack() Method

This geometry manager organizes widgets in blocks before placing them in the
parent widget.

Syntax
widget.pack( pack_options )

Here is the list of possible options:

 expand: When set to true, widget expands to fill any space not otherwise used in
widget's parent.

 fill: Determines whether widget fills any extra space allocated to it by the packer, or
keeps its own minimal dimensions: NONE (default), X (fill only horizontally), Y (fill
only vertically), or BOTH (fill both horizontally and vertically).

 side: Determines which side of the parent widget packs against: TOP (default),
BOTTOM, LEFT, or RIGHT.

Example
Try the following example by moving cursor on different buttons:

from Tkinter import *

root = Tk()
frame = Frame(root)
frame.pack()

bottomframe = Frame(root)
bottomframe.pack( side = BOTTOM )

redbutton = Button(frame, text="Red", fg="red")

redbutton.pack( side = LEFT)

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greenbutton = Button(frame, text="Brown", fg="brown")

greenbutton.pack( side = LEFT )

bluebutton = Button(frame, text="Blue", fg="blue")

bluebutton.pack( side = LEFT )

blackbutton = Button(bottomframe, text="Black", fg="black")

blackbutton.pack( side = BOTTOM)

root.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Python Tkinter grid() Method

Here is the list of possible options:
 column : The column to put widget in; default 0 (leftmost column).

 columnspan: How many columns widgetoccupies; default 1.

 ipadx, ipady : How many pixels to pad widget, horizontally and vertically, inside
widget's borders.

 padx, pady : How many pixels to pad widget, horizontally and vertically, outside v's
borders.

 row: The row to put widget in; default the first row that is still empty.

 rowspan : How many rowswidget occupies; default 1.

 sticky : What to do if the cell is larger than widget. By default, with sticky='', widget
is centered in its cell. sticky may be the string concatenation of zero or more of N, E,
S, W, NE, NW, SE, and SW, compass directions indicating the sides and corners of
the cell to which widget sticks.

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Example
Try the following example by moving cursor on different buttons:

import Tkinter
root = Tkinter.Tk( )
for r in range(3):
for c in range(4):
Tkinter.Label(root, text='R%s/C%s'%(r,c),
borderwidth=1 ).grid(row=r,column=c)
root.mainloop( )

This would produce the following result displaying 12 labels arrayed in a 3 x 4 grid:

Python Tkinter place() Method

This geometry manager organizes widgets by placing them in a specific position in
the parent widget.

Syntax
widget.place( place_options )

Here is the list of possible options:

 anchor : The exact spot of widget other options refer to: may be N, E, S, W, NE,
NW, SE, or SW, compass directions indicating the corners and sides of widget;
default is NW (the upper left corner of widget)

 bordermode : INSIDE (the default) to indicate that other options refer to the
parent's inside (ignoring the parent's border); OUTSIDE otherwise.

 height, width : Height and width in pixels.

 relheight, relwidth : Height and width as a float between 0.0 and 1.0, as a fraction
of the height and width of the parent widget.

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 relx, rely : Horizontal and vertical offset as a float between 0.0 and 1.0, as a
fraction of the height and width of the parent widget.

 x, y : Horizontal and vertical offset in pixels.

Example
Try the following example by moving cursor on different buttons:

from Tkinter import *

import tkMessageBox
import Tkinter

top = Tkinter.Tk()

def helloCallBack():
tkMessageBox.showinfo( "Hello Python", "Hello World")

B = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="Hello", command = helloCallBack)

B.pack()
B.place(bordermode=OUTSIDE, height=100, width=100)
top.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

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27. Python ─ Further Extensions Pyth

Any code that you write using any compiled language like C, C++, or Java can be
integrated or imported into another Python script. This code is considered as an
"extension."

A Python extension module is nothing more than a normal C library. On Unix

machines, these libraries usually end in .so (for shared object). On Windows
machines, you typically see .dll (for dynamically linked library).

Pre-Requisites for Writing Extensions

To start writing your extension, you are going to need the Python header files.
 On Unix machines, this usually requires installing a developer-specific package such
as python2.5-dev.

 Windows users get these headers as part of the package when they use the binary
Python installer.

Additionally, it is assumed that you have good knowledge of C or C++ to write any
Python Extension using C programming.

First Look at a Python Extension

For your first look at a Python extension module, you need to group your code into
four part:

 The header file Python.h.

 The C functions you want to expose as the interface from your module.

 A table mapping the names of your functions as Python developers see them
to C functions inside the extension module.

 An initialization function.

The Header File Python.h

You need to include Python.h header file in your C source file, which gives you
access to the internal Python API used to hook your module into the interpreter.

Make sure to include Python.h before any other headers you might need. You need
to follow the includes with the functions you want to call from Python.

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The C Functions
The signatures of the C implementation of your functions always takes one of the
following three forms:

static PyObject *MyFunction( PyObject *self, PyObject *args );

static PyObject *MyFunctionWithKeywords(PyObject *self,
PyObject *args,
PyObject *kw);

static PyObject *MyFunctionWithNoArgs( PyObject *self );

Each one of the preceding declarations returns a Python object. There is no such
thing as avoid function in Python as there is in C. If you do not want your functions
to return a value, return the C equivalent of Python's None value. The Python
headers define a macro, Py_RETURN_NONE, that does this for us.

The names of your C functions can be whatever you like as they are never seen
outside of the extension module. They are defined as static function.

Your C functions usually are named by combining the Python module and function
names together, as shown here:

static PyObject *module_func(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) {

/* Do your stuff here. */
Py_RETURN_NONE;
}

This is a Python function called func inside of the module module. You will be
putting pointers to your C functions into the method table for the module that
usually comes next in your source code.

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The Method Mapping Table

This method table is a simple array of PyMethodDef structures. That structure looks
something like this:

struct PyMethodDef
{ char *ml_name;
PyCFunction ml_meth;
int ml_flags;
char *ml_doc;
};

Here is the description of the members of this structure:

 ml_name: This is the name of the function as the Python interpreter

presents when it is used in Python programs.

 ml_meth: This must be the address to a function that has any one of the
signatures described in previous seection.

 ml_flags: This tells the interpreter which of the three signatures ml_meth is
using.

o This flag usually has a value of METH_VARARGS.

o This flag can be bitwise OR'ed with METH_KEYWORDS if you want to

allow keyword arguments into your function.

o This can also have a value of METH_NOARGS that indicates you do not
want to accept any arguments.

 ml_doc: This is the docstring for the function, which could be NULL if you do
not feel like writing one.

This table needs to be terminated with a sentinel that consists of NULL and 0 values
for the appropriate members.

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Example
For the above-defined function, we have following method mapping table:

static PyMethodDef module_methods[] = {

{ "func", (PyCFunction)module_func, METH_NOARGS, NULL },
{ NULL, NULL, 0, NULL }
};

The Initialization Function

The last part of your extension module is the initialization function. This function is
called by the Python interpreter when the module is loaded. It is required that the
function be named initModule, where Module is the name of the module.

The initialization function needs to be exported from the library you are building.
The Python headers define PyMODINIT_FUNC to include the appropriate
incantations for that to happen for the particular environment in which we're
compiling. All you have to do is use it when defining the function.

Your C initialization function generally has the following overall structure:

PyMODINIT_FUNC initModule() {
Py_InitModule3(func, module_methods, "docstring...");
}

Here is the description of Py_InitModule3 function:

 func: This is the function to be exported.

 module_methods: This is the mapping table name defined above.
 docstring: This is the comment you want to give in your extension.

Putting this all together looks like the following:

#include <Python.h>

static PyObject *module_func(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) {

/* Do your stuff here. */
Py_RETURN_NONE;
}

static PyMethodDef module_methods[] = {

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 Pyth

{ "func", (PyCFunction)module_func, METH_NOARGS, NULL },

{ NULL, NULL, 0, NULL }
};

PyMODINIT_FUNC initModule() {
Py_InitModule3(func, module_methods, "docstring...");
}

Example
A simple example that makes use of all the above concepts:

#include <Python.h>

static PyObject* helloworld(PyObject* self)

{
return Py_BuildValue("s", "Hello, Python extensions!!");
}

static char helloworld_docs[] =

"helloworld( ): Any message you want to put here!!\n";

static PyMethodDef helloworld_funcs[] = {

{"helloworld", (PyCFunction)helloworld,
METH_NOARGS, helloworld_docs},
{NULL}
};

void inithelloworld(void)
{
Py_InitModule3("helloworld", helloworld_funcs,
"Extension module example!");
}

Here the Py_BuildValue function is used to build a Python value. Save above code in
hello.c file. We would see how to compile and install this module to be called from
Python script.

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Building and Installing Extensions

The distutils package makes it very easy to distribute Python modules, both pure
Python and extension modules, in a standard way. Modules are distributed in
source form and built and installed via a setup script usually called setup.py as
follows.

For the above module, you need to prepare following setup.py script:

from distutils.core import setup, Extension

setup(name='helloworld', version='1.0', \
ext_modules=[Extension('helloworld', ['hello.c'])])

Now, use the following command, which would perform all needed compilation and
linking steps, with the right compiler and linker commands and flags, and copies
the resulting dynamic library into an appropriate directory:

$ python setup.py install

On Unix-based systems, you'll most likely need to run this command as root in
order to have permissions to write to the site-packages directory. This usually is not
a problem on Windows.

Importing Extensions
Once you installed your extension, you would be able to import and call that
extension in your Python script as follows:

#!/usr/bin/python
import helloworld

print helloworld.helloworld()

This would produce the following result:

Hello, Python extensions!!

Passing Function Parameters

As you will most likely want to define functions that accept arguments, you can use
one of the other signatures for your C functions. For example, following function,
that accepts some number of parameters, would be defined like this:

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 Pyth

static PyObject *module_func(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) {

/* Parse args and do something interesting here. */
Py_RETURN_NONE;
}

The method table containing an entry for the new function would look like this:

static PyMethodDef module_methods[] = {

{ "func", (PyCFunction)module_func, METH_NOARGS, NULL },
{ "func", module_func, METH_VARARGS, NULL },
{ NULL, NULL, 0, NULL }
};

You can use API PyArg_ParseTuple function to extract the arguments from the one
PyObject pointer passed into your C function.

The first argument to PyArg_ParseTuple is the args argument. This is the object you
will be parsing. The second argument is a format string describing the arguments
as you expect them to appear. Each argument is represented by one or more
characters in the format string as follows.

static PyObject *module_func(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) {

int i;
double d;
char *s;

if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "ids", &i, &d, &s)) {

return NULL;
}

/* Do something interesting here. */

Py_RETURN_NONE;
}

Compiling the new version of your module and importing it enables you to invoke
the new function with any number of arguments of any type:

module.func(1, s="three", d=2.0)

module.func(i=1, d=2.0, s="three")
module.func(s="three", d=2.0, i=1)

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You can probably come up with even more variations.

The PyArg_ParseTuple Function

Here is the standard signature for PyArg_ParseTuple function:

int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject* tuple,char* format,...)

This function returns 0 for errors, and a value not equal to 0 for success. tuple is
the PyObject* that was the C function's second argument. Here format is a C string
that describes mandatory and optional arguments.

Here is a list of format codes for PyArg_ParseTuple function:

Code C type Meaning

c char A Python string of length 1 becomes a C char.

d double A Python float becomes a C double.

f float A Python float becomes a C float.

i int A Python int becomes a C int.

l long A Python int becomes a C long.

L long long A Python int becomes a C long long

Gets non-NULL borrowed reference to Python

O PyObject*
argument.

s char* Python string without embedded nulls to C char*.

s# char*+int Any Python string to C address and length.

Read-only single-segment buffer to C address and

t# char*+int
length.

u Py_UNICODE* Python Unicode without embedded nulls to C.

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u# Py_UNICODE*+int Any Python Unicode C address and length.

Read/write single-segment buffer to C address and

w# char*+int
length.

z char* Like s, also accepts None (sets C char* to NULL).

z# char*+int Like s#, also accepts None (sets C char* to NULL).

A Python sequence is treated as one argument per

(...) as per ...
item.

| The following arguments are optional.

Format end, followed by function name for error

:
messages.

; Format end, followed by entire error message text.

Returning Values
Py_BuildValue takes in a format string much like PyArg_ParseTuple does. Instead of
passing in the addresses of the values you are building, you pass in the actual
values. Here's an example showing how to implement an add function:

static PyObject *foo_add(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) {

int a;
int b;

if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "ii", &a, &b)) {

return NULL;
}
return Py_BuildValue("i", a + b);
}

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This is what it would look like if implemented in Python:

def add(a, b):

return (a + b)

You can return two values from your function as follows, this would be cauptured
using a list in Python.

static PyObject *foo_add_subtract(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) {

int a;
int b;

if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "ii", &a, &b)) {

return NULL;
}
return Py_BuildValue("ii", a + b, a - b);
}

This is what it would look like if implemented in Python:

def add_subtract(a, b):

return (a + b, a - b)

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The Py_BuildValue Function

Here is the standard signature for Py_BuildValue function:

PyObject* Py_BuildValue(char* format,...)

Here format is a C string that describes the Python object to build. The following
arguments of Py_BuildValue are C values from which the result is built.
The PyObject* result is a new reference.

Following table lists the commonly used code strings, of which zero or more are
joined into string format.

Code C type Meaning

c char A C char becomes a Python string of length 1.

d double A C double becomes a Python float.

f float A C float becomes a Python float.

i int A C int becomes a Python int.

l long A C long becomes a Python int.

N PyObject* Passes a Python object and steals a reference.

O PyObject* Passes a Python object and INCREFs it as normal.

O& convert+void* Arbitrary conversion

s char* C 0-terminated char* to Python string, or NULL to

None.

s# char*+int C char* and length to Python string, or NULL to None.

u Py_UNICODE* C-wide, null-terminated string to Python Unicode, or

NULL to None.

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u# Py_UNICODE*+int C-wide string and length to Python Unicode, or NULL

to None.

w# char*+int Read/write single-segment buffer to C address and

length.

z char* Like s, also accepts None (sets C char* to NULL).

z# char*+int Like s#, also accepts None (sets C char* to NULL).

(...) as per ... Builds Python tuple from C values.

[...] as per ... Builds Python list from C values.

{...} as per ... Builds Python dictionary from C values, alternating

keys and values.

Code {...} builds dictionaries from an even number of C values, alternately keys
and values. For example, Py_BuildValue("{issi}",23,"zig","zag",42) returns a
dictionary like Python's {23:'zig','zag':42}.

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