Differential Calculus-I

Unit-I
1.0 Objectives

• Calculate higher order derivatives

• Apply higher order derivatives in application problems

1.1 Introduction

The readers are already familiar with the concept and the process of differentiation of
a function y = f (x), of a single independent variable. Further the students also know the
geometrical meaning of the derivative of a function at a point and its application. In this
unit we shall see few more related topics like derivative of a function and derivatives of higher
order.

1.2 Derivative of a function

In mathematics, the derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity

to change of the function value with respect to a change in its argument. Derivatives are a
fundamental tool of calculus. For example, the derivative of the position of a moving object
with respect to time is the object’s velocity: this measures how quickly the position of the
object changes when time advances.
The derivative of a function of a single variable at a chosen input value, when it exists,
is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point. The tangent
line is the best linear approximation of the function near that input value. For this reason,
the derivative is often described as the ”instantaneous rate of change”, the ratio of the
instantaneous change in the dependent variable to that of the independent variable.
The derivative of a function y = f (x) of a variable x is a measure of the rate at which
the value y of the function changes with respect to the change of the variable x. It is called
the derivative of f or y with respect to x.

1.3 Derivatives of higher order

Consider a function y = f (x), which is a real valued function of real variable. If this
dy
function y = f (x) is differentiable, the dx exists and called first order derivative of y
dy 0 d dy


w.r.t. x. Further if dx = f (x) is differentiable, then its derivative dx dx
exits and is called
second order derivative of the function y = f (x).
d2 y 00 00
The second order derivative of the function h iy = f (x) is denoted by dx 2 or f (x) or y or y2 .
d2 y d2 y
Again if dx2
= f 00 is differentiable, the d
dx dx2
exits and is called the third order deriva-
d3 y
tive of the function y = f (x). This is denoted by dx3
or f 000 (x) or y 000 or y3 .

1
 n
d y
In general the nth order derivative of y = f (x) is defined and it is denoted by dx n or
n n
f (x) or y or yn .
dy d2 y d3 y dn y
The derivatives dx , dx2 , dx3 , · · · , dxn of the function y = f (x) are called derivatives of higher

order of the function y = f (x).

1.4 nth derivative of some standard functions

1. To find the nth derivative of eax .

Let y = eax
y1 = aeax
y2 = a · aeax = a2 eax
y3 = a · a · aeax = a3 eax
····································
····································
yn = an eax
If y = eax then yn = an eax

2. To find the nth derivative of (ax + b)m , where m is a positive integer and
n ≤ m.

Let (ax + b)m

y1 = m(ax + b)m−1 · a
y2 = m(m − 1)(ax + b)m−1 a · a
····································
····································
yn = m(m − 1)(m − 2) · · · · · · · · · · · · (m − n + 1)(ax + b)m−n · an
m!
yn = (ax + b)m−n · an
(m − n)!
m!
If y = (ax + b)m , m is a positive intger and n ≤ m then yn = (ax + b)m−n · an
(m − n)!

(−1)n n!an
Note If m = −1 and y = (ax + b)m , then yn = (ax+b)n+1
1

(−1)n n!an
i.e., Dn ax+b = (ax+b)n+1

3. To find the nth derivative of log(ax + b).

2
 Let
y = log(ax + b)
1
y1 = ·a
ax + b
(−1)n n!an
 
n 1
We know that D =
ax + b (ax + b)n+1
1
Thus the nth derivative of y = log(ax + b) is (n − 1) th derivative of ax+b
(−1)n−1 (n−1)!an−1
Dn (log(ax + b)) = (ax+b)n

4. To find the nth derivative of sin(ax + b).

Let y = sin(ax + b)
y1 = a cos(ax + b)
 π h π  i
or y1 = a sin ax + b + sin + θ = cosθ
2 2
π
y2 = a2 cos ax + b +
2
2
 π π
y2 = a sin ax + b + +
2 2
2
 π
y2 = a sin ax + b + 2 ·
2
3
 π
y3 = a sin ax + b + 3 ·
2
····································
····································
 π
yn = an sin ax + b + n ·
2 π
n
If y = sin(ax + b) then yn = a sin ax + b + n · .
2

3
 5. To find the nth derivative of cos(ax + b).
Let y = cos(ax + b)
y1 = −a sin(ax + b)
 π h π  i
or y1 = a cos ax + b + cos + θ = −sinθ
2 2
π
y2 = −a2 sin ax + b +
2
2
 π π
y2 = −a cos ax + b + +
2 2
 π
y2 = −a2 cos ax + b + 2 ·
2
3
 π
y3 = a cos ax + b + 3 ·
2
····································
····································
n
 π
yn = a cos ax + b + n ·
2 π
n
If y = cos(ax + b) then yn = a cos ax + b + n · .
2
6. To find the nth derivative of eax sin(bx + c).
Let y = eax sin(bx + c)
y1 = eax cos(bx + c) b + a eax sin(bx + c)
y1 = eax [a sin(bx + c) + b cos(bx + c)]

2 2 2 b
√
Put a = r cosθ

and b = r sinθ. Then r = a + b and tanθ = a , implies r = a2 + b2 and
−1 b
θ = tan a
Thus we have,

y1 = eax [r cosθ sin(bx + c) + r sinθ cos(bx + c)]

y1 = r eax sin (bx + c + θ)

This result implies that, the derivative y1 can be obtained from the function y, on multiplying
it by r and increasing the angle by θ.
Repeating the same procedure, we have
y2 = r2 eax sin (bx + c + 2θ)
yn = rn eax sin (bx + c + nθ)
If y = eax sin(bx + c) then yn = rn eax sin (bx + c + nθ)
√
 
−1 b
where r = a2 + b2 and θ = tan .
a

4
 7. To find the nth derivative of eax cos(bx + c).

Let y = eax cos(bx + c)

y1 = −eax sin(bx + c) b + a eax cos(bx + c)
y1 = eax [a cos(bx + c) − b sin(bx + c)]

√
Put a = r cosθ and b = r sinθ. Then r2 = a2 + b2 and tanθ = ab , implies r = a2 + b2 and
θ = tan−1 ab

Thus we have,

y1 = eax [r cosθ cos(bx + c) − r sinθ sin(bx + c)]

y1 = r eax cos (bx + c + θ)

This result implies that, the derivative y1 can be obtained from the function y, on multiplying
it by r and increasing the angle by θ.
Repeating the same procedure, we have

y2 = r2 eax cos (bx + c + 2θ)

yn = rn eax cos (bx + c + nθ)
If y = eax cos(bx + c) then yn = rn eax cos (bx + c + nθ)
√
 
2 2 −1 b
where r = a + b and θ = tan .
a

1
8. To find the nth derivative of (x+2)(x−1)
.

1
Let y=
(x + 2)(x − 1)
By Partial fractions, we get
1 1 1
y= = +
(x + 2)(x − 1) (x + 2)(−2 − 1) (1 + 2)(x − 1)
     
−1 1 1 1
= +
3 x+2 3 x−1
 
1 1 1
= −
3 x−1 x+2
    
1 n 1 n 1
yn = D −D
3 x−1 x+2
 
1 (−1).n! (−1).n!
= −
3 (x − 1)n+1 (x + 2)n+1
(−1)n .n!
 
1 1
yn = − .
3 (x − 1)n+1 (x + 2)n+1

5
9. To find the nth derivative of cosh2 3x.

Let y = cosh2 3x
On expanding, we get
1 6x
e + e−6x + 2e0


y=
4
1 6x
e + e−6x + 2


=
4
1
Dn e6x + Dn e−6x + 0




yn =
4
1  n 6x
(6) e + (−6)n e−6x

yn =
4
6n  6x
e + (−1)n e−6x .

yn =
4
10. To find the nth derivative of e2x cosh 4x.

Let y = e2x cosh 4x

On expanding, we get
1
y = e2x e4x + e−4x


2
1 6x
e + e−2x


y=
2
1
Dn e6x + Dn e−2x




yn =
2
1  n 6x
6 e + (−2)n e−2x .

yn =
2
11. To find the nth derivative of e−x sinh 3x cosh 2x.

Let y = e−x sinh 3x cosh 2x

On expanding, we get
e − e−3x e + e−2x
 3x   2x 
−x
y=e
2 2
1
y = e−x e5x − e−x + ex − e−5x


4
1 4x
e − e−2x + 1 − e−6x


y=
4
1  n 4x
4 e − (−2)n e−2x − (−6)n e−6x .

yn =
4

6
 √
12. To find the nth derivative of log 4x2 + 8x + 3.
√
Let y = log 4x2 + 8x + 3

1
y = log 4x2 + 8x + 3 2
1
y = log 4x2 + 8x + 3 log xn = n log x


2
1
y = log {(2x + 3) (2x + 1)} , by factorization
2
1
y = {log (2x + 3) + log (2x + 1)}
( 2 )
1 (−1)n−1 (n − 1)! 2n (−1)n−1 (n − 1)! 2n
yn = +
2 (2x + 3)n (2x + 1)n
 
n−1 n−1 1 1
yn = 2 (−1) (n − 1)! +
(2x + 3)n (2x + 1)n

13. To find the nth derivative of log10 (1 − 2x)3 (8x + 1)5 .



y = log10 (1 − 2x)3 (8x + 1)5


Let

We have to convert the logarithm to the base e by the property:

loge x
log10 x =
loge 10
1
loge (1 − 2x)3 (8x + 1)5

y=
loge 10
1
i.e, y= {3 log (1 − 2x) + 5 log (8x + 1)}
loge 10
( )
1 (−1)n−1 (n − 1)! (−2)n (−1)n−1 (n − 1)! (8)n
yn = 3 + 5
loge 10 (1 − 2x)n (8x + 1)n
(−1)n−1 (n − 1)!2n 3 (−1)n 5 (4)n
 
yn = +
loge 10 (1 − 2x)n (8x + 1)n

7
 q
(3x+5)2 (2−3x)
14. To find the nth derivative of log10 (x+1)6
.
s
(3x + 5)2 (2 − 3x)
Let y = log10
(x + 1)6
s
1 (3x + 5)2 (2 − 3x)
y= loge
loge 10 (x + 1)6
1 1
y= {2 log (3x + 5) + log (2 − 3x) − 6 log (x + 1)}
loge 10 2
m
log = log m − log n
( n )
1 2 (−1)n−1 (n − 1)!3n (−1)n−1 (n − 1)! (−3)n 6 (−1)n−1 (n − 1)!1n
yn = + −
2 loge 10 (3x + 5)n (2 − 3x)n (x + 1)n
(−1)n−1 (n − 1)! 2.3n (−3)n
 
6
yn = + −
2 loge 10 (3x + 5)n (2 − 3x)n (x + 1)n

15. To find the nth derivative of sin2 4x + cos2 3x.

Let y = sin2 4x + cos2 3x

1 1
We have sin2 A = (1 − cos 2A) and cos2 A = (1 + cos 2A)
2 2
1 1
y = (1 − cos 8x) + (1 + cos 6x)
2 2
1
y + 1 + (cos 6x − cos 8x)
2
1n n  nπ   nπ o
yn = 0 + 6 cos + 6x − 8n cos + 8x
2 2 2
1n n  nπ   nπ o
yn = 6 cos + 6x − 8n cos + 8x
2 2 2

16. To find the nth derivative of sin 4x cos 2x.

Let y = sin4x cos 2x

1
We have sin A cos B = {sin (A + B) + sin (A − B)}
2
1
y = {sin 6x + sin 2x}
2
1 n
n  nπ 
n
 nπ o
yn = 6 sin + 6x + 2 sin + 2x
2 2 2

8
17. To find the nth derivative of cos x cos 3x cos 5x.

Let y = cos x cos 3x cos 5x

1
We have cos A cos B = {cos (A + B) + cos (A − B)}
2
1
cos x cos 3x = (cos 4x + cos 2x) Because cos (−θ) = cos θ
2
1
cos x cos 3x cos 5x = (cos 5x cos 4x + cos 5x cos 2x)
 2 
1 1 1
y= (cos 9x + cos x) + (cos 7x + cos 3x)
2 2 2
1
y = {cos x + cos 3x + cos 7x + cos 9x}
4
1n n  nπ   nπ   nπ   nπ o
yn = 1 cos + x + 3n cos + 3x + 7n cos + 7x + 9n cos + 9x
4 2 2 2 2

18. To find the nth derivative of sin3 2x.

Let y = sin3 2x
1
We have sin3 A = (3 sin A − sin 3A)
4
3 1
sin 2A = (3 sin 2A − sin 6A)
4
3 1
y = sin 2x = (3 sin 2x − sin 6x)
4
1
y = {cos x + cos 3x + cos 7x + cos 9x}
4
1n n  nπ 
n
 nπ o
yn = 3.2 sin + 2x − 6 sin + 6x
4 2 2

9
 19. To find the nth derivative of sin2 x cos3 x.

Let y = sin2 x cos3 x

  
1 − cos 2x 3 cos x + cos 3x
y=
2 4
1
y = {3 cos x − 3 cos 2x cos x + cos 3x − cos 3x cos 2x}
 8 
1 3 1
y= 3 cos 3x − (cos 3x + cos x) + cos 3x − (cos 5x + cos x)
8 2 2
1
y= {6 cos x − 3 cos 3x − 3 cos x + 2 cos 3x − cos 5x − cos x}
16
1
y= {2 cos x − cos 3x − cos 5x}
16
1 n  nπ   nπ   nπ o
yn = 2. cos + x − 3n cos + 3x − 5n cos + 5x
16 2 2 2

20. To find the nth derivative of e2x cos3 x.

Let y = e2x cos3 x

1
y = e2x . (3 cos x + cos 3x)
4
1  n 2x
3D e cos x + Dn e2x cos 3x



y=
4
√ n 2x √ n 2x
          
1 −1 1 −1 3
yn = 3 5 e cos n tan +x + 13 e cos n tan + 3x
4 2 2
e2x √ n √ n
           
−1 1 −1 3
yn = 3 5 cos n tan +x + 13 cos n tan + 3x
4 2 2

1.5 Check your progress

1. To find the nth derivative of the following.

(a) logx2 (b) log (a x + x2 ) (c) log(x2 − a2 )

2. To find the nth derivative of the following.

(a) cos3 x (b) cos2 x (c) sin4 x (d)sinx sin2x sin3x (e) cosh4x sin2x

3. To find the nth derivative of the following.

(a) e3 x sin2 x (b) eax sin2 x sin2x

10
4. To find the nth derivative of the following.

(a) tan−1 2x
(b) tan−1 1+x



1−x2 1−x

5. To find the nth derivative of the following.

6x x
(a) (x2 −4)(x−1)
(b) (x−1)(x2 +x−2)

6. To find the nth derivative of the following.

(a) x3 4x (b) ex log x

1.6 Answers to check your progress

2(−1)n (n−1)!
1. (a) xn
h i
1 1
(b) (−1)n (n − 1)! xn
+ (x+a)n
h i
1 1
(c) (−1)n (n − 1)! (x+a)n
+ (x−a)n

1 nπ nπ



2. (a) 4
3xcos 3x + 2
+ 3cos x + 2

nπ


(b) 2n−1 cos 2x + 2

nπ nπ



(c) 2n−1 cos 2x + 2
+ 4n cos 4x + 2

1 nπ nπ nπ
 n



(d) 4
2 sin 2x + 2
− 6n sin 6x + 2
+ 4n sin 4x + 2

(e) 21 5n .e4x cos 3x + ntan−l 43 + e−4x cos 3x − ntan−l 34

e3x n
3 − 13 2 cos 2x + ntan−l 32
 n

3.(a) 2

n ax n ax
(b) 12 (a2 + 4) 2 e sin 2x + ntan−l a2 − 14 (a2 + 16) 2 e sin 4x + 4tan−l a4

4.(a) yn = (−1)n−1 (n − 1)! sinn θ sin nθ, where θ = cot−1 x

(b) yn = (−1)n−1 (n − 1)! sinn θ sin nθ, where θ = cot−1 x

h i
n 3 1 2
5.(a) yn = (−1) n! (x−2)n+1 − (x+2)n+1 − (x−1)n+1
n+1 n
h i
(b) yn = (−1) 8 n!2 − (2x+1)
1
n+1 +
9
(2x+3)n+1

6.(a) yn = (log 4)n−3 4x x3 (log 4)3 + 3nx2 (log 4)2 + 3n (n − 1) x (log 4) + n (n − 1) (n − 2)

 

n n−1 n−2
o
(−1)n−3 (n−3)!
(b) yn = ex (−1) xn(n−1)! + n(−1)xn−1(n−2)! + n(n−1)
2 xn−2
+ · · · + log x

11
References
[1] Frank Ayres, Advanced Calculus, the McGraw Hill 6th edition - 1999.

[2] LipmanBers, Calculus, Volumes 1 and 2, IBH - 1969.

[3] N. Piskunov, Differential and Integral Calculus

[4] N P Bali, Differential Calculus, India: Laxmi publications (P) Ltd..., 2010.

[5] Text book on Gorakhprasad First course in , Differential Calculus, Pothishala Ltd
2014.

[6] G B Thomas and R L Finney, Calculus and analytical geometry, Addison Wesley, 1995

[7] Shanthi Narayan and P K Mittal, Differential Calculus, Reprint. New Delhi: S Chand
and Co. Pvt. Ltd., 2014.

[8] Serge Lang, First course in Calculus, Springer - 1964.

12
 Differential Calculus-I

Unit-II
2.0 Objectives

• To make you familiar with the philosophy of Leibnitz

• To recognize that Leibnitz continued the tradition of Descartes and Spinoza as a rationalist

2.1 Leibnitz theorem and its Applications

In this UNIT we shall see a formula for finding the nth derivative of the product of two functions,
in the form of a theorem known as Leibnitz theorem.

Theorem: If u and v are two functions of x having derivative of nth order and
y = u · v, then yn = nC0 un v + nC1 un−1 v1 + · · · + nCr un−r vr + · · · + nCn u vn .

Proof: We shall prove the theorem by mathematical induction.

We have y = u · v ⇒ y1 = uv1 + u1 v
⇒ the theorem is true for n = 1.
Let us assume that the theorem is true for n = m.
That is
ym = mC0 um v + mC1 um−1 v1 + · · · + mCr−1 um−r+1 vr−1 + mCr um−r vr + · · · + mCm u vm .
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
ym+1 = mC0 (um+1 v + um v1 )+ mC1 (um v1 + um−1 v2 )+· · ·+ mCr−1 (um−r+2 vr−1 + um−r+1 vr )+
m
Cr (um−r+1 vr + um−r vr+1 ) + · · · + mCm (u1 vm + u vm+1 ).

ym+1 = mC0 um+1 v+(mC0 + mC1 ) um v1 +(mC1 + mC2 ) um−1 v2 +· · ·+(mCr−1 + mCr ) um−r+1 vr +
· · · + (mC0 + mCm ) u vm+1
We known that
m
C0 = 1 = m+1C0
m
Cm = 1 = m+1Cm+1
m
Cr−1 + mCr = m+1Cr for r = 1, 2, 3, · · · , we have
m
C0 + mC1 = m+1C1
m
C1 + mC2 = m+1C2 , and so on.
Thus we have
ym+1 = (m+1)C0 um+1 v + (m+1)C1 um v1 + · · · + m+1Cr um−r+1 vr + · · · + m+1Cm+1 u vm+1 .
Implies the therorem is true for n = m + 1.
Hence by mathematical induction the theorem the theorem is true for all positive values of n. Hence
the proof.

2.2 Worked Examples

1. Find the nth derivative of eax x3

Solution: Let y = x3 eax and u = eax v = x3

1
 u = eax v = x3
un = an eax v1 = 3x2
un−1 = an−1 eax v2 = 6x
un−2 = an−2 eax v3 = 6
un−3 = an−3 eax v4 = 0

By Leibnitz’s theorem,we have

yn = nC0 un v + nC1 un−1 v1 + nC2 un−2 v2 + nC3 un−3 v3

n(n−1) n−2 n(n−1)(n−2) n−3
⇒ yn = an eax x3 + n an−1 eax 3 x2 + 2 a eax 6 x + 3! a eax 6

yn = an−3 eax a3 x3 + 3 n a2 x2 + 3n(n − 1)a x + n(n − 1)(n − 2) .

 
⇒

Example 2. Find the nth derivative of ex logx

Solution: Let y = ex logx and u = ex v = logx

u = ex v = logx
u = ex ⇒ u1 = ex · · · ⇒ un−2 = ex ⇒ un−1 = ex ⇒ un = ex

1 −1 (−1)n (n−1)!
v = logx ⇒ v1 = x ⇒ v2 = x2
· · · ⇒ vn = xn

By Leibnitz’s theorem,we have

yn = nC0 un v + nC1 un−1 v1 + · · · nCn uvn

n
yn = ex logx + n ex x1 + n(n−1) x −1 + · · · + ex (−1) (n−1)!


⇒ 2! e x 2 xn
h n
i
yn = ex logx + n x1 + n(n−1) −1
+ · · · + (−1) x(n−1)!


2! x2 n .

n!
Example 3. If y = xn logx show that yn+1 = x

Solution: y = xn logx

1
⇒ y1 = x n x + n xn−1 logx

⇒ xy1 = xn + n xn logx

⇒ xy1 = xn + n y since (y = xn logx)

Differentiating n times using Leibnitz’s theorem, we have

x yn+1 + n · 1 · yn = n! + n yn

n!
⇒ x yn+1 = n! ⇒ yn+1 = x.

Example 4. Find the nth derivative of ex cosx · x2

2
 Solution: Let y = ex cosx · x2 and u = ex cosx, v = x2

u = ex cosx, v = x2
n
un = 2 2 ex cos x + n tan−1 1
 
v1 = 2x
n
nπ
un = 2 2 ex cos x +
 
4 v1 = 2x
(n−1)
ex cos x + (n − 1) π4
 
un−1 = 2 2 v2 = 2
(n−2)
ex cos x + (n − 2) π4
 
un−2 = 2 2 v3 = 0

By Leibnitz’s theorem,we have

yn = nC0 un v + nC1 un−1 v1 + nC2 un−2 v2 + nC3 un−3 v3

n (n−1) (n−2)
yn = 2 2 ex cos x + n4π x2 + 2 2 ex cos x + (n − 1) π4 2x + 2 2 ex cos x + (n − 2) π4 2
     

n−2
h 3 i
yn = 2 2 ex 2x2 cos x + n4π + n 2 2 cos x + (n − 1) π4 + n(n − 1) cos x + (n − 2) π4 .
    

  n n! 
Example 5. Show that Dn logx = (−1) logx − 1 − 21 − 13 − · · · − n1 .

x xn+1

1 1
Solution: Let y = logx · x and u = logx, v = x
(−1)n−1 (n−1)!
Now u = logx ⇒ un = xn

1 (−1)n (n)!
v= x ⇒ vn = xn+1

By Leibnitz’s theorem,we have

yn = nC0 un v + nC1 un−1 v1 + · · · nCn uvn

n−1 n−2 (−1)n (n)!
yn = (−1) xn(n−1)! · x1 + n · (−1) xn−1
(n−2)! −1
· x2 + · · · + logx · xn+1
  n n! 
Dn logx = (−1) logx − 1 − 12 − 31 − · · · − n1 .

x xn+1

2
Example 6. If y = sin−1 x show that 1 − x2 yn+2 − (2n + 1)yn+1 − n2 yn = 0

Solution: Consider

2
y = sin−1 x

⇒ y1 = 2 sin−1 x · √ 1


1−x2
√
1 − x2 y1 = 2 sin−1 x


⇒

2 ·y =4y


⇒ 1 − x 1

sincey = sin−1 x


3
 squaring both side,we get

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

1 − x2
· 2y1 · y2 − 2 x y12 = 4 y1

⇒ 1 − x2 · y2 − x y1 − 2 = 0

Differentiating each term n times, by using Leibnitz’s theorem, we get

1 − x2 · yn+2 + nC1 · yn+1 (−2 x) + nC2 · yn (−2) − x yn+1 − nC1 · (1) = 0

n(n−1)
⇒ 1 − x2 yn+2 − 2 n x yn+1 −


2 2 · yn − x yn+1 − n yn = 0

⇒ 1 − x2 yn+2 − (2 n + 1)x yn+1 − n2 yn = 0.

y
x n
Example 7. If cos−1 show that x2 yn+2 + (2n + 1) x yn+1 + 2 n2 yn = 0


b = log n

Solution: Consider

y
x n
cos−1


b = log n

y  x


b = cos n log n

x n


⇒ y = b cos n log n

x n n 1



⇒ y1 = −b sin n log n ·n x· n

x n


⇒ x y1 = −n b sin n log n

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

x n n 1



x y2 + y1 − n b cos n log n ·n x· n

⇒ x2 y2 + x y1 = −n2 y

Differentiating each term n times, by using Leibnitz’s theorem, we get

x2 yn+2 + nC1 · x yn+1 + nC2 · 2 yn + x yn+1 + nC1 yn = −n2 yn

⇒ x2 yn+2 + (2n + 1) x yn+1 + n(n − 1) + n + n2 yn = 0

 

x2 yn+2 + (2n + 1) x yn+1 + 2 n2 yn = 0.

Example 8. If y = a cos (logx) + b sin (logx) show that x2 yn+2 + (2n + 1) x yn+1 + (n2 +
1) yn = 0.

Solution: Consider

4
 y = a cos (logx) + b sin (logx)

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

y1 = −a sin (logx) x1 + b cos (logx) x1

x y1 = −a sin (logx) + b cos (logx)

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

x y2 + y1 = −a cos (logx) x1 − b sin (logx) x1

⇒ x2 y2 + x y1 = − [a cos (logx) + b sin (logx)]

⇒ x2 y2 + x y1 = −y because (y = x2 y2 + x y1 =)

Differentiating each term n times, by using Leibnitz’s theorem, we get

x2 yn+2 + nC1 2 x yn+1 + nC2 2 yn + x yn+1 + nC1 yn + yn = 0

⇒ x2 yn+2 + 2 n x yn+1 + n(n − 1) yn + x yn+1 + n yn + yn = 0

⇒ x2 yn+2 + (2 n + 1) x yn+1 + (n(n − 1) + n + 1)yn = 0

x2 yn+2 + (2n + 1) x yn+1 + (n2 + 1) yn = 0.

−1 x
Example 9. If y = em sin show that (1 − x2 ) yn+2 − (2n + 1) x yn+1 − (n2 + m2 ) yn = 0.

Solution: Consider
−1 x
y = em sin

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

−1 x
y1 = em sin · √m
1−x2
√  −1 x

⇒ 1 − x2 y1 = m y since y = em sin

squaring both sides,we get

(1 − x2 ) y12 = m2 y 2
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

(1 − x2 ) 2 y1 y2 − 2 x2 y12 = 2 m2 y y1 .

Dividing by 2 y1 , we get

(1 − x2 ) y2 − x y1 = m2 y

5
 Differentiating each term n times, by using Leibnitz’s theorem, we have

(1 − x2 ) yn+2 + nC1 (−2 x)yn+1 + nC2 (−2) yn − x yn+1 − nC1 yn − m2 yn = 0

⇒ (1 − x2 ) yn+2 − 2 n x yn+1 − n(n − 1) yn − x yn+1 − n yn − m2 yn = 0

⇒ (1 − x2 ) yn+2 − (2 n + 1)x yn+1 − (n(n − 1) + n + m2 ) yn = 0

⇒ (1 − x2 ) yn+2 − (2n + 1) x yn+1 − (n2 + m2 ) yn = 0.

Example 10. If x = tan (logy) show that (1+x2 ) yn+2 +[2(n+1) x−1] yn+1 +n(n+1) yn = 0.

Solution: We have
−1 x
x = tan (logy) ⇒ tan−1 = logy ⇒ y = etan

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

−1 x 1
y1 = etan · 1+x2

−1 x
⇒ (1 + x2 ) y1 = etan =y

⇒ (1 + x2 ) y1 = y

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

(1 + x2 ) y2 + 2 x y1 = y1

⇒ (1 + x2 ) y2 + (2 x − 1) y1 = 0

Differentiating each term n times, by using Leibnitz’s theorem, we have

(1 + x2 ) yn+2 + nC1 2 x yn+1 + nC2 2 yn + (2 x − 1) yn+1 + nC1 2 yn = 0

⇒ (1 + x2 ) yn+2 + 2 n x yn+1 + n(n − 1) yn + (2 x − 1) yn+1 + 2 n yn = 0

⇒ (1 + x2 ) yn+2 + [2(n + 1)x − 1] yn+1 + [n(n − 1) + 2 n] yn = 0

(1 + x2 ) yn+2 + [2(n + 1) x − 1] yn+1 + n(n + 1) yn = 0.

Example 11. Solve y = x3 4x

Solution: y = x3 4x

let u = x3 , v = 4x

By Leibnitz theorem,

(uv)n = uvn + nC1 u1 vn−1 + nC2 u2 vn−2 + · · · + un v

6
 n n n(n−1) n n(n−1)(n−2)
C1 = n, C2 = 1.2 , C3 = 1.2.3

Also we have vn = Dn (4x ) = (log 4)n 4x and u1 = D(x3 ) = 3x2 , u2 = D(3x2 ) = 6x,
u3 = D(6x) = 6, u4 = D(6) = 0

Applying Leibnitz theorem we get,

yn = x3 (log 4)n 4x + n3x2 (log 4)n−1 4x + n(n−1)

2 6x (log 4)n−2 4x + n(n−1)(n−2)
6 6 (log 4)n−3 4x
n o
yn = (log 4)n−3 4x x3 (log 4)3 + 3nx2 (log 4)2 + 3n(n − 1)x (log 4) + n(n − 1)(n − 2)

Example 12. Solve y = x2 cos2 3x

Solution: y = x2 cos2 3x

1+cos 6x
y = x2


2

x2
+ 12 x2 cos 6x


y= 2
 2
yn = Dn x2 + 12 Dn x2 cos 6x

yn = 0 + 21 Dn x2 cos 6x

where n > 2

Now, let u = x2 and v = cos 6x

Applying Leibnitz theorem we get

n o
n(n−1)
yn = 21 x2 (cos 6x)n + n2x (cos 6x)n−1 + 2! 2x (cos 6x)n−2

nπ
We have (cos 6x)n = Dn n2x (cos 6x) = 6n cos


2 + 6x

1 nπ
x2 6n cos + 6x + 2nx6n−1 cos (n − 1) π2 + 6x + n(n − 1)6n−2 cos (n − 2) π2 + 6x




yn = 2 2

6n−2 nπ
36x2 cos + 6x + 12nx cos (n − 2) xπ π




yn = 2 2 2 + 6x + n(n − 1) cos (n − 2) 2 + 6x

Example 13. Solve y = x2 log 4x

Solution: y = x2 log 4x

Let u = x2 , v = log 4x

Applying Leibnitz theorem we have,

n(n−1)
yn = x2 (log 4x)n + n2x (log 4x)n−1 + 2 2 (log 4x)n−2

We have (log 4x)n = Dn (log 4x)

7
 (−1)n−1 (n−1)!4n (−1)n−1 (n−1)!
Dn (log 4x) = (4x)n
= (x)n
n−1 n−2 n−3
yn = x2 (−1) (x)n(n−1)! + 2nx (−1)(x)n−1
(n−2)!
+ n(n − 1) (−1)(x)n−2
(n−3)!

h i
1
yn = xn−2 (−1)n−1 (n − 1)! + 2n (−1)n−2 (n − 2)! + n(n − 1) (−1)n−3 (n − 3)! where n > 2

Example 14. Solve y = e−x x2 sinh 2x

Solution: y = e−x x2 sinh 2x

y = e−x x2 12 e2x − e−2x

1
x2 ex − x2 e−3x


y= 2

1
Dn x2 ex − Dn x2 e−3x



yn = 2

Applying Leibnitz theorem we get’

h i h i
yn = 21 x2 ex + n2xex + n(n−1)
2 2e 2 − 1 x2 (−3)n e−3x + n2x(−3)n−1 e−3x +
2
n(n−1)
2 2(−3)n−2 e−3x

ex −3x
x2 + 2nx + n(n − 1) − (−3)n−2 e 2 9x2 − 6nx + n(n − 1)



yn = 2

Example 15. If yn = Dn (xn log x)
prove that yn = nyn−1 + (n − 1)! and hence deduce
that yn = n! log x + 1 + 12 + 13 + · · · + n1 .

Solution: yn = Dn (xn log x)

yn = Dn−1 [D(xn log x)]

yn = Dn−1 xn x1 + nxn−1 log x

yn = Dn−1 xn−1 + nDn−1 xn−1 log x

yn = (n − 1)! + nyn−1

Now putting the values for n = 1, 2, 3 . . . we get

y1 = 0! + 1y0 = 1 + log x

y1 = 1! (log x + 1)

y2 = 1! + 2y1 = 1 + 2(1 + log x) = 2 log x + 3

y2 = 2(log x + 23 ) = 2! log x + 1 + 1


2

y3 = 2! + 3y2 = 2 + 3(2 log x + 3) = 6 log x + 11

11 1 1


y3 = 6(log x + 6 ) = 3! log x + 1 + 2 + 3

8
 ..
.
1 1 1


yn = n! log x + 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n

Example 16. If y = sin log(x2 + 2x + 1) show that (x + 1)2 yn+2 + (2n + 1)(x + 1)yn+1 +
(n2 + 4)yn = 0

Solution: y = sin log(x2 + 2x + 1)

1
y1 = cos log(x2 + 2x + 1) (x2 +2x+1) 2 (x + 1)
2 cos log(x2 +2x+1)
y1 = (x+1)

(x + 1)y1 = cos log(x2 + 2x + 1)

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

1
(x + 1)y2 + 1y1 = −2 sin log(x2 + 2x + 1) (x+1)2 2 (x + 1)

(x + 1)2 y2 + (x + 1)y1 = −4y

(x + 1)2 y2 + (x + 1)y1 + 4y = 0

Differentiating each term n ties we get,

h i
Dn (x + 1)2 y2 + Dn [(x + 1) y1 ] + 4Dn [y] = 0

Applying Leibnitz theorem we get’

h i
n(n−1)
(x + 1)2 yn+2 + n.2. (x + 1) yn+1 + 2 2.yn + [(x + 1) yn+1 + n.1.yn ] + 4yn = 0

(x + 1)2 yn+2 + 2n (x + 1) yn+1 + n2 yn − nyn + (x + 1)yn+1 + nyn + 4yn = 0

(x + 1)2 yn+2 + (2n + 1)(x + 1)yn+1 + (n2 + 4)yn = 0

Example 17. If y = (x2 − 1)n show that (1 − x2 )2 yn+2 − 2xyn+1 + n(n + 1)yn = 0

Solution: y = (x2 − 1)n

Taking logarithms on both sides we get,

log y = n log(x2 − 1)

Differentiating w.r.t x we get,

1
y y1 = n x21−1 2x

(x2 − 1)y1 = 2nxy

9
Differentiating again w.r.t x we get,

(x2 − 1)y2 + 2xy1 = 2n(xy1 + y)

Differentiating each term n times we have,

Dn (x2 − 1)y2 + 2Dn [xy1 ] = 2nDn [xy1 ] + 2nDn [y]

 

Applying Leibnitz theorem to the product terms we get’

h i
(x2 − 1)yn+2 + n.2x.yn+1 + n(n−1)
2 .2.yn + 2 [xyn+1 + n.1.yn ] = 2n [xyn+1 + n.1.yn ] + 2nyn

(x2 − 1)yn+2 + 2nxyn+1 + n2 yn − nyn + 2xyn+1 + 2nyn = 2nxyn+1 + 2n2 yn + 2nyn

(x2 − 1)yn+2 + 2xyn+1 − n2 yn − nyn = 0

(x2 − 1)yn+2 + 2xyn+1 − n(n + 1)yn = 0

(1 − x2 )yn+2 − 2xyn+1 + n(n + 1)yn = 0.

10
 2.3 Check your progress
1 −1
1. If y m + y m = 2 x show that (x2 − 1) yn+2 + (2n + 1) yn+1 + (n2 − m2 ) yn = 0.

2. If x = sint and y = cospt show that (1 − x2 ) yn+2 − (2n + 1) x yn+1 + (p2 − n2 ) yn = 0.

h  √ i2
3. If y = log x + x2 + a2 show that (1 + x2 ) yn+2 + 2 x yn+1 + n2 yn = 0.
h i
dn 2 n−1
4. If x+y = 1, show that dx n n n n
n (x y ) = n! y − ( C1 ) y x + (nC2 )2 y n−2 x2 + · · · + (−1)n xn

5. If y = sin m sin−1 x show that (1 − x2 ) yn+2 − (2n + 1) x yn+1 + (m2 − n2 ) yn = 0.

6. If y = a cosh(log xm ) + b sinh(log xm ) show that x2 yn+2 + (2n + 1) x yn+1 + (n2 − m2 ) yn = 0.

 √ n  √ n
7. If y = a x + x2 − 1 + b x − x2 − 1 show that (x2 − 1) yn+2 + (2n + 1) x yn+1 = 0.

8. If y = cos log(x2 − 2x + 1) show that (x − 1)2 yn+2 + (2n + 1)(x − 1)yn+1 + (n2 + 4)yn = 0.
−1
9. If y = ea sin x show that (1 − x2 )2 yn+2 − (2n + 1)xyn+1 − (n2 + a2 )yn = 0.
 √ m
10. If y = x + 1 + x2 show that (1 + x2 )2 yn+2 + (2n + 1)xyn+1 − (n2 − m2 )yn = 0.

References
[1] Frank Ayres, Advanced Calculus, the McGraw Hill 6th edition - 1999.

[2] LipmanBers, Calculus, Volumes 1 and 2, IBH - 1969.

[3] N. Piskunov, Differential and Integral Calculus

[4] N P Bali, Differential Calculus, India: Laxmi publications (P) Ltd..., 2010.

[5] Text book on Gorakhprasad First course in , Differential Calculus, Pothishala Ltd 2014.

[6] G B Thomas and R L Finney, Calculus and analytical geometry, Addison Wesley, 1995

[7] Shanthi Narayan and P K Mittal, Differential Calculus, Reprint. New Delhi: S Chand and Co.
Pvt. Ltd., 2014.

[8] Serge Lang, First course in Calculus, Springer - 1964.

11
 Differential Calculus-I

Unit-III
3.0 Objectives

• Use differentiation to locate points where the gradient of a graph is zero

• Locate stationary points of a function

• Distinguish between maximum and minimum turning points using the second deriva-
tive test

• Distinguish between maximum and minimum turning points using the first derivative
test

3.1 Introduction

Increasing and Decreasing Functions,

Maxima and Minima-Definitions and Problems

Definitions: Increasing and Decreasing Functions

• A function f : I → R defined on an interval I ⊂ R is said to be an increasing function

on I, if for all x1 , x2 ∈ Iwith x1 < x2 , f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).

• A function f : I → R defined on an interval I ⊂ R is said to be a decreasing function

on I, if for all x1 , x2 ∈ I with x1 < x2 , f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).

Derivative Test: Increasing and Decreasing Functions

• A function f : I → R is increasing on an interval I, if and only if:(df (x))/dx > 0, ∀x ∈ I.

• A function f : I → R is decreasing on an interval I, if and only if: (df (x))/dx < 0,

∀x ∈ I.

• A function f : I → R is stationary on an interval I, if and only if: (df (x))/dx = 0,

∀x ∈ I.

1
 3.2 Examples

1. Consider f : (0, 2) → R defined by f (x) = x2 , ∀x ∈ (0, 2).

2
Solution: Since dfdx
(x)
= d(x
dx
)
= 2x,
and 2x > 0, ∀x ∈ (0, 2), so this function is increasing in (0, 2).

2. Consider f : (−2, 0) → R defined by f (x) = x2 , ∀x ∈ (−2, 0).

2
Solution: Since dfdx
(x)
= d(x
dx
)
= 2x,
and 2x < 0, ∀x ∈ (−2, 0), so this function is decreasing in (−2, 0).

3. Consider f : (−2, 2) → R defined by f (x) = x2 , ∀x ∈ (−2, 2).

2
 2
Solution: Since dfdx
(x)
= d(x
dx
)
= 2x,
and 2x < 0, ∀x ∈ (−2, 0), so this function is decreasing in (−2, 0);

2x = 0, at x = 0, so this function is stationary atx = 0;

further, as 2x > 0, ∀x ∈ (0, 2), so this function is increasing in (0, 2).

Definitions: Local Maxima and Local Minima of Functions

• A function f : I → R defined on an interval I ⊂ R is said to have a local maximum

value at x = a ∈ I if there exists a small positive number h, however small, such that
f (a) > f (a − h)andf (a) > f (a + h).

• A function f : I → R defined on an interval I ⊂ R is said to have a local minimum

value at x = a ∈ I, if there exists a small positive number h, however small, such that
f (a) < f (a − h)andf (a) < f (a + h).

Local Maxima and Local Minima of Functions: Some facts

• Extreme values of a function: These are the collection of local maximum and local
minimum values of a function on its domain.

• Turning points of a function: These are the points at which the function attains the
extreme values.

• The local maximum or local minimum values of a function in an interval, are not nec-
essarily the maximum or minimum values of the function over that interval.

• There may be several local maximum and local minimum values of a function in an
interval, and a local minimum value may be even greater than a local maximum value.

Derivative Test: Local Maxima and Local Minima of Functions

0 00
• A function f : I → R is locally maximum at x = a ∈ I, if:f (a) = 0, and f (a) < 0.

3
 0 00
• A function f : I → R is locally minimum at x = a ∈ I if: f (a) = 0, and f (a) > 0.

Procedure to find Local Maxima and Local Minima of Functions

0
• Find the first-order derivative f 0 (x) and solve equation:f (x) = 0.

• Let the zeros of this equation be a, b, c, etc.

• Find the second-order derivative f 00 (x), and substitute in it by turns

x = a, b, c, . . .
00
• If f (a) < 0, then f (x) is locally maximum at x = a;
00
If f (a) > 0, then f (x) is locally minimum at x = a;
00
• If f 00 (x) is difficult to find out, or f (a) = 0, then see if f 0 (x) changes sign from +ve
to −ve as x passes through a, then f (x) is locally minimum at x = a. If f 0 (x) changes sign
from −ve to +ve as x passes through a, then f (x) is locally maximum at x = a. If f 0 (x)
does not change its sign as x passes through a, then f (x) is neither locally maximum nor
locally minimum at x = a.

1. Find the local maximum and local minimum values of f (x) = 3x4 − 2x3 −
6x2 + 6x + 1, in the interval (0, 2).
0 0
• Since f (x) = 12x3 − 6x2 − 12x + 6, and solving f = 0, gives the roots as x = −1, 0.5, 1

• Since the interval is (0,2), so x = −1 is ignored.

• The second-order derivative is f 11 = 36x2 − 12x − 12.

00 00
• since f (0.5) = −9 < 0 and f (1) = 12 > 0, so f (x) is locally maximum at x = 0.5
and locally minimum at x = 1.

39
• Now, the local maximum value of f (x) in (0, 2) is given by f (0.5) = 16
and the local
minimum value of f (x) in (0, 2) is given by f (1) = 2.

4
 3.3 Examples

1. Show that the diameter of the right circular cylinder of greatest curved
surface which can be inscribed in a given cone is equal to the radius of the cone.

Solution: Let OA = r be the radius of the base and α be the semi-vertical angle of the given
cone. Inscribe a cylinder in it with base-radius OL = x.

Then the height of the cylinder is

LP = LA cot α = (r − x) cot α.

Therefore, the curved surface S of the cylinder is

S = 2πxLP
= 2πx(r − x) cot α
= 2π cot α(rx − x2 )
ds d2 s
Since dx
= 2π cot α(r − 2x), for x = 2r ; and dx2
= −4π cot α < 0;

so S is maximum when x = 2r .

2. A rectangular sheet of metal of length 6 metres and width 2 metre is given.

Four equal squares are removed from the corners. The sides of this sheet are
now turned up to form an open rectangular box. Find approximately, the height
of the box, such that the volume of the box is maximum.

5
Solution: Let the side of each of the squares cut off be x m so that the height of the box is
x m and the side of the bases are (6 − 2x) and (2 − 2x)m.

Therefore the volume of the box is

V = x(6 − 2x)(2 − 2x) = 4(x3 − 4x2 + 3x).

dv
Hence dx
= 4(3x2 − 8x + 3).

for V to be maximum or minimum, we must have

dv
dx
= 0, i.e. 3x2 − 8x + 3 = 0, which gives x = 2.2or 0.45m.

The value x = 2.2m is inadmissible, as no box is possible for this value.

d2 v
Also dx2
= 4(6x − 8), which is -ve for x = 0.45m.

Hence the volume of the box is maximum when its height is 45cm.

3. Show that the right circular cylinder of given surface (including the ends)
and maximum volume is such that its height is equal to the diameter of the base.
Solution: Let r be the radius of the base and h the height of the cylinder.

The Surface area : S = 2πrh + 2πr2 ...(1)

Volume: V = πr2 h ...(1)

Hence V is a function of two variable r and h.

To express V in terms of one variable, say r

we substitute the value of h from (1) in (2), then

 
2 s−2πr2
V = πr 2πr
= sr2 − πr3 .

dv s
Therefore dr
= 2
− 3πr2 .

dv s
p
For V to be maximum or minimum, we must have dr
= 0, and it gives r = 6π

d2 v s
p
Also, dr2
= −6πr, which is negative for r = 6π

s
p
Hence V is maximum for r = 6π

i.e. for 6πr2 = S = 2πrh + 2πr2 , i.e. for h = 2r, which proves the required result.

6
 3.4 Check your progress

1. Show that the right circular cylinder of given surface area and maximum volume is
such that its height is equal to the diameter of the base.

2. Of all the closed cylindrical cans (right circular), of a given volume of 100 cubic cen-
timetres, find the dimensions of the can which hs the minimum surface area.

3. A right circular cylinder is to be made so that the sum of its radius and height is 9
meters. Find the maximum volume of the cylinder.

4. Find the point on the curve x2 = 8y which is nearest to the point (2,4).

5. Find the largest possible area of a right angled triangle whose hypotenuse is 5 cm long.

6. Find the area of the greatest isosceles triangle that can be inscribed in a given ellipse
having its vertex coincident with one end of major axis.

3.5 Answers to check your progress

q
S
1. h = 2 6π .

50

13 50

31
2. radius = π
cm and height = 2 π
cm.

3. 108π.

4. (4, 2).

25
5. 4
cm2 .
√
3 3
6. 4
ab.

References
[1] M. D. Greenberg, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, New
Jersey, USA 1998.

[2] B. S. Grewal and J. S. Grewal, Higher Engineering Mathematics, 42nd Edition, Khanna
Publishers, New Delhi, India 2012.

[3] E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 9th Edition, John Wiley and Sons,
Singapore 2006.

[4] Frank Ayres, Advanced Calculus, the McGraw Hill 6th edition - 1999.

7
[5] LipmanBers, Calculus, Volumes 1 and 2, IBH - 1969.

[6] N. Piskunov, Differential and Integral Calculus

[7] N P Bali, Differential Calculus, India: Laxmi publications (P) Ltd..., 2010.

8
 Differential Calculus-I

Unit-IV
4.0 Objectives

• Examine the concavity, convexity and points of inflexions.

• Identify the range of values of x.

4.1 Introduction

Let P (c, f (c)) be a point on a curve f (x).

Let P T be the tangent to the curve f (x) at the point P .

• If a portion of the curve f (x) on both sides of P , however small it may be, lies above
the tangent at P , we say the curve is Concave upwards or Convex downwards at P .
(Observe Figure 1)

• If a portion of the curve f (x) on both sides of P , however small it may be, lies below
the tangent at P , we say the curve is Convex upwards or Concave downwards at P .
(Observe Figure 2)

• If the curve f (x) lies below the tangent at P on one side and above the tangent on the
other side, we say that P is a point of Inflexion for the curve.
(Observe Figure 3)

4.2 The Criteria for Concavity, Convexity and point of inflection for the curve
y=f(x)

• The curve f (x) is concave upwards (or convex downwards) at a point P (c, f (c)) if
′′
f (c) > 0.

• The curve f (x) is concave downwards (or convex upwards) at a point P (c, f (c)) if
′′
f (c) < 0.
′′ ′′
• The curve f (x) has a point of inflexion at a point P (c, f (c)) if f (c) = 0 and f (x)
′′′
changes sign passing through the point P (i.e.) (f (c) ̸= 0).
d2 y
• The curve is concave upwards at a point if dx2
is positive.

1
 d2 y
• The curve is convex upwards at a point if dx2
is negative.

• The curve has a point of inflection at a point if

d2 y d2 y
a. dx2
=0 and b. dx2
changes sign as x passes through P .

2
 4.3 Examples

1. Show that y = ex is everywhere concave upwards.

Let y = ex
dy
= ex
dx
d2 y
= ex
dx2

d2 y
dx2
is always positive, thus the curve is concave upwards.

2. Show that y = log x is everywhere concave upwards.

Let y = log x
dy 1
=
dx x
d2 y 1
2
=− 2
dx x

d2 y
dx2
is always negative for all values of x, thus the curve is convex upwards.

3. Find the ranges of values of x for which the curve y = 3x5 − 40x3 + 3x − 20
is concave upwards or downwards. Also determine the point of inflection.

W e have y = 3x5 − 40x3 + 3x − 20

dy
= 15x4 − 120x2 + 3,
dx
d2 y
2
= 60x3 − 240x,
dx
d2 y
= 60x(x − 2)(x + 2)
dx2

d2 y
Now, dx2
> 0 =⇒ 60x(x − 2)(x + 2) > 0

=⇒ x(x2 − 4) > 0

=⇒ x > 0, (x2 − 4) > 0 or x < 0, (x2 − 4) < 0

Now, x > 0, (x2 − 4) > 0 =⇒ x ∈ (2, ∞) [x > 0, x < 2, x < −2] not possible

3
 Now, x < 0, (x2 − 4) < 0 =⇒ x ∈ (−2, 0) [x < 0, x > 2, x < −2] not possible
d2 y
dx2
> 0 in the interval (2, ∞) and (−2, 0).

The curve is concave upwards in the interval (2, ∞) and (−2, 0).
d2 y
Now, dx2
< 0 =⇒ 60x(x − 2)(x + 2) < 0

=⇒ x(x2 − 4) < 0

=⇒ x < 0, (x2 − 4) > 0 or x > 0, (x2 − 4) < 0

Now, x < 0, (x2 − 4) > 0 =⇒ x ∈ (−∞, −2) [x < 0, x > 2, x > −2] not possible

Now, x > 0, (x2 − 4) < 0 =⇒ x ∈ (0, 2) [x > 0, x > 2, x < −2] not possible
d2 y
dx2
< 0 in the interval (−∞, −2) and (0, 2).

The curve is concave downwards in the interval (−∞, −2) and (0, 2).
d3 y
At x = 0, ±2, dx3
= 180x2 − 240, does not vanish at these values of x

Thus x = 0 and x = ±2 are the points of inflection.

At x = 0, At y = −20, x = 2, At y = −238 and x = −2, At y = 198 the points of

inflection are (0, −20), (−2, 198) and (2, −238).

4. Find the ranges of values of x for which the curve y = x4 − 6x3 + 12x2 + 5x + 7
is concave upwards or downwards. Also determine the point of inflection.

W e have y = x4 − 6x3 + 12x2 + 5x + 7

dy
= 4x3 − 18x2 + 24x + 5,
dx
d2 y
= 12x2 − 36x + 24,
dx2
d2 y
= 12(x − 1)(x − 2)
dx2

d2 y
Now, dx2
> 0 =⇒ 12(x − 1)(x − 2) > 0

=⇒ (x − 1) > 0, (x − 2) > 0 or (x − 1) < 0, (x − 2) < 0

=⇒ x > 1, x > 2 or x < 1, x < 2

4
 =⇒ x > 2 or x < 1
d2 y
dx2
> 0 in the interval (−∞, 1) and (2, ∞).

The curve is concave upwards in the interval (−∞, 1) and (2, ∞).
d2 y
Now, dx2
< 0 =⇒ 12(x − 1)(x − 2) < 0

=⇒ (x − 1) > 0, (x − 2) < 0 or (x − 1) < 0, (x − 2) > 0

=⇒ x > 1, x < 2 or x < 1, x > 2

=⇒ 1 < x < 2

The curve is concave downwards in the interval (1, 2) .

d2 y
Now, dx2
= 0 =⇒ x = 1 or x = 2
d3 y
At x = 1 dx3
= 24(1) − 36 ̸= 0
d3 y
At x = 2 dx3
= 24(2) − 36 ̸= 0

Thus x = 1 and x = 2 are the points of inflection.

At x = 1, At y = 19 and x = 2, At y = 33 the points of inflection are (1, 19) and (2, 33).

5. Show that the curve (a2 + x2 )y = a2 x has three points of inflection.

a2 x
Let y = 2
(a + x2 )
dy a2 (a2 + x2 ) − 2a2 x2
=
dx (a2 + x2 )2
dy a2 (a2 − x2 )
=
dx (a2 + x2 )2
d2 y 2 2 2 2
2 −2x(a + x ) − 4x(a + x )(a − x )
2 2 2
= a
dx2 (a2 + x2 )4
d2 y 2
2 −2x(3a − x )
2
= a
dx2 (a2 + x2 )3
√ √
d2 y (x − 3a)x(x + 3a)
2
= 2a2 2 2 3
dx (a + x )

d2 y
√ √
dx2
= 0 for x = 3a, 0, − 3a
d y 2
It may be seen that dx 2 changes sign as, x passes through each of these thee values of x.
√ √ √ √
Hence, the points of inflection are ( 3a, 3a/4), (0, 0) and (− 3a, − 3a/4)

5
 6. Find the points of inflection on the curve y = (log x)3 .

Let y = (log x)3

dy 1
= 3(log x)2
dx x
d2 y 1 3
= 6 log x 2 − 2 (log x)2
dx2 x x
2
dy 3 log x
2
= (2 − log x)
dx x2
d2 y 3 log x e2
= log
dx2 x2 x
d2 y
= 0 if log x = 0 or log x = 2.
dx2

We expect points of inflexion on the curve for x = 1 and x = e2 .

d2 y
dx2
changes sign from negative to positive as x passes through 1 and changes sign from
positive to negative as x passe through e2 .
(1, 0) and (e2 , 8) are the two points of inflexion.

4.4 Check your progress

1.Examine for concavity, convexity and points of inflexions for the curve y = sin x in the
interval (0, 2π).

2. Find the range of values of x for which the curve y = (x2 + 4x + 5)e−x is concave
upwards and downwards.

x3 −x
3. Find the points of inflexion for the curve y = 3x2 +1
. Also find the intervals in which
the curve is concave downwards or upwards.

4. Determine whether the spiral r cosh θ = a is concave or convex towards the pole..

5. Examine the curve y = sin x for concavity upwards, concavity downwards and for
points of inflexion in the interval [−2π, 2π].

6. Find the intervals in which the curve y = (cos x + sin x)ex is concave upwards or
downwards, x varying the interval (0, 2π).

7. Find the points of inflexion on the curves.

(x3 −x)
(a) y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d (b) y = 3x2 +1
(c) x = 3y 4 − 4y 3 + 5
a2 (a−x) x3 x
(d) x = (y − 1)(y − 2)(y − 3) (e) y = a2 +x2
(f ) y = a2 +x2
(g) y = x2 +2x+2

6
 x 2
(h) y = be−( a ) (i) xy = a2 log(x/a) (j) y = x2 log(x2 /e3 )

8. Find the points of inflexion on the curves.

(a) x = a(2θ − sin θ) (b) x = a tan t, y = a sin t cos t (c) x = 2a cot θ, y = 2a sin2 θ
2
(d) y = xe−x (e) y = x2 e−x (f ) y = ex/2 − 2e−x/2 (g) y = x(x − 3)e2x

4.5 Answers to check your progress

1. Concave downwards in (0, π),

Concave downwards in (0, π),

Point of inflexion at x = π

2. Concave downwards in (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞),

Concave downwards in (−1, 1),

Point of inflexion are (−1, 2e) and 1, 10

e

3. Concave upwards in (−∞, −1) and (0, 1),

Concave downwards in (−1, 1) and (1, ∞),

Point of inflexion are x = 0, 1, −1.

4. Concave towards pole.

5. Concave downwards in [−2π, −π] and [0, π],

Concave upwards in [−π, 0] and [π, 2π].

6. Concave downwards in [ π4 , 5π
4
],

Concave upwards in [0, π4 ] and [ 5π

4
, 2π].

7.(a) x = −b/3a.

(b) (0, 0), (1, 0), (−1, 0).

119 2


(c) (5, 0), ,
27 3
.

7
 (d) (0, 2).
√
(e) x = −a and x = a(2 ± 3).
√
(f ) x = 0 and x = ±a 3.
√
(g) x = −2 and x = 1 ± 3.
√
(h) x = ±a/ 2.

3
ae−3/2 , ae3/2


(i) 2
.

(d) (1, 3).

h  √  i
3
8.(a) a 4πn ± 2π 3
± 2
, 3a
2
.
 √ √ 
(b) ± 3a, ± 43a , (0, 0).
 
(c) ± √2a3 , 3a
2
.
√
3
(d) x = 0, ± 2
.
√
(e) x = 2 ± 2.

(f ) x = log 2.

1 1
√
(g) x = 2
± 2
11.

References
[1] Frank Ayres, Advanced Calculus, the McGraw Hill 6th edition - 1999.

[2] LipmanBers, Calculus, Volumes 1 and 2, IBH - 1969.

[3] N. Piskunov, Differential and Integral Calculus

[4] N P Bali, Differential Calculus, India: Laxmi publications (P) Ltd..., 2010.

[5] Text book on Gorakhprasad First course in , Differential Calculus, Pothishala Ltd
2014.

[6] G B Thomas and R L Finney, Calculus and analytical geometry, Addison Wesley, 1995

[7] Shanthi Narayan and P K Mittal, Differential Calculus, Reprint. New Delhi: S Chand
and Co. Pvt. Ltd., 2014.

[8] Serge Lang, First course in Calculus, Springer - 1964.

8
 [9] L N Chakravarthi, A textbook of B.Sc. Mathematics Vol I .

[10] G K Ranganath, A Textbook of B.Sc. Mathematics 1st Semester (Mysore University).

9
Differential Calculus – II KSOU

BLOCK – II: Differential Calculus – II

__________________________________________________________
Unit – 5
__________________________________________________________

5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2.1 Polar Coordinates
5.2.2 Relationship between Cartesian (x,y) to Polar (𝑟, 𝜃) coordinates
5.2.3 Angle between Radius Vector and Tangent
5.2.4 Angle of intersection of two curves
5.3 Check your progress
5.4 Keywords
5.5 Worked Examples
5.6 Questions for self-study
5.7 Answers to check your progress
5.8 References
__________________________________________________________

5.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, one should be able to know how to switch from cartesian
coordinates to polar coordinates and vice versa. Also able to derive and know how to find angle
between the radius vector and the tangent which helps in finding angle of intersection of two
curves.

1
Differential Calculus – II KSOU

5.1 Introduction
In this unit we learn how to switch from cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates and vice
versa. Also we find angle between the radius vector and the tangent which helps in finding angle
of intersection of two curves. Polar coordinates are used often in navigation as the destination or
direction of travel can be given as an angle and distance from the object being considered. For
instance, aircraft use a slightly modified version of the polar coordinates for navigation.

5.2.1 Polar Coordinates

Besides the Cartesian, we have other systems for representing Points and Curves analytically,
known as POLAR SYSTEMS.
Y P(x,y)
In this, reference is chosen as follows (In fig): P(r, 𝜃)
Fix a point "𝑶" in the plane called POLE.
Draw a line "𝑶𝑿" through "𝑶" called INITIAL LINE. r
If "𝑃" be an given point. Join the points "𝑂"and "𝑃"
y
which makes an angle "𝑿𝑶𝑷 = 𝜽"at "𝑂“.
The distance 𝑶𝑷 = 𝒓 is called RADIUS VECTOR( always POSITIVE) .
The angle "𝜃"is called VECTORIAL ANGLE.
𝜽
Note:"𝜽“ is +ve, when measured in ANTICLOKWISE direction.
𝑂 𝑞 𝑋

5.2.2 Relationship between Cartesian (x,y) to Polar (𝒓, 𝜽) coordinates

𝑌 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
Given equation of curve in the Cartesian system then,
𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃)
We can write the same in Polar system, we use the
following transformation: r
Let (𝑥, 𝑦) and (𝑟, 𝜃) be the Cartesian and Polar coordinates
𝑦
respectively of any point “P” in the plane.
From the figure we have, OQ = 𝑥 & 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑦 , also from 𝜽
𝑂 𝑥 𝑄 𝑋
2
Differential Calculus – II KSOU

Right angle triangle 𝑂𝑄𝑃, we have:

𝑂𝑄 𝑃𝑄
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ; i.e., 𝒙 = 𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽----(1), 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ; i.e., 𝒚 = 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽-----(2)
𝑂𝑃 𝑂𝑃

Equations (1) & (2) determine the cartesian coordinates in terms as Polar coordinates.
𝒚
Further, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 ⟹ 𝒓 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 and 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = .
𝒙

5.2.3 Angle between Radius Vector and Tangent

Let 𝑃 = (𝑟, 𝜃) be any point on the curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃). 𝒓 = 𝒇(𝜽)
Y
∴ 𝑋𝑂𝑃 = 𝜃 and 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟. 𝜙
Draw a tangent 𝑃𝐿 to the curve at "𝑃", 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
such that it makes an angle 𝜓 on the initial line (+𝑣𝑒 X-axis). 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃)
r
Let 𝜙 be the angle between Radius Vector 𝑂𝑃and Tangent 𝑃𝐿.
i.e ∟𝑂𝑃𝐿 = 𝜙, from fig:

𝜓 = 𝜙 + 𝜃 (∵Exterior angle= Sum of Interior opp angle) 𝜓

⟹ 𝑡𝑎 𝑛 𝜓 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜙 + 𝜃), 𝜽
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑜 𝐿 X
i.e., 𝑡𝑎 𝑛 𝜓 = -------------(1).
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙.𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

𝒅𝒚
Also, we know that, slope of the tangent 𝑷𝑳 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝍 = .
𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝜃
Since 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, we have 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = 𝑑𝑥⁄
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑟
now = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and = −𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝑟 ′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∴ 𝑡𝑎 𝑛 𝜓 = , dividing Numerator and denominator 𝒓′ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽,
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+𝑟 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑟
+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑟′
we get, 𝑡𝑎 𝑛 𝜓 = 𝑟 ----------(2)
1− ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑟

𝒓 𝒅𝒓
Comparing of (1) & (2) are we get 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝓 = ⟹ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝓 = 𝒓 .
𝒓′ 𝒅𝜽
1 1 𝑑𝑟 𝟏 𝒅𝒓
Note: = ⟹ 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝝓 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝒓 𝒅𝜽

3
Differential Calculus – II KSOU

Procedure to find Angle between Radius Vector & Tangent

 Given equation 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃).

 Take "𝑙𝑜𝑔“ (preferable) on both sides.

𝟏 𝒅𝒓 𝑑(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟)
 Differentiate w.r.t 𝜃 on both sides , LHS gives
𝒓 𝒅𝜽
(𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑑𝜃
).

𝟏 𝒅𝒓
 We directly substitute for 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙 = .
𝒓 𝒅𝜽

 Simplify RHS and try to put in terms of "𝒄𝒐𝒕" , then we can get 𝝓.

5.2.4 Angle of intersection of two curves

We know that the angle between the two intersecting curves, is the angle between the
tangents drawn to the curves at the point of intersection of the curves.

Let 𝑃 be the point of intersection of the curves whose equations are 𝑟 = 𝑓1 (𝜃) and 𝑟 = 𝑓2 (𝜃).

Let 𝑃𝑇1and 𝑃𝑇2 be the tangents drawn to the curves 𝑟 = 𝑓1 (𝜃) and 𝑟 = 𝑓2 (𝜃) at 𝑃 respectively.

Let ∅1 and ∅2 be the angle made by 𝑃𝑇1 and 𝑃𝑇2 with radius vector at 𝑃. If 𝛼 is the angle between
the curves, then 𝛼 = |∅1 − ∅2 |.

𝑓2 (𝜃)

𝑃
𝑓1 (𝜃)
𝑇1
∅2
∅1 𝑇2

𝜃
𝑂 𝐴

4
Differential Calculus – II KSOU

Note: If 𝛼 = 90° , the curves are said to cut orthogonally. In this case
𝜋 𝜋
∅1 − ∅2 = => ∅1 = + ∅2
2 2
𝜋 1
=> tan ∅1 = tan ( 2 + ∅2 ) = − cot ∅2 = − tan ∅
2

1
=> tan ∅1 = − tan ∅
2

∴ tan ∅1 tan ∅2 = −1.

𝑑𝜃
Thus if two curves cut orthogonally, then the values of 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 for the two curves will be negative
reciprocal of each other.

5.3 Check your progress

2𝑎
1) The angle between radius vector and tangent of 𝑟 = 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is :
𝜃
a) 𝜙 = 𝜋 + 2
𝜋
b) 𝜙 = 2 + 𝜃
𝜃
c) 𝜙 = 𝜋 −
2

d) 𝜙 = 𝜋 − 2𝜃

2) The angle between radius vector and tangent of the curve 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑎2 is:
𝜋
a) 𝜙 = 2 − 2𝜃
𝜋
b) 𝜙 = 2 + 2𝜃

c) 𝜙 = 𝜋 − 2𝜃
d) 𝜙 = 𝜋 + 2𝜃

3) The angle between radius vector and tangent of the curve 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) is:
𝜃
a) 𝜙 = 2
𝜋
b) 𝜙 = 2

c) 𝜙 = 0
d) 𝜙 = ∞
5
Differential Calculus – II KSOU

4) The slope of the tangent to the curve 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜃 at the pole is:
𝜋
a) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = 2
𝜋
b) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = 2 + 𝜃

c) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = 0
d) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = 𝜋

𝜃 2 𝜋
5) The slope of the tangent to the curve 𝑟 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 2) at the point 𝜃 = is:
2
𝜋
a) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = 2

b) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = 1
c) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = 0
d) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = −1

6) Angle of intersection between two polar curves given by 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽) and
𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽) is given by _______
𝜋
a. .
3
𝜋
b. .
4
𝜋
c. .
2

d. 0.

5.4 Keywords
Polar Coordinates, Angle between Radius vector and Tangent, Angle of intersection of two curves.

6
Differential Calculus – II KSOU

5.5 Worked Examples

1) Find the angle between the radius vector and the tangent for the curve
𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽).
Soln: Given 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃),
Take "𝑙𝑜𝑔“ on both sides we get,

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃).

Differentiating w.r.t 𝜃 we get,
1 𝑑𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=0+
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜽 𝜽
𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜃
𝟐 𝟐
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙 = 𝜽 𝟐
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡
𝟐(𝒔𝒊𝒏 ) 2
𝟐

𝜃
thus , 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡
2
𝜽
⟹ 𝜙= .
𝟐

2) Find the angle between the radius vector and the tangent for the curve

𝒓𝒎 = 𝒂𝒎 (𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝜽 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝜽).
Soln: Given 𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃) ,
Taking "𝑙𝑜𝑔“ on both sides, we get

𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃)

Differentiating w.r.t 𝜃, on both sides we get,
𝑚 𝑑𝑟 𝑚(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃) 𝑚(1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚𝜃)
= =
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( + 𝑚𝜃) ⟹ 𝜙 = + 𝑚𝜃.
4 4

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

3) Find the angle between the radius vector and the tangent for the curve
𝜽 𝟐
𝒓 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐) = 𝒂 𝐚𝐭 𝜽 = 𝟐𝝅⁄𝟑 and also find slope of the tangent.

𝜃 2
Soln: Given 𝑟 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) = 𝑎 ,
2

Take "𝑙𝑜𝑔“ on both sides we get,

𝜃
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎.
2

Differentiating w.r.t 𝜃 we get,

−1⁄ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
1 𝑑𝑟 2 2
+2∙ 𝜃 =0
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠( )
2

𝜋 𝜃
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ⁄2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( − )
2 2
𝜋 𝜃
⟹ 𝝓= −
2 2

now, at 𝜃 = 2𝜋⁄3 , 𝝓 becomes

𝜋 𝜃 𝝅
𝝓= − = .
2 2 𝟔

also, slope of the tangent = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓

= 𝑡𝑎 𝑛(𝜙 + 𝜃)
= 𝑡𝑎 𝑛(5𝜋⁄6)
−𝟏
∴ slope of the tangent =
√𝟑

4) Show that the angle between the normal at any point (𝒓, 𝜽) on the curve
𝒓𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝜽, and the initial line is (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝜽.
Soln: Given 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃.
Take "𝑙𝑜𝑔“ on both sides we get,
𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃.
Differentiating w.r.t 𝜃 we get,

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

𝑛 𝑑𝑟 (−𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃)
=0+
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃
𝜋
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑛𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( 2 + 𝑛𝜃)
𝜋
⟹ 𝝓 = 2 + 𝑛𝜃

Now, the angle made by the tangent with initial line is:
𝜋
𝜓 =𝜙+𝜃 ⟹ 𝜓 = + 𝑛𝜃 + 𝜃
2
𝜋
𝜓 = + (𝑛 + 1)𝜃.
2

Now the angle made (between) by initial line and the normal is:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝜓 − = + (𝑛 + 1)𝜃 −
2 2 2
𝜋
Hence, 𝜓 − = (𝑛 + 1)𝜃.
2

𝝅 𝟐𝝅
5) Show that the tangents to the curve 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽) at the points 𝜽 = and 𝜽 = are
𝟑 𝟑
respectively parallel and perpendicular to the initial line.
Soln: Given 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃).
Take "𝑙𝑜𝑔“ on both sides we get,
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + log(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃).
Differentiating w.r.t 𝜃 we get,
1 𝑑𝑟 (− 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
=0+
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜃 𝜃
−2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
2 2
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙 = 𝜃 2
= −𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
2(𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 2
2

𝜋 𝜃
Now, 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( 2 + 2)
𝜋 𝜃
∴ 𝜙 = 2 + 2.

Now, angle made by tangent with the initial line is

𝜋 𝜃
𝜓 =𝜃+𝜙 ⟹𝜓 =𝜃+ +
2 2

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

𝜋 3𝜃
𝜓= +
2 2
𝝅 𝟑𝜽
Slope of the tangent is : 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝍 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 ( 𝟐 + ) --------(1)
𝟐
𝜋
Now, put 𝜃 = in (1) ,
3

𝜋 𝜋
we get 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (2 + 2 )

⟹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(0) = 0.
𝜋
∴ Tangent is Parallel to the initial line at 𝜃 = 3 .
2𝜋
Now, put 𝜃 = in (1) , we get
3

𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 2 + 𝜋)
3𝜋
⟹ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 2 )

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 = ∞.
2𝜋
∴ Tangent is Perpendicular to the initial line at 𝜃 = .
3

6) Find the angle between the curves at the point of intersection

𝒓 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽, 𝒓 = 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
Soln: Given curves 𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝑟 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑟 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
tan ∅1 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 tan ∅2 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

tan ∅1 = tan ∅2 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃−𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃)
tan ∅1 = tan ∅2 = tan 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃(1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃)
𝜋 𝜋
tan ∅1 = tan (4 + 𝜃) ⟹ ∅1 = ( 4 + 𝜃) ∅2 = 𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
∴ Angle between the curves = 𝛼 = ∅1 − ∅2 = +𝜃−𝜃 = .
4 4

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

7) Find the angle between the curves at the point of intersection

𝒂
𝒓 = 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝜽, 𝒓 =
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝜽
𝑎
Soln: Given curves 𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃 𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜃

𝑎
{𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜃 => (𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜃)2 = 1 => 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜃 = 1 => 𝜃=𝑒}

𝑑𝑟 𝑎 𝑑𝑟 𝑎 1
=𝜃 = − (𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜃)2 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
tan ∅1 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 tan ∅2 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟

𝜃 𝑎 (𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜃)2
tan ∅1 = 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃 tan ∅2 = − 𝜃
𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝜃 𝑎

tan ∅1 = 𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 tan ∅2 = −𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒

tan ∅1 = 𝑒 tan ∅2 = −𝑒
∅1 = tan−1 𝑒 ∅2 = −tan−1 𝑒
2𝑒
∴ Angle between the curves = 𝛼 = ∅1 − ∅2 = tan−1 𝑒 + tan−1 𝑒 = 2tan−1 𝑒 = tan−1 (1−𝑒 2 ).

𝒂𝟐
8) Show that the curve 𝒓 = 𝒃 cuts the curve 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽 + 𝒃𝟐 at the angle 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝒃𝟐 ).

Soln: Given curves 𝑟 = 𝑏 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 + 𝑏 2

𝜋 𝜋
{𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 + 𝑏 2 => 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 = 0 => 2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0 => 2𝜃 = => 𝜃 = }
2 4
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
=0 2𝑟 𝑑𝜃 = −2𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
tan ∅1 = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 =−
𝑑𝜃 𝑟

𝑏 𝑑𝜃 𝑟2 𝜋
tan ∅1 = 0 𝑟 =− 𝜋 , 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 =
𝑑𝑟 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4
2

𝑏2
tan ∅1 = ∞ tan ∅2 = − 𝑎2

𝑎2 𝜋 𝑎2
∅1 = tan−1 ∞ − cot ∅2 = 𝑏2 => tan ( ∅2 − 2 ) = 𝑏2

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

𝜋 𝜋 𝑎2
∅1 = ∅2 = 2 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑏2 )
2

𝜋 𝜋 𝑎2 𝑎2
∴ Angle between the curves = 𝛼 = | ∅1 − ∅2 | = |2 − 2 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑏2 )| = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑏2 ).

9) Show that the 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽), 𝒓 = 𝒃(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)curves intersect orthogonally.

Soln: Given curves 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃), 𝑟 = 𝑏(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
= − 𝑎 sin 𝜃 = 𝑏 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
tan ∅1 = 𝑟 tan ∅2 = 𝑟
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑎(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑏(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
tan ∅1 = tan ∅2 = ,
− 𝑎 sin 𝜃 b sin 𝜃

2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃⁄2) 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃⁄2)

tan ∅1 = − tan ∅2 =
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃⁄2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃⁄2) 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃⁄2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃⁄2)

tan ∅1 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃⁄2) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜋⁄2 + 𝜃⁄2) tan ∅2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃⁄2)

∅1 = 𝜋⁄2 + 𝜃⁄2 ∅2 = 𝜃⁄2

∴ Angle between the curves = 𝛼 = | ∅1 − ∅2 | = |𝜋⁄2 + 𝜃⁄2 − 𝜃⁄2| = 𝜋⁄2.

5.6 Questions for self-study

1) Find 𝜙 for the curve 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼 .

2) Find 𝜙 for the curve 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃.

2𝑎
3) Find 𝜙 for the curve = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
𝑟

4) Find 𝜙 for the curve 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑏𝜃 .

𝑙
5) Find 𝜙 for the curve 𝑟 = 1 + 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.

6) Find 𝜙 for the curve 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 .

7) Find the angle of intersection of the curves 2𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 and 2𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃.
𝑎𝜃 𝑎
8) Find the angle of intersection of the curves 𝑟 = and 𝑟 = .
1+𝜃 1+𝜃2

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

9) Find the angle of intersection of the curves 𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 2𝑟 = 𝑎.

𝑎
10) Show that the curves 𝑟 = 𝑎𝜃 and 𝑟 = cut orthogonally.
𝜃

11) Show that the curves 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑒 𝜃 and 𝑟 = 𝑏𝑒 −𝜃 intersect at right angles.

12) Show that the curves 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝑎2 and 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 𝑏 2 cut orthogonally.

5.7 Answers to check your progress

1) c 2) a 3) b 4) c 5) b 6) c

5.8 References

1) Shanthi Narayan and Dr. P. K. Mittal, Differential Calculus, Fifteenth edition, S. Chand
Publications, Shyamlal Charitable Trust, Ram Nagar, New Delhi – 110 055.
2) Prof. K. Rama Murthy and Dr. Arshad Qureshi, Elements of Engineering Mathematics,
Sudha Publications, Bengaluru – 560 002.
3) G. K. Ranganath, A Textbook of B.Sc. Mathematics, for First Semester, University of
Mysore.
4) Dr. K. S. Chandrashekar, Engineering Mathematics – I, Sudha Publications, Bengaluru –
560 002.
5) John Bird, Higher Engineering Mathematics, Seventh edition, Routledge Publications,
London, UK.
6) L. N. Chakravarthy, A textbook of B.Sc. Mathematics Vol 1, Chethana Book House, K. R.
Mohalla, Mysuru – 570004.
7) B. S. Grewal and J. S. Grewal, Higher Engineering Mathematics, 42nd Edition (2012),
Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, India.
8) E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 9th Edition (2006), John Wiley & Sons,
Singapore.
9) N. R. Jayaram and R. V. Prabhakara, College Mathematics, Himalaya Publishing House,
New Delhi.

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

__________________________________________________________
Unit – 6
__________________________________________________________

6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2.1 Length of the Perpendicular from the Pole to the Tangent
6.2.2 Pedal equations or p-r equation of the curve
6.3 Check your progress
6.4 Keywords
6.5 Worked Examples
6.6 Questions for self-study
6.7 Answers to check your progress
6.8 References
__________________________________________________________
6.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, one should be able to find length of the perpendicular from pole
to the tangent. Also we will be able to find pedal equations (p-r equations) in both polar and
Cartesian form.

6.1 Introduction
In this unit we find a pedal equation or p-r equation of the curve for both the Cartesian
and polar curves which may simplify the calculation of certain of its properties such as curvature
which we study in the coming units. Pedal equations are may be easy to be dealt than the other
forms. These p-r coordinates are also well suited for solving certain type of force problems in
classical mechanics and celestial mechanics.

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

6.2.1 Length of the Perpendicular from the Pole to the Tangent

Let 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃) be a point on the curve whose polar equations is𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃). Let 𝑃𝑇 be
the tangent drawn to the curve at 𝑃. Let 𝑁 be the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the pole 𝑂
on to the tangent. Let 𝑂𝑁 = 𝑝. We have, 𝑂𝑃̂𝑁 = 𝜙.

𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃)

𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃)

𝜙
𝑟

𝑂 𝜃
𝐴

𝑝
𝑁
𝑇

From the right angle triangle 𝑂𝑁𝑃, we have,

𝑂𝑁 𝑝
sin 𝜙 = => sin 𝜙 = => 𝒑 = 𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓
𝑂𝑃 𝑟

1 1
Now consider =
𝑝2 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜙

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜙
=
𝑟2

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

1
= 𝑟 2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜙)

1 1 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 1 𝑑𝑟
= [1 + 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃) ] {∵ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 => 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜙}
𝑟2

1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
2
= 2
+ ( )
𝑝 𝑟 𝑟 4 𝑑𝜃

Thus the length of the perpendicular from the pole to the tangent at 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃) to the curve is given
1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
by = + ( ) .
𝑝2 𝑟2 𝑟 4 𝑑𝜃

1 1 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑢
Note: Put = 𝑢 =≻ − = , then
𝑟 𝑟2 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

1 𝑑𝑢 2
= 𝑢2 + ( ) .
𝑝2 𝑑𝜃

6.2.2 Pedal equations or p-r equation of the curve

The relation between only p and r is called the pedal equation or p-r equation of the curve,
where p is the length of the perpendicular from the pole to the tangent and r is the radius vector.

Working rule to find the pedal equation of a curve whose equation is given in
polar form.
𝒅𝜽
Let 𝒇(𝜽) be the given equation of the curve. Find 𝝋 in terms of 𝜽, using the relation 𝒓 𝒅𝒓 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝋.
𝒅𝜽
Then eliminate the 𝝋 and 𝜽 from the equations, 𝒓 = 𝒇(𝜽), 𝒓 𝒅𝒓 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝋 and 𝒑 = 𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋.

Then we get the pedal equation of the curve.

Sometime the pedal equation of the curve 𝒓 = 𝒇(𝜽) conveniently obtained by the eliminate 𝜽
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒅𝒓 𝟐
between 𝒓 = 𝒇(𝜽) and 𝒑𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓𝟒 (𝒅𝜽) .

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

Working rule to find the pedal equation of a curve whose equation is given in
the Cartesian Form
Supposing the equation of the curve is given in the form, say

𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝟎 − − −(𝟏)
The equation of the tangent at (𝒙, 𝒚) on the curve is given by
𝑑𝑦
𝑌−𝑦 = (𝑋 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑌 − 𝑦 + (𝑦 − 𝑥 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Now, 𝒑 then length of the perpendicular from the origin to the tangent is given by,
𝑑𝑦
𝑦−𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑝= 𝟐
− − −(𝟐)
√(𝒅𝒚) +𝟏
𝒅𝒙

Also we know the relation 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − − −(𝟑)

Where 𝑟 is the radius vector of the point (𝒙, 𝒚) with origin as the pole.
Now eliminating 𝒙 and 𝒚 from the equation (𝟏), (𝟐) and (𝟑), we get the pedal equation.

6.3 Check your progress

1) The length of the perpendicular from the pole to the tangent at 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃) to the curve is given by
a. 𝑝 = 𝑟 tan𝜙.
b. 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙.
c. 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙.
d. None of the above.

2) The length of the perpendicular from the pole to the tangent at 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃) to the curve is given by
1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
a. = 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 4 (𝑑𝜃) .
𝑝2

1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
b. = 𝑟 2 + (𝑟 𝑑𝜃) .
𝑝2

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
c. = 𝑟 + 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃)
𝑝2

d. None of the above.

3) Pedal equation is a relation between

a. 𝑟 and 𝜃.
b. 𝑝 and 𝜃.
c. 𝑝 and 𝑟.
d. None of the above.

4) Find the polar equations of the circle for the given coordinate (𝑥, 𝑦) which satisfies the equation
given by (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 , where (𝑎, 𝑏) is the centre of the circle and r is the radius.
a. 𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
b. 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑏 + 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
c. 𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑥 = 𝑏 + 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
d. None of the above.

5) The pedal Equation of the polar curve 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 is given by ______

a. 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑝 𝑎𝑛
b. 𝑟 𝑛−1 = 𝑝 𝑎𝑛 .
c. 𝑟 𝑛+1 = 𝑝 𝑎𝑛+1
d. 𝑟 𝑛+1 = 𝑝 𝑎𝑛 .

6.4 Keywords
Length of the Perpendicular from the Pole to the Tangent, Pedal equations or p-r equation of the
curve – Polar form and Cartesian form.

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

6.5 Worked Examples

1) The cardioid 𝒓 = 𝒂 (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽) show that 𝟐𝒂𝒑𝟐 = 𝒓𝟑 .

𝑑𝑟
Soln: The equation of the curve is 𝑟 = 𝑎 (1 − cos 𝜃), then 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃.

1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2 1 1
Now,
𝑝 2
=
𝑟 2
+ ( ) = 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 4 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑟 4 𝑑𝜃
1
= [𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃]
𝑟4
1
= [𝑎2 (1 − cos 𝜃)2 + 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃]
𝑟4
𝑎2
= [1 − 2 cos 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃]
𝑟4
2𝑎𝑎 2𝑎𝑟
= [1 − cos 𝜃] = {∵ 𝑟 = 𝑎 (1 − cos 𝜃)}
𝑟4 𝑟4
1 2𝑎
2
=
𝑝 𝑟3

=≻ 2𝑎𝑝2 = 𝑟 3

2) Show that the curve 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽, the length of the perpendicular from the pole to the
tangent is 𝒂√𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽.
Soln: The given curves 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃, taking logarithm both sides, we get
2 log 𝑟 = log 𝑎2 + log 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃, differentiate with respect to 𝜃, 𝑤𝑒 obtain
2 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜃 2 𝑑𝑟
= =≻ = 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝜃 𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃 1 𝜋
=≻ 𝑟 = =≻ tan 𝜙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2𝜃 =≻ tan 𝜙 = tan ( − 2𝜃)
𝑑𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2𝜃 2
𝜋
=≻ 𝜙 = − 2𝜃.
2
𝜋
We know that 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( − 2𝜃) = 𝑟 cos 2𝜃
2

=≻ 𝑝 = 𝑟 cos 2𝜃
=≻ 𝑝2 = 𝑟 2 cos 2 2𝜃 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 cos 2 2𝜃
=≻ 𝑝2 = 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

=≻ 𝑝 = 𝑎√𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃
𝒓𝟐
3) For the curve 𝒓 = 𝒂 𝜽 , show that 𝒑 = .
√𝒓𝟐 +𝒂𝟐

𝑑𝑟
Soln: Given curves 𝑟 = 𝑎 𝜃 => =𝑎
𝑑𝜃

1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
We know that 2
= 2
+ ( )
𝑝 𝑟 𝑟 4 𝑑𝜃
1 1
= 2
+ 𝑎2
𝑟 𝑟4
1 𝑟 2 +𝑎2
=
𝑝2 𝑟4

Taking the square root of the above equation, we get

1 √𝑟 2 +𝑎2
=
𝑝 𝑟2

or
𝒓𝟐
𝑝=
√𝒓𝟐 +𝒂𝟐

4) Find the pedal equation of the curve 𝒓𝒎 = 𝒂𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒎𝜽.

Soln: Given curves 𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 cos 𝑚𝜃
Taking logarithm on both sides, we get
log(𝑟 𝑚 ) = log(𝑎𝑚 cos 𝑚𝜃)
𝑚 log(𝑟) = 𝑚 log(𝑎) + log(cos 𝑚𝜃)
Differentiate both side with respect to 𝜃, we obtain
1 𝑑𝑟 1
𝑚 = 0+ (−𝑚 sin 𝑚𝜃)
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 cos 𝑚𝜃
𝑚 𝑑𝑟 𝑚 sin 𝑚𝜃
=−
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 cos 𝑚𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟
= − tan 𝑚𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝑟 = − cot 𝑚𝜃
𝑑𝑟

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

𝜋
tan 𝜑 = tan ( + 𝑚𝜃)
2
𝜋
=> 𝜑 = + 𝑚𝜃
2

We know that, 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑

𝜋
=> 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( + 𝑚𝜃)
2

𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑚𝜃
𝑝
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑚𝜃 = − − − (1)
𝑟

The given curve is,

𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 cos 𝑚𝜃
𝑝
𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 [𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1)]
𝑟

𝑟 𝑚+1 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑝.
This is the required pedal equation.

5) Find the pedal equation of the curve 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽).

Soln: Given curve is 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃)
Differentiate both side with respect to 𝜃, we obtain
𝑑𝑟
= 𝑎 (− sin 𝜃)
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃 −1
or =
𝑑𝑟 𝑎 sin 𝜃

Multiplying both side by 𝒓, we get

𝑑𝜃 𝑟
𝑟 =−
𝑑𝑟 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝑎(1+cos 𝜃)
tan 𝜑 = −
𝑎 sin 𝜃

2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃⁄2)
=−
2 sin(𝜃⁄2) cos(𝜃⁄2)

cos(𝜃⁄2)
=−
sin(𝜃⁄2)

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

= − cot(𝜃⁄2)

tan 𝜑 = tan(𝜋⁄2 + 𝜃⁄2)

=> 𝜑 = 𝜋⁄2 + 𝜃⁄2

We know that, 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑

=> 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋⁄2 + 𝜃⁄2)

𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃⁄2)
𝑝
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃⁄2) = − − − (1)
𝑟

The given curve is,

𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃)

𝑟 = 𝑎 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃⁄2)
𝑝2
𝑟 = 2 𝑎 ( 2) [𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1)]
𝑟

𝑟 3 = 2 𝑎𝑝2
This is the required pedal equation.

6) Find the pedal equation of the curve 𝒓 = 𝒂 𝒆𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜶 .

Soln: Given curve is 𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑒 𝜃 cot 𝛼
Differentiate both side with respect to 𝜃, we obtain
𝑑𝑟
= 𝑎 cot 𝛼 𝑒 𝜃 cot 𝛼 =𝑎 𝑒 𝜃 cot 𝛼 cot 𝛼 .
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑟
= 𝑟 cot 𝛼 .
𝑑𝜃

1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
We know that 2
= 2
+ ( )
𝑝 𝑟 𝑟 4 𝑑𝜃
1 1 1
= + (𝑟 cot 𝛼)2
𝑝2 𝑟2 𝑟4

1 𝑟 2 +𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝛼 𝑟 2 (1+ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝛼) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼

2
= = =
𝑝 𝑟4 𝑟4 𝑟2

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

1 1
=
𝑝2 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼

=> 𝑝2 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
=> 𝑝 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
This is the required pedal equation.

𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
7) Show that the pedal equation of the ellipse 𝟐
+ = 𝟏 is
𝒂 𝒃𝟐

𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
+ 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 +𝒃𝟐 .
𝒑𝟐

𝑥2 𝑦2
Soln: Given equation is 2
+ =1 − − −(𝟏)
𝑎 𝑏2

Differentiate the above equation with respect to 𝑥, we get

2 𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑏2 𝑥
+ 2 =0 => =− 2
𝑎2 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑦
Equation of the tangent at (𝒙, 𝒚) is
𝑑𝑦
𝑌−𝑦 = (𝑋 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑏2 𝑥
𝑌−𝑦 =− (𝑋 − 𝑥)
𝑎2 𝑦

𝑎2 𝑦 𝑌 − 𝑎2 𝑦 2 = −𝑏 2 𝑥 𝑋 + 𝑏 2 𝑥 2
𝑎2 𝑦 𝑌 + 𝑏 2 𝑥 𝑋 = 𝑎2 𝑦 2 + 𝑏 2 𝑥 2
Dividing both side by 𝑎2 𝑏 2 , we obtain
𝑦𝑌 𝑥𝑋 𝑥2 𝑦2
+ = +
𝑏2 𝑎2 𝑎 2 𝑏2
𝑦𝑌 𝑥𝑋
+ =1
𝑏2 𝑎2

Now, the length of the perpendicular from (0,0) onto this tangent is given by

1 1 𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑝= => 2 = 4 + 4 − − − (𝟐)
2 2 𝑝 𝑎 𝑏
√𝑥 4 + 𝑦 4
𝑎 𝑏

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

Also we have, 𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 − − −(𝟑)

𝑥2 𝑦2
Let 𝑙= and 𝑚 = , then 𝑙 + 𝑚 = 1.
𝑎2 𝑏2

∴ equation (2) and (3), becomes

1 𝑙 𝑚
= +
𝑝2 𝑎 2 𝑏 2
Multiplying both side by 𝑎2 𝑏 2 , we get
𝑎2 𝑏2
= 𝑎2 𝑚 + 𝑏 2 𝑛 − − −(𝟒)
𝑝2

𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 𝑙 + 𝑏 2 𝑚 − − −(𝟓)
Adding the corresponding equations (4) and (5), we get

𝑎2 𝑏 2
+ 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 𝑚 + 𝑏 2 𝑛 + 𝑎2 𝑙 + 𝑏 2 𝑚
𝑝2
𝑎2 𝑏2
=> + 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 (𝑙 + 𝑚) + 𝑏 2 (𝑙 + 𝑚)
𝑝2

𝑎2 𝑏2
=> + 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 (∵ 𝑙 + 𝑚 = 1)
𝑝2

This is the required pedal equation.

8) Show that the pedal equation of the parabola 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂(𝒙 + 𝒂) is 𝒑𝟐 = 𝒂𝒓.

Soln: Given curve is 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑎) − − −(𝟏)

Differentiate the above equation with respect to 𝑥, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2𝑎
2𝑦 = 4𝑎 => =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦

Equation of the tangent at (𝑥, 𝑦) is

𝑑𝑦
𝑌−𝑦 = (𝑋 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
2𝑎
𝑌−𝑦 = (𝑋 − 𝑥)
𝑦

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

2𝑎 2𝑎𝑥
𝑋−𝑌= −𝑦
𝑦 𝑦

The length of the perpendicular from (0,0) to the tangent is

𝟐𝒂𝒙⁄ − 𝑦 𝟐𝒂𝒙 − 𝒚𝟐
𝒚
𝑝= => 𝑝 =
𝟐
√𝟒𝒂 ⁄𝒚𝟐 + 𝟏 √𝟒𝒂𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐

𝟐𝒂𝒙−𝟒𝒂(𝒙+𝒂)
=> 𝑝 =
√𝟒𝒂𝟐 +𝟒𝒂(𝒙+𝒂)

−𝟐𝒂𝒙 (𝒙+𝟐𝒂)
=> 𝑝 =
√𝟒𝒂(𝒙+𝟐𝒂)

=> 𝑝 = √𝑎(𝑥 + 2𝑎)

=> 𝑝2 = 𝑎(𝑥 + 2𝑎) − − −(𝟐)
We have, 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 => 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑎)
=> 𝑟 2 = (𝑥 + 2𝑎)2
2
2 𝑝2
=> 𝑟 =( ) (∵ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (2))
𝑎

Taking the square root in the above equation on both side,

𝑝2
=> 𝑟=
𝑎

=> 𝑝2 = 𝑟𝑎.
This is the required pedal equation.

6.6 Questions for self-study

1) Find the pedal equation of the curves 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃.

2) Find the pedal equation of the curves 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃.
2𝑎
3) Find the pedal equation of the curves = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
𝑟
4) Find the pedal equation of the curves 𝑟𝜃 = 𝑎.
5) Find the pedal equation of the curves 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥.

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

6) Find the pedal equation of the curves 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 = 0.

2⁄ 2⁄ 2⁄
7) Find the pedal equation of the curves 𝑥 3 +𝑦 3 =𝑎 3 or 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃.

6.7 Answers to check your progress

1) b 2) a 3) c 4) b 5) d

6.8 References

1) Shanthi Narayan and Dr. P. K. Mittal, Differential Calculus, Fifteenth edition, S. Chand
Publications, Shyamlal Charitable Trust, Ram Nagar, New Delhi – 110 055.
2) Prof. K. Rama Murthy and Dr. Arshad Qureshi, Elements of Engineering Mathematics,
Sudha Publications, Bengaluru – 560 002.
3) G. K. Ranganath, A Textbook of B.Sc. Mathematics, for First Semester, University of
Mysore.
4) Dr. K. S. Chandrashekar, Engineering Mathematics – I, Sudha Publications, Bengaluru –
560 002.
5) John Bird, Higher Engineering Mathematics, Seventh edition, Routledge Publications,
London, UK.
6) L. N. Chakravarthy, A textbook of B.Sc. Mathematics Vol 1, Chethana Book House, K. R.
Mohalla, Mysuru – 570004.
7) B. S. Grewal and J. S. Grewal, Higher Engineering Mathematics, 42nd Edition (2012),
Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, India.
8) E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 9th Edition (2006), John Wiley & Sons,
Singapore.
9) N. R. Jayaram and R. V. Prabhakara, College Mathematics, Himalaya Publishing House,
New Delhi.

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

__________________________________________________________
Unit – 7
__________________________________________________________

7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2.1 Derivative of an arc length in Cartesian form
7.2.2 Derivative of an arc length in Parametric form
7.2.3 Derivative of an arc length in Polar form
7.2.4 Curvature and Radius of Curvature
7.2.5 Radius of curvature for Cartesian form
7.2.6 Radius of curvature in Parametric form
7.2.7 Radius of curvature in Polar form
7.2.8 Radius of curvature for Pedal equation
7.3 Check your progress
7.4 Keywords
7.5 Worked Examples
7.6 Questions for self-study
7.7 Answers to check your progress
7.8 References
__________________________________________________________
7.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, one should be able to derive derivative of arc length and solve
problems using those formulae. Also we should be able to understand the concept of curvature and
Radius of curvature and derive formulas for radius of curvature and know how to find radius of
curvature for the given cartesian, parametric, polar curves using the above derived formulae.

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

7.1 Introduction
In this unit we will be able to derive derivative of arc length and solve problems using those
formulas. This concept will be helpful to calculate the distance if any object travels in a parabolic
path like if a rocket is launched along a parabolic path, we might want to know how far the rocket
travels. Also we study the concept of curvature and Radius of curvature and derive formulas for
radius of curvature and know how to find radius of curvature for the given cartesian, parametric,
polar curves using the above derived formulae. These concepts have very wide range of
applications in differential geometry, also used in three-part equation for bending of beams, thin
film technologies, printed electronics, designing railway curves (minimum railway curve radius:
shortest allowable design radius for the centerline of railway tracks) which helps in elevation of
the two rails, construction cost, the maximum safe speed of a curve etc., similarly in designing
road curves and grinding work pieces.

7.2.1 Derivative of an arc length in Cartesian form

Let the equation of the curve be given in
the Cartesian form y = f(x).
Y
Let P(x, y) and Q(x+δx, y+ δy) be two Q
neighbouring points on the curve.
Let A be a fixed point on the curve from A
which point the length of the arc is measured P L
along the curve.
Let arc length AP = s and
arc length AQ = s + δs. 𝜃
X
Thus arc length PQ = δs. O M N
Now from the figure,
PQ2 = PL2 + LQ2 => PQ2 = (δx)2 + (δy)2 ………………(1)
If the point Q―>P along the curve then δx ―> 0.
𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑃𝑄
Thus we have lim = 1……………………(2)
δx ―> 0 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑃𝑄

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑃𝑄 2 δy 2
Now (1) => ( ) = 1 + (δx)
δx

𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑃𝑄 2 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑃𝑄 2 δy 2
=> (
arc 𝑃𝑄
) .( δx
) = 1+( )
δx

𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑃𝑄 2 δs 2 δy 2
 ( ) . (δx) = 1+( )
arc 𝑃𝑄 δx

Taking the limit as δx ―> 0 and using (2), we get

ds 2 𝑑𝑦 2
 ( ) = 1+( )
dx 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 2
 = √1 + ( ) which is formula for the derivative of the arc length w. r. t. x
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 2
 Similarly = √1 + ( ) which is formula for the derivative of the arc length
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
w. r. t. y

7.2.2 Derivative of an arc length in Parametric form

Let x = f(t) and y = g(t) be the parametric form of the equation to the curve.

we have from the figure PQ2 = (δx)2 + (δy)2

PQ 2 δx 2 δy 2
( δt ) = ( ) +( )
δt δt

Taking the limit as δt ―> 0 (i, e as Q → 𝑃), we get

𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
(𝑑𝑡 ) = ( ) +( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
i.e
(𝑑𝑡 ) =√( 𝑑𝑡 ) + ( )
𝑑𝑡

This is the formula for the derivative of the arc lengths w.r.t the parameter t.

Note:
The angle made by the tangent at the point P, to the curve y = f(x), with the x-axis is ψ.
𝑑𝑦
Thus now we have = tanψ
𝑑𝑥

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

𝑑𝑠 dy 2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Now = √1 + ( ) => = √1 + tan2ψ => = sec ψ
𝑑𝑥 dx 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑠 dx 2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Again, = √1 + ( ) => = √1 + cot2ψ => = cosec ψ
𝑑𝑦 dy 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Hence we have the useful results

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= cosψ and = sinψ
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠

d𝑥 2 d𝑦 2
Further we have ( ) + ( ) = 1 i.e dx2 + dy2 = ds2 .
d𝑠 d𝑠

7.2.3 Derivative of an arc length in Polar form

Let the equation of the curve be given
in the polar form r = f(𝜃). Let P(r, 𝜃) Y
and Q(r+ δr, 𝜃+ δ𝜃) be two neighbouring Q
points on the curve. Let A be the fixed point
on the curve from where the length of the
N
arc is measured along the curve.
Let arc length AP = s and
arc length AQ = s + δs.
P
Thus the arc length PQ = δs. r
𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑃𝑄
δ𝜃
We have lim = 1……..(1)
δ𝜃―> 0 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑃𝑄 𝜃
X
O the triangle ONP,
Draw the perpendicular PN from P onto OQ. From
𝑃𝑁
we have sinδ𝜃 = => PN = OP sinδ𝜃 => PN = r sinδ𝜃
𝑂𝑃
𝑂𝑁
Again, cosδ𝜃 = 𝑂𝑃 => ON = OP cosδ𝜃 => ON = r cosδ𝜃

Again from figure we have

NQ = OQ – ON
= r + δr -r cosδ𝜃

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

= r(1 - cosδ𝜃) + δr
NQ = δr (since cosδ𝜃 = 1, when δ𝜃 is small)
Now from the triangle PNQ, we have,
PQ2 = PN2 + NQ2
= r2 sin2δ𝜃 + (δr)2
PQ2 = r2 (δ𝜃 )2 + (δr)2 (Since sinδ𝜃 = δ𝜃, 𝑎𝑠 δ𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙)
On dividing δ𝜃 both sides and taking limit as δ𝜃 ―> 0 and using (1), we get

d𝑠 2 d𝑟 2 𝑑𝑠 d𝑟 2
( d𝜃 ) = r2 + (d𝜃) ⇒ = √ r2 + ( ) .
𝑑𝜃 d𝜃

This is the formula for the derivative of arc length w. r. t 𝜃.

Similarly, the formula for the derivative of arc length w. r. t r is given by

𝑑𝑠 d𝜃 2
= √1 + (𝑟 ) .
𝑑𝑟 d𝑟

Note:
d𝜃
We know that tan∅ = 𝑟 , Thus,
d𝑟
𝑑𝑠
= √r2 + r2 cot2∅ = r √1 + cot2∅ = r cosec∅
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑠
= r cosec∅
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑠
Again = √1 + tan2∅ = sec∅
𝑑𝑟
d𝜃 𝑑𝑟
Hence we have two more useful results. sin∅ = 𝑟 and cos∅ =
d𝑠 𝑑𝑠

d𝑟 2 d𝜃 2
Also (d𝑠 ) + r2 ( d𝑠 ) = 1 or (ds)2 = (dr)2 + r2 (d𝜃)2 .

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

7.2.4 Curvature and Radius of Curvature

Let P and Q be two neighboring points
on the curve C. Let 𝜓 and 𝜓 + δ𝜓 be the
Y C
angles made by the tangents at P and Q
respectively with the x-axis (or the initial line). Q
δs
Further let δs be the arc length between P and Q.
P
The angle δ𝜓 through which the tangent rotates
as the point of contact moves from P to the
point Q along the curve, is called the total
curvature of the arc PQ.
δ𝜓
The ratio is called the average curvature
δs 𝜓
of the arc PQ. +δ𝜓 X
O

The limiting value of the average curvature as Q―>P , (i. e as δs ―> 0) is called the curvature
of the curve at a point P.
Thus the curvature of the curve at a point P is
δ𝜓 d𝜓
K = lim =
δs ―> 0 δs ds
1
If the curvature K of the curve C at the point P is non zero, then is called the radius of
K
curvature of the curve at P and denoted by 𝜌.
1 1 d𝑠 .
Thus 𝜌= = d𝜓 =
K d𝜓
ds

7.2.5 Radius of curvature for Cartesian form

Let the equation of the be curve y = f(x). Let ψ be the angle made by the tangent at the point
(x, y), with the x – axis.
𝑑𝑦
Then we have = tanψ
𝑑𝑥

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

𝑑2𝑦 d𝜓 d𝜓 𝑑𝑠 1 𝑑𝑠
= sec2 ψ = sec2 ψ . . = (1 + tan2 ψ) .
𝑑𝑥 2 dx ds 𝑑𝑥 𝜌 𝑑𝑥

1/2
𝑑2𝑦 d𝑦 2 1 d𝑦 2
= [1 + ( ) ] . . [1 + ( ) ]
𝑑𝑥 2 dx 𝜌 dx

3/2
d𝑦 2 3/2
[1 + ( ) ] [1 + 𝑦12 ]

dx
𝜌= 𝑑2 𝑦
or 𝜌=
𝑦2
𝑑𝑥2

Thus the radius of curvature at any point (x, y) on the curve y = f(x) is given by
3/2
[1 + 𝑦12 ]
𝜌 = (numerically).
𝑦2

7.2.6 Radius of curvature in Parametric form

Let the equation of the curve be given in parametric form, x = f(t) and y = g(t).
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 𝑦,
Then 𝑦1 = = = …………………….(1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 𝑥,

Here dashes denote differentiation w. r. t. parameter t.

𝑑2𝑦 𝑑 𝑦, 𝑑𝑡
Again we have, 𝑦2 = = ( ).
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 , 𝑦 ,, - 𝑦 , 𝑥 ,, 1
=> 𝑦2 = (𝑥 , )2
.
𝑥,
𝑥 , 𝑦 ,, - 𝑦 , 𝑥 ,,
 𝑦2 = (𝑥 , )3
………………………..(2)
3/2
3/2 𝑦, 2
[1 + 𝑦12 ] [1 +( , ) ]
 We know that 𝜌 =
𝑥
= 𝑥, 𝑦,, - 𝑦, 𝑥,,
𝑦2 ⌊ ⌋
(𝑥, )3

[(𝑥 , )2 + (𝑦 , )2]3/2
 𝜌= ⌊(𝑥 , )𝑦 ,, - 𝑦 , 𝑥 ,, ⌋

Thus the radius of curvature at the parametric value t for the curve x = f(t) and y = g(t) is given
[(𝑥 , )2 + (𝑦 , )2]3/2 ′ 𝑑𝑥 ′′ 𝑑2𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑦 ′′ 𝑑2𝑦
by 𝜌 = , where 𝑥 = , 𝑥 = , 𝑦 = , 𝑦 =
⌊(𝑥 , )𝑦 ,, - 𝑦 , 𝑥 ,, ⌋ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

7.2.7 Radius of curvature in Polar form

Let the equation of the curve is given in the polar form r = f(𝜃). The angle made by the tangent
at P(r, 𝜃) with the initial line is 𝜓. With the usual notation, we have
𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑
𝜓=𝜃+𝜑 => = +
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
1 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜃
=> = + .
𝜌 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑠

1 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜑
=>
𝜌
=
𝑑𝑠
(1 + 𝑑𝜃 ) …………….(1)
𝑑𝜃 𝑟
We know that tan𝜑 = r = 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝜃

𝑟 𝑑𝑟
tan𝜑 = , where 𝑟1 =
𝑟1 𝑑𝜃

Differentiating both sides w. r. 𝜃, we have

𝑑𝜑 𝑟1 𝑟1 - 𝑟 𝑟2 𝑑2𝑟
sec2𝜑 = (𝑟1 )2
, where 𝑟2 =
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 2

𝑑𝜑 𝑟12 - 𝑟 𝑟2
=> (1 + tan2𝜑) = (𝑟1 )2
𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝜑 𝑟12 - 𝑟 𝑟2 1
=> = 2
.
𝑑𝜃 (𝑟1 ) (1 + tan2𝜑)

𝑑𝜑 𝑟12 - 𝑟 𝑟2 1 𝑟
=> = (𝑟1 )2
. 𝑟2
(Since tan𝜑 = )
𝑑𝜃 (1 + ) 𝑟1
𝑟2
1

𝑑𝜑 𝑟12 - 𝑟 𝑟2
=> =
𝑑𝜃 𝑟 2 +𝑟12

𝑑𝑠 2 d𝑟 2 1/2
Also we have = [r + (d𝜃) ] = ( 𝑟 2 + 𝑟12 )1/2
𝑑𝜃

1 1 𝑟12 - 𝑟 𝑟2
Thus (1) becomes
𝜌
=
(𝑟 2 +𝑟12 )1/2
(1 + 𝑟 2 +𝑟12
)

1 1 2 𝑟12 + 𝑟 2 - 𝑟 𝑟2
𝜌
=
(𝑟 2 +𝑟12 )1/2
( 𝑟 2 +𝑟12
)

1 2 𝑟12 + 𝑟 2 - 𝑟 𝑟2
=
𝜌 (𝑟 2 +𝑟12 )3/2

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

Thus the radius of curvature at any point P(r, 𝜃) on the curve r = f(𝜃) is given by

(𝑟 2 +𝑟12 )3/2
𝜌=
2 𝑟12 + 𝑟 2 - 𝑟 𝑟2

7.2.8 Radius of curvature for Pedal equation

Let the equation of the curve be p = f(𝑟).

With usual notation, we have, 𝜓 = 𝜃 + 𝜑 and p = r sin𝜑

Now p = r sin𝜑
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝜑
= r cos𝜑 + sin𝜑
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
=> = r + r (Since cos𝜑 = , and sin𝜑 = r )
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝜃
=> = r + r
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑝 𝑑(𝜑+ 𝜃) 𝑑𝜓
= r = r
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑝 𝑟 𝑑𝜓 1
= (Since = )
𝑑𝑟 𝜌 𝑑𝑠 𝜌

𝑑𝑟
=> 𝜌 = r
𝑑𝑝

𝑑𝑟
Thus the radius of curvature at any point on the curve p = f(r) is given by 𝜌 =r .
𝑑𝑝

7.3 Check your progress

1) Which of the following is correct
d𝑟 2 d𝜃 2
a. (d𝑠 ) + r2 ( d𝑠 ) = 1.

d𝑟 2 d𝜃 2
b. 𝑟 2 (d𝑠 ) + ( d𝑠 ) = 1.

d𝑟 2 1 d𝜃 2
c. (d𝑠 ) + ( d𝑠 ) = 1.
𝑟2

d. None of the above.

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

2) Identify the correct expressions of Sin∅ and cos∅

1 d𝜃 𝑑𝑟
a. Sin∅ = 𝑟 and cos∅ = .
d𝑠 𝑑𝑠
d𝜃 𝑑𝑟
b. sin∅ = d𝑠 and cos∅ = 𝑟 .
𝑑𝑠
d𝜃 𝑑𝑟
c. sin∅ = 𝑟 and cos∅ = .
d𝑠 𝑑𝑠
d. None of the above.

3) The radius of curvature of the curve in polar form is

3
(𝑟 2 + 𝑟12 )2
a) 𝜌 =
𝑟 2 + 2𝑟12
3
(𝑟 2 + 𝑟12 )2
b) 𝜌 =
𝑟 2 + 2𝑟12 −𝑟𝑟2
3
(1−𝑦12 )2
c) 𝜌 =
𝑦1

d) None of the above.

𝑑𝑟
4) The radius of curvature 𝜌 = 𝑟 is in which form
𝑑𝑝

a) Cartesian Form.
b) Polar Form.
c) Pedal Form.
d) Parametric Form.

𝑥2 𝑦2
5) The Radius of curvature of + = 2 at ( 3, 4) is
9 12
3𝜋
a) 16

b) 1
125
c) 24

d) 0

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

7.4 Keywords
Derivative of an arc length – Cartesian form, Polar form, Parametric form. Radius of curvature –
Cartesian form, Polar form, Parametric form, Pedal form.

7.5 Worked Examples

𝒅𝒔
1) For the curve y= a logsec(x/a), show that = sec(x/a) and
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒔
= cosec(x/a). Also show that x = a𝝍.
𝒅𝒚

Soln: Given that y = a log(sec(x/a))

𝑑𝑦 1 1
= a. . sec(x/a). tan(x/a).
𝑑𝑥 sec(x/a) 𝑎

𝑑𝑦
= tan(x/a)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑠 d𝑦 2
w.k.t = √1 + ( ) = √1 + tan2 (x/a) = √sec2 (x/a) = sec(x/a)
𝑑𝑥 dx

𝑑𝑠 d𝑥 2
Again, = √1 + ( ) = √1 + cot2 (x/a) = √cosec2 (x/a) = cosec(x/a)
𝑑𝑦 d𝑦

d𝑦 𝑥
We know that tan𝜓 = = tan(x/a) => 𝜓 = ⇒ 𝑥 = a𝜓.
dx a

𝒅𝒔
2) Find for the curve x = a cost; y = b sint.
𝒅𝒕

Soln: Given that x = a cost and y = b sint

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= -asint = bcost
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
We know that ( ) =√( ) + ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠
= √(-a sint)2 + (b cost )2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠
= √a2sin2t + b2cos2t .
𝑑𝑡

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

𝒅𝒔
3) Find 𝒅𝜽 for the curve r = a 𝜽.
𝑑𝑟
Soln: Given that r = a 𝜃 => =a
𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝑠 d𝑟 2
We know that = √ r2 + ( )
𝑑𝜃 d𝜃
𝑑𝑠
⇒ = √r2 + 𝑎2 = √(a𝜃 )2 + 𝑎2 = a√1 + 𝜃 2.
𝑑𝜃

𝒅𝒔
4) Find for the curve r𝜽 = a.
𝒅𝒓

𝑑𝑟 −𝑎 𝑑𝜃 −𝜃2
Soln: Given that r𝜃 = a => = => =
𝑑𝜃 𝜃2 𝑑𝑟 𝑎

𝑑𝑠 d𝜃 2 −𝜃 2 2 −𝑟 𝑎2 2 𝑎 2
= √1 + (𝑟 ) = √1 + (𝑟. ) = √1 + ( . 2 ) = √1 + ( )
𝑑𝑟 d𝑟 𝑎 𝑎 𝑟 𝑟

𝑑𝑠 √r2 + 𝑎2
=> = .
𝑑𝑟 𝑟

5) Find the radius of curvature of the curve 𝒙𝟒 + 𝒚𝟒 = 𝟐 at the point (1, 1).
Soln: The equation of the curve is 𝑥 4 + 𝑦 4 = 2
Differentiate w. r . t 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥3
= − − − − − − − (1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑦3

𝑑𝑦
and 𝑦1 = ( ) = −1
𝑑𝑥 (1, 1)

Differentiating (1) w. r. t 𝑥 again

𝑑𝑦
𝑑2 𝑦 3𝑥 2 𝑦 3 − 3𝑥 3 𝑦 2
= −[ 𝑑𝑥 ]
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑦 6

𝑑2𝑦
and 𝑦2 = ( ) = −6
𝑑𝑥 2 (1, 1)

Now, the radius of curvature of the curve is

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

3
(1 − 𝑦12 )2
𝜌 =
𝑦2
3
(1 + 1)2 √2
𝜌= = .
−6 3

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
6) Find the radius of curvature at point on the curve 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒚𝟑 = 𝒂𝟑 further show that it is
equal to three times the length of the perpendicular from the origin onto the tangent to the
curve at that point.
2 2 2
Soln: Equation of the curve is 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 𝑎3 ------- (1)
Differentiate w. r . t 𝑥 we get
1
𝑑𝑦 𝑦3
= − ( 1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑥3
Differentiating again w. r. t 𝑥 we get
2 2 2
𝑑2𝑦 1 𝑥3 + 𝑦3 1 𝑎3
= ( 4 1 ) =
𝑑𝑥 2 3 3 43 13
𝑥 3𝑦3 𝑥 𝑦
Now, the radius of curvature of the curve is
3
(1 − 𝑦12 )2
𝜌 =
𝑦2
1 1 1
𝜌 = 3𝑎3 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 ------ (2)
Equation of the tangent to the curve at (𝑥, 𝑦) is,
𝑑𝑦
𝑌−𝑦 = (𝑋 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑦3
𝑌−𝑦 = −( 1 ) (𝑋 − 𝑥)
𝑥3

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

𝑋 𝑌 2
1+ 1 = 𝑎3
𝑥3 𝑦3
The length of the perpendicular for the line 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is
|𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 + 𝐶|
𝑝=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2
∴ the length of the perpendicular from (0,0) on the tangent is
2
1 1 1
𝑎3
𝑝= = 𝑎3 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 ------------- (3)
1 1
√ 2+ 2
𝑥3 𝑦3

From (2) and (3), we have 𝜌 = 3𝑝.

7) Find the radius of curvature at any point for the curve 𝒙 = 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑 𝒕 , 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑 𝒕.
Soln: 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑡
Differentiating w.r.t 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= − 3𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 sin 𝑡 = 3𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 cos 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Now
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑑𝑡 = − tan 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Now
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 1
= ( ) = ( ) . =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝑡 sin 𝑡
Now, the radius of curvature of the curve is
3
(1 − 𝑦12 )2
𝜌 =
𝑦2
3
𝜌 = 3𝑎 cos 𝑡 sin 𝑡 = 𝑎 sin 2𝑡
2

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

8) Find the radius of curvature at any point on the curve

𝒙 = 𝒂(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽), 𝒚 = 𝒂(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 − 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)
Soln:
𝑥 = 𝑎(cos 𝜃 + 𝜃 sin 𝜃), 𝑦 = 𝑎(sin 𝜃 − 𝜃 cos 𝜃)
Differentiating w. r. t 𝜃
𝑥 ′ = 𝑎𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑦 ′ = 𝑎𝜃 sin 𝜃
Differentiating w. r. t 𝜃 again
𝑥 ′′ = 𝑎( 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑦 ′′ = 𝑎(sin 𝜃 + 𝜃 cos 𝜃)
Now, the radius of curvature of the curve is
3
[(𝑥 ′ )2 + (𝑦 ′ )2 ]2
𝜌=
𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑦 ′ 𝑥 ′′
3
[(𝑎𝜃 cos 𝜃 )2 + (𝑎𝜃 sin 𝜃)2 ]2
𝜌=
𝑎𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑎(sin 𝜃 + 𝜃 cos 𝜃) − 𝑎𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑎( 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
3
(𝑎2 𝜃 2 )2
𝜌= = 𝑎𝜃 .
𝑎2 𝜃 2

𝝆𝟐
9) Find the radius of curvature of cardioid 𝒓 = 𝒂 (𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 ) Also show that is a
𝒓
constant.
Soln: 𝑟 = 𝑎 (1 + cos 𝜃)
Differentiating w. r. t 𝜃
𝑟1 = − 𝑎 sin 𝜃
Differentiating w. r. t 𝜃 again
𝑟2 = − 𝑎 cos 𝜃
Now, the radius of curvature of the curve is
3
(𝑟 2 + 𝑟12 )2
𝜌= 2
𝑟 + 2𝑟12 − 𝑟𝑟2
3
((𝑎 (1 + cos 𝜃 ) )2 + (−𝑎 sin 𝜃)2 )2
𝜌=
(𝑎 (1 + cos 𝜃 ) )2 + 2(−𝑎 sin 𝜃)2 − (𝑎 (1 + cos 𝜃 ) )(−𝑎 cos 𝜃)

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

2
𝜌= √2𝑎𝑟
3
Now,
𝜌2 8𝑎
= = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑟 9

10) Find the radius of curvature of cardioid 𝒓 = 𝒂 𝜽

Soln: 𝑟 =𝑎𝜃
Differentiating w. r. t 𝜃
𝑟1 = 𝑎
Differentiating w. r. t 𝜃 again
𝑟2 = 0
Now, the radius of curvature of the curve is
3
(𝑟 2 + 𝑟12 )2
𝜌= 2
𝑟 + 2𝑟12 − 𝑟𝑟2
3
((𝑎𝜃)2 + 𝑎2 )2
𝜌=
(𝑎𝜃)2 + 2𝑎2
3
𝑎(1 + 𝜃 2 )2
𝜌 =
2 + 𝜃2

11) Show that at any point on the equiangular spiral 𝒓 = 𝒂 𝒆𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜶 , the radius of curvature
is 𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜶.
Soln: The equation of the curve is

𝑟 = 𝑎 𝑒 𝜃 cot 𝛼 ,
Differentiating w. r. t. 𝜃
𝑑𝑟
= 𝑎 cot 𝛼 𝑒 𝜃 cot 𝛼 = 𝑟 𝑎 cot 𝛼
𝑑𝜃
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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

1 𝑑𝑟
= cot 𝛼
𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝑟 = tan 𝛼
𝑑𝑟
tan 𝜑 = tan 𝛼
𝜑= 𝛼
We have
𝑝 = 𝑟 sin 𝜑 ⟹ 𝑝 = 𝑟 sin 𝛼
This is the pedal equation of the curve.
𝑝 = 𝑟 sin 𝛼
𝑑𝑝
= sin 𝛼
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼
𝑑𝑝
Now, the radius of curvature of the curve is
𝑑𝑟
𝜌=𝑟
𝑑𝑝
We have
𝜌 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝛼 .

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒓𝟐
12) Show that the radius of curvature of the curve = + − is given by
𝒑𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝟐
𝒃 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
𝟑
(𝒂𝟐 +𝒃𝟐 −𝒓𝟐 )𝟐
.
𝒂𝒃

Soln: The given equation is in the pedal form is,

1 1 1 𝑟2
= + −
𝑝2 𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑎2 𝑏 2
Differentiating both sides w. r. t. 𝑝
−2 2𝑟 𝑑𝑟
= −
𝑝2 𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑟 𝑎2 𝑏2
𝜌=𝑟 = − − − − − (1)
𝑑𝑝 𝑝3
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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

Now
3 3
1 1 2 1 1 𝑟2 2
= ( ) = ( + − )
𝑝3 𝑝2 𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑎2 𝑏 2
Now from (1), we have
3
𝑑𝑟 1 1 𝑟2 2
𝜌=𝑟 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 ( 2 + 2 − 2 2 )
𝑑𝑝 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
3
2 2
𝑏 2 + 𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 2
𝜌= 𝑎 𝑏 ( )
𝑎2 𝑏 2
3
(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑟 2 )2
𝜌= .
𝑎𝑏

7.6 Questions for self-study

𝑑𝑠
1) Find for the curve y2 = 4ax.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑠
2) Find for the curve y = a cosh(x/a).
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑠
3) Find for the curve x = a sec(t); y = b tan(t).
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠
4) Find for the curve r = log(sin3𝜃).
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑠
5) Find for the curve r = (1 - cos𝜃).
𝑑𝑟
1 1
6) Find the radius of curvature of the curve √𝑥 + √𝑦 = 1 𝑎𝑡 (4 , 4).

7) Find the radius of curvature of the curve 9𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 36 𝑎𝑡 (2 , 3).

8) Find the radius of curvature at any point of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡).
9) Find the radius of curvature at any point of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑡.
10) Find the Radius of Curvature of 𝑥 = 𝑎 log 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑎 (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 𝜃) at any point 𝜃.
11) Find the radius of curvature at any point of the curve 𝑟 2 cos 2𝜃 = 𝑎2 .
12) Find the radius of curvature at any point of the curve 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃.

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

13) Find the radius of curvature at any point (𝑝, 𝑟)of the curve 2𝑎𝑝2 = 𝑟 3.
14) Find the radius of curvature at any point (𝑝, 𝑟)of the curve 𝑝2 = 𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 .
15) Find the radius of curvature of the Curve 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 cos 2𝜃 at (1 ,1).
16) Find the Radius of curvature of 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 sec 2𝜃.
17) Find the Radius of Curvature of 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜃 at any point 𝜃.

7.7 Answers to check your progress

1) a 2) c 3) b 4) c 5) c

7.8 References

1) Shanthi Narayan and Dr. P. K. Mittal, Differential Calculus, Fifteenth edition, S. Chand
Publications, Shyamlal Charitable Trust, Ram Nagar, New Delhi – 110 055.
2) Prof. K. Rama Murthy and Dr. Arshad Qureshi, Elements of Engineering Mathematics,
Sudha Publications, Bengaluru – 560 002.
3) G. K. Ranganath, A Textbook of B.Sc. Mathematics, for First Semester, University of
Mysore.
4) Dr. K. S. Chandrashekar, Engineering Mathematics – I, Sudha Publications, Bengaluru –
560 002.
5) John Bird, Higher Engineering Mathematics, Seventh edition, Routledge Publications,
London, UK.
6) L. N. Chakravarthy, A textbook of B.Sc. Mathematics Vol 1, Chethana Book House, K. R.
Mohalla, Mysuru – 570004.
7) B. S. Grewal and J. S. Grewal, Higher Engineering Mathematics, 42nd Edition (2012),
Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, India.
8) E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 9th Edition (2006), John Wiley & Sons,
Singapore.
9) N. R. Jayaram and R. V. Prabhakara, College Mathematics, Himalaya Publishing House,
New Delhi.

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

__________________________________________________________
Unit – 8
__________________________________________________________

8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2.1 Center of Curvature and Circle of Curvature
8.2.2 Coordinates of Center of Curvature
8.2.3 Equation of Circle of Curvature
8.2.4 Evolute of the curve
8.3 Check your progress
8.4 Keywords
8.5 Worked Examples
8.6 Questions for self-study
8.7 Answers to check your progress
8.8 References
__________________________________________________________
8.0 Objectives
After studying this unit, one should be able to know how to find center of curvature and
from that circle of curvature. Also we will be able to know what are evolutes and how we obtain
using center of curvature concept.

8.1 Introduction
In this unit we study center of curvature and circle of curvature and derive formula for
center of curvature. Also we explore what are evolutes and how we obtain using center of curvature
concept. This concept is a part of differential geometry and is useful in engineering drawings and

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

has industry wise applications. Evolute of a very special curve can be used to design a special type
of clock and toys.

8.2.1 Center of Curvature and Circle of Curvature

Let 𝑃 be a point on a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑃𝑇 be the tangent to the curve at the point 𝑃. If
𝐶 is the point on the normal drawn to the curve, at 𝑃 such that 𝑃𝐶 = 𝜌, where 𝜌 is the radius of
curvature at 𝑃. Then the point 𝐶 is called the center of curvature of the curve at the point 𝑃. And
the circle with center 𝐶 and radius 𝜌 is known as the circle of curvature at the point 𝑃.

8.2.2 Coordinates of Center of Curvature

Let us consider a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑦
be a point on the curve. 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

Let 𝐶(𝛼, 𝛽) be the center of curvature of the

curve at the point 𝑃. 𝐶(𝛼, 𝛽)
Let 𝜓 be the angle of inclination to the 𝜓 𝜌
𝑀 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
tangent 𝑃𝑇.
In the ∆𝑃𝐶𝑀, we have
∠𝑃𝐶𝑀 = 90° − ∠𝐶𝑃𝑀 …..(1)
Since 𝐶𝑃 ⊥ 𝑃𝑇, we have
∠𝑀𝑃𝑇 = 90° − ∠𝐶𝑃𝑀 …..(2) 𝜓
Hence from (1) and (2), 𝑥
𝑂 𝑇 𝑁 𝐿
∠𝑃𝐶𝑀 = ∠𝑀𝑃𝑇 …..(3)
Since the line 𝑀𝑃 parallel to 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and since alternate angles are equal
∠𝑀𝑃𝑇 = ∠𝑃𝑇𝐿 = 𝜓 …..(4)
From (3) and (4),
∠𝑃𝐶𝑀 = 𝜓
Now the 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 = 𝛼
⟹ 𝛼 = 𝑂𝑁 = 𝑂𝐿 − 𝑁𝐿
⟹ 𝛼 = 𝑂𝐿 − 𝑀𝑃

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

𝑃𝑀
⟹ 𝛼 = 𝑥 − 𝜌 sin 𝜓 …..(5) ∵ sin 𝜓 = 𝜌

The 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 = 𝛽
⟹ 𝛽 = 𝐶𝑁 = 𝑁𝑀 + 𝑀𝐶
⟹ 𝛽 = 𝑃𝐿 + 𝑀𝐶
𝑀𝐶
⟹ 𝛽 = 𝑦 + 𝜌 cos 𝜓 …..(6) ∵ cos 𝜓 = 𝜌

We know that tan 𝜓 = slope of the tangent at 𝑃

𝑑𝑦
tan 𝜓 = or 𝑦1
𝑑𝑥

𝑦1 1 𝑦1
⟹ sin 𝜓 = and cos 𝜓 =
√1+𝑦1 2 √1+𝑦1 2
𝜓
Also we have that the radius of curvature at the point P is given by
3
1
(1 + 𝑦1 2 )2
𝜌=
𝑦2
Substituting above in (5) and (6)
The 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶, 𝛼 = 𝑥 − 𝜌 sin 𝜓
3
(1+𝑦1 2 )2 𝑦1
⟹𝛼=𝑥− ∙
𝑦2 √1+𝑦1 2

𝑦1 (1+𝑦1 2 )
⟹𝛼=𝑥−
𝑦2

The 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶, 𝛽 = 𝑦 + 𝜌 cos 𝜓

3
(1+𝑦1 2 )2 1
⟹𝛽 =𝑦+ ∙
𝑦2 √1+𝑦1 2

(1+𝑦1 2 )
⟹𝛽 =𝑦+
𝑦2

Thus the coordinates of the center of curvature is given by

𝑦1 (1 + 𝑦1 2 ) (1 + 𝑦1 2 )
𝐶(𝛼, 𝛽) = (𝑥 − ,𝑦 + ).
𝑦2 𝑦2

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

8.2.3 Equation of Circle of Curvature

The circle of curvature is the circle with center at 𝐶(𝛼, 𝛽) and radius 𝜌 i.e.

(𝑥 − 𝛼)2 + (𝑦 − 𝛽)2 = 𝜌2 .

8.2.4 Evolute of the curve

The locus of the centre of curvature of a given curve is called the evolute of the curve, and the
curve itself is called involute of its evolute.

Working rule for finding the evolute of a curve

1. Find the coordinates (𝛼, 𝛽) of the centre of curvature of the curve at any point (𝑥, 𝑦) on
it using

𝑦1 (1 + 𝑦1 2 ) 1 + 𝑦1 2
𝛼=𝑥− , 𝛽=𝑦+
𝑦2 𝑦2
2. Eliminate the parameters 𝑥 and 𝑦 to find the relation between 𝛼 and 𝛽.
3. Replace 𝛼 and 𝛽 by 𝑥 and 𝑦 respectively, to obtain the equation of the evolute in terms of
variables 𝑥 and 𝑦.

8.3 Check your progress

1) Let 𝑎 be the curvature of a curve at a point and 𝑏 be the curvature of circle of curvature to the
curve at the same point. then
a. 𝑎=𝑏
b. 𝑎<𝑏
c. 𝑎>𝑏
d. None of these.

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

2) If 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 𝜌2 is the equation of circle of curvature to a curve at a point, where 𝜌

represents the radius of curvature to the curve at that point. Then what is the center of curvature at
that point?
a. (1, 0)
b. (0, 0)
c. (0, 1)
d. Can’t be found.

3) If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑦 2 − 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑒 = 0 is the equation of circle of curvature to a curve at a point

(0, 1) then which of the following is true.
a. 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 1
b. 𝑎+𝑏+𝑑 =𝑐+𝑒
c. 𝑎−𝑐 =𝑒
d. 𝑏+𝑑 =𝑒

4) The formula for the center of curvature of a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at a given point is
(1+𝑦1 2 ) 𝑦1 (1+𝑦1 2 )
a. 𝐶(𝛼, 𝛽) = (𝑥 − ,𝑦 + )
𝑦2 𝑦2

𝑦1 (1+𝑦1 2 ) (1+𝑦1 2 )
b. 𝐶(𝛼, 𝛽) = (𝑥 − ,𝑦 − )
𝑦2 𝑦2

𝑦1 (1+𝑦1 2 ) (1+𝑦1 2 )
c. 𝐶(𝛼, 𝛽) = (𝑥 + ,𝑦 − )
𝑦2 𝑦2

𝑦1 (1+𝑦1 2 ) (1+𝑦1 2 )
d. 𝐶(𝛼, 𝛽) = (𝑥 − ,𝑦 + )
𝑦2 𝑦2

5) The evolute of the curve: 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃), 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) is given by

a. Circle.
b. Ellipse.
c. Parabola.
d. Hyperbola.

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

8.4 Keywords
Center of Curvature and Circle of Curvature, Evolute of the curve.

8.5 Worked Examples

1) Find the coordinates of center of curvature at (𝒙, 𝒚) for the curve 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒚
Soln: 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦
differentiate w.r.t. x
𝑥 1
⟹ 2𝑥 = 4𝑎𝑦1 ⟹ 𝑦1 = ⟹ 𝑦2 =
2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑦1 (1+𝑦1 2 )
Hence 𝛼 = 𝑥 −
𝑦2

𝑥 𝑥 2
( )(1+( ) ) 𝑥(4𝑎2 +𝑥 2 )
2𝑎 2𝑎
⟹𝛼=𝑥− 1 ⟹𝛼=𝑥−
(2𝑎) 4𝑎2

𝑥(4𝑎2 +𝑥 2 ) 4𝑎2 𝑥−4𝑎2 𝑥−𝑥 3

⟹𝛼=𝑥− ⟹𝛼=
4𝑎2 4𝑎2
𝑥3
⟹𝛼=−
4𝑎2
(1+𝑦1 2 )
Consider 𝛽 = 𝑦 +
𝑦2

𝑥 2
(1+( ) ) (4𝑎2 +𝑥 2 )
2𝑎
⟹𝛽 =𝑦+ 1 ⟹𝛽=𝑦+
(2𝑎) 4𝑎2

𝑥2 (4𝑎2 +𝑥 2 ) 3𝑥 2
⟹𝛽= + ⟹ 𝛽 = 2𝑎 +
2𝑎 4𝑎2 4𝑎

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

2) Find the circle of curvature at (𝒄, 𝒄) for the curve 𝒙𝒚 = 𝒄𝟐

Soln: (Outline)
𝑥𝑦 = 𝑐 2
differentiate w.r.t. x
𝑦
⟹ 𝑥𝑦1 + 𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝑦1 = −
𝑥
2𝑦
By differentiating again w.r.t. x we get 𝑦2 = by quotient rule
𝑥2
𝑦1 (1+𝑦1 2 )
Hence 𝛼 = 𝑥 −
𝑦2

𝑦 𝑦 2
(− )(1+(− ) )
𝑥 𝑥
⟹𝛼=𝑥− 2𝑦
( 2)
𝑥

(3𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )
By simplification we get 𝛼 =
2𝑥

At (𝑐, 𝑐), 𝛼 = 2𝑐
(1+𝑦1 2 )
Consider 𝛽 = 𝑦 + , we can show that
𝑦2

(3𝑦 2 +𝑥 2 )
⟹𝛽=
2𝑦

At (𝑐, 𝑐), 𝛽 = 2𝑐
Hence the center of curvature is (2𝑐, 2𝑐)
3 3
(1+𝑦1 2 )2 (𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 ) ⁄2
Now, 𝜌 = , we get 𝜌 =
𝑦2 2𝑥𝑦

At (𝑐, 𝑐), 𝜌 = √2𝑐

Thus circle of curvature which is the circle with center at 𝐶(𝛼, 𝛽) and radius 𝜌 i.e.
2
(𝑥 − 2𝑐)2 + (𝑦 − 2𝑐)2 = (√2𝑐)
or

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑐𝑥 − 4𝑐𝑦 + 6𝑐 2 = 0.

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

3) Find the evolute of the parabola 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙.

Soln: We shall consider the parametric equation of the parabola:

𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Then, = 2𝑎𝑡, = 2𝑎.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 1
Therefore, = 𝑦1 = 𝑑𝑥 = , 𝑡 ≠ 0.
𝑑𝑥 ⁄𝑑𝑡 𝑡

−1 𝑑𝑡 −1
Now, 𝑦2 = = .
𝑡2 𝑑𝑥 2𝑎𝑡 3

Therefore, the coordinates of the centre of curvature are given by

𝑦1 (1+𝑦1 2 )
𝛼=𝑥− = 𝑎(3𝑡 2 + 2) … . . (1)
𝑦2

1+𝑦1 2
𝛽=𝑦+ = −2𝑎𝑡 3 … … … . … . . (2)
𝑦2

Now, eliminating 𝑡 between (1) and (2), we get the equation of the evolute as

4(𝛼 − 2𝑎)3 = 27𝑎𝛽 2 .

Now, replace 𝛼 and 𝛽 by 𝑥 and 𝑦, we get

4(𝑥 − 2𝑎)3 = 27𝑎𝑦 2 .

𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
4) Find the evolute of the ellipse: 𝟐
+ = 𝟏.
𝒂 𝒃𝟐

Soln: The parametric equations of the ellipse are

𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 −𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑡
Therefore, = 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 ⁄𝑑𝑡 𝑎

𝑑2𝑦 −𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝑡
Now, =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑎2

𝑦1 (1+𝑦1 2 ) (𝑎2 −𝑏2 )𝑥 3

Now, 𝛼=𝑥− = … . . (3)
𝑦2 𝑎4

1+𝑦1 2 (𝑏2 −𝑎2 )𝑦 3

𝛽=𝑦+ = … . . (4)
𝑦2 𝑏4

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

Eliminating 𝑡 between (3) and (4), we get the equation of evolute as

2⁄ 2⁄ 2⁄
(𝑎𝛼) 3 + (𝑏𝛽) 3 = (𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 ) 3 .
Now, replacing 𝛼 by 𝑥 and 𝛽 by 𝑦, we get the equation of evolute as
2⁄ 2⁄ 2⁄
(𝑎𝑥) 3 + (𝑏𝑦) 3 = (𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 ) 3 .

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
5) Find the evolute of the curve 𝒙 ⁄𝟑 + 𝒚 ⁄𝟑 = 𝒂 ⁄𝟑 .
Soln: The parametric equations of the curve are

𝑥 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃.
𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃
Hence = 𝑦1 = 𝑑𝑥⁄ = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃
𝑑2𝑦 1
Further, = 𝑦2 =
𝑑𝑥 2 3𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃

Now, the coordinates of the centre of curvature are given by

𝑦1 (1 + 𝑦1 2 )
𝛼=𝑥− = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) … . . (1)
𝑦2
1 + 𝑦1 2
𝛽=𝑦+ = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) … . . … . . (2)
𝑦2
Now, eliminate 𝜃 between (1) and (2), we obtain
2⁄ 2⁄ 2⁄
(𝛼 + 𝛽) 3 + (𝛼 − 𝛽) 3 = 2𝑎 3 .
Now, replace 𝛼 by 𝑥 and 𝛽 by 𝑦, we obtain the equation of evolute as
2⁄ 2⁄ 2⁄
(𝑥 + 𝑦) 3 + (𝑥 − 𝑦) 3 = 2𝑎 3 .

6) Find the equation of the evolute of the rectangular hyperbola 𝒙𝒚 = 𝒄𝟐 , 𝒄 ≠ 𝟎.

Soln: The parametric equations of the rectangular hyperbola are

𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡
𝑐
𝑦=
𝑡

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Differential Calculus – II KSOU

𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 −1
Then 𝑦1 = = 𝑑𝑥 = , 𝑡 ≠ 0.
𝑑𝑥 ⁄𝑑𝑡 𝑡2

𝑑2𝑦 2
Again, 𝑦2 = = , 𝑡 ≠ 0.
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑐𝑡 3

Now, the coordinates of the centre of curvature are given by

𝑦1 (1 + 𝑦1 2 ) 3𝑐𝑡 4 + 𝑐
𝛼=𝑥− = … . . (3)
𝑦2 2𝑡 3
1 + 𝑦1 2 (3 + 𝑡 4 )𝑐
𝛽 =𝑦+ = … . … . . (4)
𝑦2 2𝑡
Eliminating 𝑡 between (3) and (4), we obtain
2⁄ 2⁄ 2⁄
(𝛼 + 𝛽) 3 + (𝛼 − 𝛽) 3 = (4𝑐) 3 .
Now, finally replace 𝛼 by 𝑥 and 𝛽 by 𝑦, we get the equation of evolute as
2⁄ 2⁄ 2⁄
(𝑥 + 𝑦) 3 + (𝑥 − 𝑦) 3 = (4𝑐) 3 .

8.6 Questions for self-study

1) Show that the curvature of the circle is a constant.
2) Find the circle of curvature at (1, 1) for 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 2𝑥𝑦.
3) Find the circle of curvature at (1, 1) for 𝑥 4 + 𝑦 4 = 2.
4) Find the coordinates of centre of curvature for 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑡 + sin𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 + cos𝑡)..
5) Find the coordinates of centre of curvature for 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 .
6) Find the evolute of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃), 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃).
7) Find the evolute of the rectangular parabola 2𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎2 .
8) Find the evolute of the cycloid 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡).
9) Find the evolute of the curve 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 .
𝑥2 𝑦2
10) Find the evolute of the hyperbola 2
− = 1.
𝑎 𝑏2
𝑡
11) Find the evolute of the tractrix 𝑥 = 𝑎 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑡𝑎𝑛 2)) , 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡.

12) Find the evolute of the curve 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦.

55
Differential Calculus – II KSOU

13) Find the evolute of the curve 𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡, 𝑦 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡.
14) Find the evolute of the curve 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃, 𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃.
15) Find the evolute of the curve 𝑥 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡, 𝑦 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡 .

8.7 Answers to check your progress

1) a 2) c 3) d 4) d 5) a

8.8 References
1) Shanthi Narayan and Dr. P. K. Mittal, Differential Calculus, Fifteenth edition, S. Chand
Publications, Shyamlal Charitable Trust, Ram Nagar, New Delhi – 110 055.
2) Prof. K. Rama Murthy and Dr. Arshad Qureshi, Elements of Engineering Mathematics,
Sudha Publications, Bengaluru – 560 002.
3) G. K. Ranganath, A Textbook of B.Sc. Mathematics, for First Semester, University of
Mysore.
4) Dr. K. S. Chandrashekar, Engineering Mathematics – I, Sudha Publications, Bengaluru –
560 002.
5) John Bird, Higher Engineering Mathematics, Seventh edition, Routledge Publications,
London, UK.
6) L. N. Chakravarthy, A textbook of B.Sc. Mathematics Vol 1, Chethana Book House, K. R.
Mohalla, Mysuru – 570004.
7) B. S. Grewal and J. S. Grewal, Higher Engineering Mathematics, 42nd Edition (2012),
Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, India.
8) E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 9th Edition (2006), John Wiley & Sons,
Singapore.
9) N. R. Jayaram and R. V. Prabhakara, College Mathematics, Himalaya Publishing House,
New Delhi.

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MATHEMATICS KSOU

BLOCK – 3
Matrix Theory
UNIT – 1 Rank of a Matrix
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2.1 Types of Matrices
9.2.2 Rank of a Matrix
9.2.3 Inverse of a matrix using elementary row operations
9.3 Check your progress
9.4 Keywords
9.5 Worked examples
9.6 Questions for self study
9.7 Answers to check your progress
9.8 References

9.0 Objectives
Objectives of this module is to
 learn definition of a matrix, types of matrices, determinant of a matrix, symmetric and
skew-symmetric matrices etc.,
 learn elementary row operations and to learn definition of rank of a matrix
 learn how to find rank of a matrix using elementary row operations
 learn how to find inverse of a non-singular matrix by elementary row operations

9.1 Introduction
A system of m·n elements (real or complex) written in rectangular array of m rows
and n columns is called an m x n matrix. It is read as m by n matrix. Each of the mn
numbers constituting an m x n matrix is called an element of the matrix.
Obviously an m x n matrix can be written in general as
MATHEMATICS KSOU

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 ⋯ 𝑎3𝑛
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
(𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚3 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 )

Explanation
The number occurring in the ith row and jth column of the matrix is called (i, j)th element and
is denoted by aij . These are called the elements of the matrix. A matrix may be represented
by the symbols ‖𝑎𝑖𝑗 ‖, (aij). If (()) is a matrix of order m x n , then i and j varies i = 1, 2,
3……..m and j = 1, 2, 3,……..n respectively.

A system of matrix is denoted by a capital letters such as A, B, C etc., and then (i,j) th
elements will be denoted by aij, bij, cij

9.2.1 Types of Matrices

Row Matrices, Column Matrices, Rectangular Matrices and Square Matrices
A matrix of order 1 x n, is called a row matrix and the matrix of order m x 1, is called a
column matrix. A matrix of order n x n ( i.e. the number of rows equal to number of
columns) is called a square Matrix. A matrix which is not necessarily a square matrix will be
called a Rectangular matrix.

3
Examples: (1 2 3) → is a 1 x 3 Row matrix, (1) → is a 3 x 1 Column matrix,
5

3 1 4 2 3
( ) → is a 2 x 3 Rectangular matrix, ( ) → is a 2 x 2 Square matrix.
2 0 5 1 5

Diagonal Matrices and Scalar Matrices

A square matrix A = (aij ) n x n is called a diagonal matrix if aij = 0 for i ≠ j. i. e. every element
other than diagonal elements is a zero. Therefore, a diagonal matrix is necessarily a square
matrix.

A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are equal, is called a scalar
matrix.

Note: An n- rowed diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements in order are d1, d2, d3,..… dn
will often be denoted by the symbol Diag(d1, d2, d3,..… dn)
MATHEMATICS KSOU

1 0 0 2 0 0
(0 2 0) → is a 3 x 3 Diagonal matrix, (0 2 0)→ is a 3 x 3 Scalar matrix.
0 0 3 0 0 2
A diagonal matrix each of whose diagonal elements is equal to 1 is called a unit matrix or
identity matrix, and is denoted by I.
A matrix, rectangular or square, each of whose elements is zero is called a Zero
matrix or a Null matrix and is denoted by O.

Examples:
1 0 0
1 0
( (
), 0 1 0) are the unit matrix of different orders
0 1
0 0 1

0 0 0
0 0 0
( ) , (0 0 0) are the zero matrix of different orders
0 0 0
0 0 0
Note: An n x n unit matrix is denoted by In
Determinant of a square matrix
For every square matrix we associate a real number called the determinant of the matrix
and is denoted by │A│.
̅ | = │A│, and │In│ = 1
Note: 1. │At│ = │A│ , |A

Singular and non- singular matrices

A square matrix A is said to be singular if det(A) = 0. Otherwise it is said to be non-singular if
det(A) ≠ 0.

Examples: 1. A = |2 1| is a singular matrix of order 2 x 2 because det(A) = 0.

6 3
5 1|
2. A = | is a non-singular matrix of order 2 x 2 because det(A) ≠ 0.
7 2
Symmetric Matrices and Skew - Symmetric Matrices
A square matrix A = (aij ) n x n is said to be Symmetric, if aij = aji for all i , j

i.e. the (i, j)th element is the same as the (j, i) th element.
Obviously a matrix A is symmetric if and only if At = A.
A square matrix A = (aij ) n x n is said to be Skew-Symmetric, if aij = - aji i.e. the (i,
j) element is the negative of its (j, i)th element.
th
MATHEMATICS KSOU

Obviously a matrix A is skew - symmetric if and only if At = - A.

Since, by definition, aij = - aji => aii = 0, we see that every diagonal element of a Skew -
symmetric matrix is necessarily zero.

Transpose of a Matrix
The matrix obtained from any given matrix A, by interchanging its rows and columns is
called the transpose of A and is usually denoted by A’ or At .
Thus if A = (aij ) , then At = (bij) , where bij = aji
i. e. The (i, j)th element of At is the (j, i)th element of A.
The transpose of an m x n matrix is an n x m matrix. Also clearly the transpose of
matrix At coincides with itself, i. e. (At )t = A.
1 2
Example: A = (1 4 7) => At = (4 5) .
2 5 8
7 8

Conjugate of a matrix:
The matrix obtained from any given matrix A, on replacing its elements by the
corresponding conjugate complex numbers is called the conjugate of A and is denoted by
̅ | . Thus if A = (aij), then |A
|A ̅ | = (bij) where bij = ̅̅̅̅
𝑎𝑖𝑗 is called the conjugate of A, bij
denoting the complex conjugate of aij .
̅ | coincides with
For a matrix A whose elements are all real numbers, conjugate |A
itself.
̿=A
Note: Clearly the conjugate of the conjugate of a matrix coincides with itself. i.e. , A
1 + 2𝑖 2 − 3𝑖 3 + 4𝑖 1 − 2𝑖 2 + 3𝑖 3 − 4𝑖
Example: A = (4 − 5𝑖 5 + 6𝑖 ̅
6 − 7𝑖 ), |A| = (4 + 5𝑖 5 − 6𝑖 6 + 7𝑖 )
8 7 + 8𝑖 7 8 7 − 8𝑖 7

9.2.2 Rank of a Matrix

Definition: Let A be an m x n matrix. The determinant of the square sub-matrix of order p x
p obtained by deleting (m – p) rows and (n – p) columns from A, is called a minor of order p
of A.
2 3 1 0
For example, consider a matrix A = (4 2 5 1)
3 1 2 4
MATHEMATICS KSOU

2 3 0
2 3 4 1
| |, | | etc are minors of order 2 and |4 2 1| etc is minor of order 3.
4 2 3 4
3 1 4
A matrix A is said to have rank r if,
(i) There exists at least one minor of order r of the matrix A, which does not vanish.
(ii) all minors of order (r + 1) must vanish.
The rank of the matrix A is denoted by ρ(A).

In other words, the rank of the matrix is said to be r, if r is the largest positive integer
for which the statement “ not all minors of order r are zero” is true.
Note:
 The rank of non singular matrix A of order n x n is n.
 The rank of singular matrix A of order n x n is less than n.
 If A is matrix of order m x n , then ρ(A) ≤ min(m, n).

 The rank of a zero matrix is zero.

 In a matrix A, if there exists a non zero minor of order r, then ρ(A) ≥ r.
 If in a matrix A, every minor of order r + 1 vanish, then ρ(A) ≤ r.
 The rank of the unit matrix of order n x n is n. (│I n│ = 1 ≠ 0).

Elementary Operations
Let A be the given matrix. The following are called the elementary row(column) operations
on A.
 Interchange of any two rows(columns)
 Multiplication of the elements of a row(column) by a non zero scalar
 Adding to the elements of a row (column) k times the corresponding elements of
another row (column), here k is a scalar.
Definition (Equivalent Matrices):
Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent if one matrix A can be obtained
from the other matrix B by performing a finite number of elementary operations on A. Thus
we denote it by A ̴ B.
If the matrix B is obtained from A by performing a finite number of only row
operations (column operations) on A, then we say A is row (column) equivalent to the
matrix B.
The relation “Equivalent” defined on the set of all matrices of order m x n, is an
equivalence relation. i. e. for all matrices A, B and C of order m x n, we have
MATHEMATICS KSOU

(i) A ̴A (ii) A ̴ B => B ̴ A (iii) A ̴ B and B ̴ C => A ̴ C

Invariance of rank under elementary operations

Theorem 1:
The rank of the matrix does not alter by interchanging any two rows of the matrix.
Proof: Let A be a m x n matrix of rank r. Let B be a matrix obtained from A by interchanging
any two rows of the matrix.
Consider any minor B0 of order (r+1) of B. Then B0 is either identical with a minor (of order
r+1) of A or equal to a minor (of order r+1) of A in which two rows are interchanged.
Since the interchange of two rows of a determinant alters just the sign and since every
minor of order (r+1) of A is singular, it follows that B0 is singular. Thus all minors of order
(r+1) of B is singular. Hence ρ(B) ≤ r i.e., ρ(B) ≤ ρ(A) ------ (1)
But the matrix A can be obtained from B, by interchanging the same two rows. Repeating
the same argument, we have ρ(A) ≤ ρ(B) ------ (2)
From (1) and (2) it follows that ρ(B) = ρ(A).
This completes the proof.

Theorem 2:
The rank of the matrix does not alter, by multiplying the elements of a row by a non-
zero scalar.
Proof: Let A be a m x n matrix of rank r. Let B be a matrix obtained from A by multiplying the
elements of ith row of A by a non-zero scalar k.
Consider any matrix B0 of order (r+1) of B. Let the corresponding placed submatrix of order
(r+1) of A be A0 . Then we have |B0 | = |A0 | or |B0 | = k|A0 | accordingly as the submatrix B0
contains the ith row or doesn’t contain the ith row.
Now, ρ(A) = r, every minor of order (r+1) of A will vanish and so is A0 i.e., |A0 | = 0.
Hence |B0 | = 0 in both the cases. As A0 is arbitrary minor of order (r+1) of A and every
minor of order (r+1) of A is singular, all the minors of order (r+1) of B are also singular.
Hence ρ(B) ≤ ρ(A) ------ (1)
1
But the matrix A can be obtained from B by multiplying every element of ith row of B by 𝑘.
Repeating the same argument, we have ρ(A) ≤ ρ(B) ------ (2)
From (1) and (2) it follows that ρ(B) = ρ(A).

This completes the proof.

MATHEMATICS KSOU

Theorem 3:

The rank of the matrix does not alter by the addition of same multiple of the
elements of a row to the corresponding elements of another row.

Proof: Let A be a m x n matrix of rank r. Let B be a matrix obtained from A by adding k times
the elements of jth row of the corresponding elements of ith row.
Consider any matrix B0 of order (r+1) of B. Let the corresponding placed submatrix of order
(r+1) of A be A0 . Then there are three possibilities
1) B0 may not contain the elements of ith row of B. In this case |B0 | = |A0 |.
2) B0 contains both the elements of ith row and jth row of B. In this case
|B0 | = |A0 | + k|N|, where |N| is of order (r+1) of A, in which two rows are identical
∴ |N| = 0 ⟹ |B0 | = |A0 |.
3) B0 contains both the elements of ith row but no elements of jth row of B. In this case
|B0 | = |A0 | + k|M|, where |M| is a submatrix of A of order (r+1).

Now, as ρ(A) = r, every minor of order (r+1) of A will vanish.

∴ |A0 | = 0, |M| = 0 ⟹ |B0 | = 0.

Since B0 is an arbitrary minor of B, every minor of order (r+1) of B will vanish.
Hence ρ(B) ≤ r i.e., ρ(B) ≤ ρ(A) ------ (1)
But the matrix A can be obtained from B, by adding (– k) times the elements of jth row to the
corresponding elements of the ith row. Repeating the same argument, we have
ρ(A) ≤ ρ(B) ------ (2)
From (1) and (2) it follows that ρ(B) = ρ(A).

This completes the proof.

Note:
(1) If A is a matrix of rank r, then rank of At is also r.
(2) The rank of a matrix in which every element is unity is 1.

Row reduced echelon form

A matrix A of order m x n is said to be in row reduced echelon form, if
(i) The leading element (the first non zero entry) of each row is unity.
MATHEMATICS KSOU

(ii) All the entries below this leading entry is zero.

(iii) The number of zeros appearing before the leading entry in each row is grater than
that appears in its previous row.
(iv) The zero of rows (rows in which every element is zero) must appear below the non
zero rows.

Examples: The following are few matrices which are in echelon form.

0 1 2 3 4
1 4 5 2 3 1 0 0 0 1 −1 2
(0 1 0 ), (0 1 5 1 ), 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
(0 0 0 0 0)

Note: The rank of the matrix A is equal to the number of non zero rows, in the row reduced
echelon form of the matrix A.

Example: Find the rank of the matrix A using the elementary row operation, where
1 2 −1 4
A = (2 4 3 5)
3 2 6 7
1 2 −1 4
Solution: A ̴ (0 0 5 −3) R2 → R2 – 2R1 , R3 → R3 – 3R1
0 −4 9 −5
1 2 −1 4
A ̴ (0 −4 9 −5) R2 ↔ R3
0 0 5 −3
The final matrix has 3 non zero rows. Hence ρ(A) = 3.

9.2.3 Inverse of a non-singular matrix by elementary operations

Definitions
Singular matrix: A matrix ‘A’ is said to be singular if the determinant of A is equal to zero.

Non-singular matrix: A matrix ‘A’ is said to be non-singular if the determinant of A is not

equal to zero.

Inverse of a matrix: Let ‘A’ be a non-singular matrix of order nxn, if there exists a matrix ‘B’
of order nxn such that AB = I, where I is the identity matrix of order nxn, then the matrix ‘B’
is called the inverse of ‘A’ and is denoted by A−1 .
MATHEMATICS KSOU

Method to find the inverse of the given matrix using elementary row operations:

1. Let A be a nxn non-singular matrix.

2. Write 𝐴 = 𝐼𝑛 𝐴 ------(1)
3. Apply series of elementary row operations on A to reduce it to 𝐼𝑛 and in each step
we shall apply the same row operations on 𝐼𝑛 of the right side of equation (1).
4. Finally equation (1) takes the form 𝐼𝑛 = 𝐵𝐴 ( Here 𝐼𝑛 of equation (1) becomes B).

5. The matrix B is the inverse of A (i.e., 𝐴−1 = 𝐵).

9.3 Check your progress

1) What is a matrix?
2) Name different types of matrices

3) What is transpose of a matrix?

4) What is rank of a matrix?
5) What are elementary row operations?
6) What are singular and non – non singular matrices?
7) What is inverse of a non – non singular square matrix?

9.4 Key words: Rank of a matrix, Row reduced Echelon form, Invariance of Rank,
Inverse of a matrix

9.5 Worked Examples

6 4 9
1) Find the rank of a Matrix 𝐴 = [1 3 5].
1 1 2
Solution:
6 4 9
Consider 𝐴 = [1 3 5]
1 1 2
MATHEMATICS KSOU

6 4 9
~ [0 14 21] 𝑅2 → 6𝑅2 − 𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 6𝑅3 − 𝑅1
0 2 3
6 4 9
~ [0 14 21] 𝑅3 → 7𝑅3 − 𝑅2
0 0 0
2 3
1 3 2
𝑅1 𝑅
~ [0 1 𝑅1 →3] , 𝑅2 → 142 .
6
2
0 0 0
Therefore the rank of a matrix = 𝜌(𝐴) = 2.
2 1 5 −4
2) Find the rank of a matrix 𝐴 = [3 −2 2 −2].
5 −8 −4 2
Solution:
2 1 5 −4
Consider 𝐴 = [3 −2 2 −2]
5 −8 −4 2
1 5
1 2 −2
2 1
~ [3 −2 2 −2] 𝑅1 → 2 𝑅1
5 −8 −4 2
1 5
1 −2
2 2
−7 −11
~ 0 2 2
4 𝑅2 → (−3)𝑅1 + 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 → (−5)𝑅1 + 𝑅3
−21 −33
[0 2 2
12]
1 5
1 2 2
−2
~[0 4 ] 𝑅3 → (−3)𝑅2 + 𝑅3
−7 −11
2 2
0 0 0 0
The rank of a matrix = 𝜌(𝐴) = 2.
1 2 −1 4
3) Find the rank of a matrix 𝐴 = [2 4 3 5]
3 2 6 7
Solution:
1 2 −1 4
Consider, 𝐴 = [2 4 3 5]
3 2 6 7
1 2 −1 4
~ [0 0 5 −3 ] 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1
0 −4 9 −5
MATHEMATICS KSOU

1 2 −1 4
~ [0 −4 9 −5 ] 𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅3
0 0 5 −3
The final matrix has three non-zero rows.
Hence 𝜌(𝐴) = 3.

1 2 −1 4
2 4 3 4
4) Find the rank of a Matrix 𝐴 = [ ]
1 2 3 4
−1 −2 6 −7
1 2 −1 4
2 4 3 4
Solution: Consider 𝐴 = [ ]
1 2 3 4
−1 −2 6 −7
1 2 −1 4
0 0 5 −4
~[ ] 𝑅 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 and 𝑅4 → 𝑅4 + 𝑅1
0 0 4 0 2
0 0 5 −3
1 2 −1 4
0 0 5 −4
~[ ] 𝑅 → 5𝑅3 − 4𝑅2 , 𝑅4 → 𝑅4 − 𝑅2
0 0 0 16 3
0 0 0 1
1 2 −1 4
0 0 5 −4
~[ ] 𝑅4 → 16𝑅4 − 𝑅3
0 0 0 16
0 0 0 0
The final matrix has 3 non zero rows.

Therefore, 𝜌(𝐴) = 3.

1 1 1
5) Find the rank of a matrix 𝐴 = [ ]
2 5 6
1 1 1
Solution: Consider, 𝐴 = [ ]
2 5 6
1 1 1
~[ ] 𝑅 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1
0 3 4 2
1 1 1 𝑅2
~ [0 1
4 ] 𝑅2 → 3
3

i.e., rank of a matrix A = 2.

MATHEMATICS KSOU

1 3 2
2 −1 3
6) Using elementary transformations reduce the matrix to the echelon form [ ].
3 −5 4
1 17 4
Solution:
1 3 2
2 −1 3
Let 𝐴 =[ ]
3 −5 4
1 17 4
1 3 2
0 −7 −1
~ [ ] 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 and 𝑅4 → 𝑅4 − 𝑅1
0 −14 2
0 14 2
1 3 2
0 −7 −1 𝑅
~ [ ] 𝑅4 → − 4
0 −14 2 2
0 7 −1
1 3 2
1
0 1 𝑅4
~ 7 𝑅2 → − , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 and 𝑅4 → 𝑅4 − 𝑅2
7
0 0 0
[0 0 0]
This is the required echelon form of the given matrix.

7) Find the inverse of the matrix A by elementary row operations, where

1 1 3
𝐴=( 1 3 −3)
−2 −4 −4
1 1 3
Solution: Given 𝐴 = ( 1 3 −3)
−2 −4 −4

Let 𝐴 = 𝐼3 𝐴
1 1 3 1 0 0
(1 3 −3) = (0 1 0) . A
−2 −4 −4 0 0 1
Consider 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 and 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 2𝑅1 , we get
1 1 3 1 0 0
(0 2 −6 ) = ( −1 1 0) . A
0 −2 2 2 0 1
1 1
Apply 𝑅2 → 2 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 2 𝑅3 , we get
MATHEMATICS KSOU

1 0 0
1 1 3 1 1
− 0
(0 1 −3) = 2 2 .A
0 −1 1 1
1 0
( 2)
Apply 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 + 𝑅2 , we get
3 1
− 0
2 2
1 0 6 1 1
(0 1 −3) = − 0 .A
0 0 −2 2 2
1 1 1
( 2 2 2)
1
Apply 𝑅3 → 2 𝑅3 , we get

3 1
− 0
2 2
1 0 6 1 1
(0 1 −3) = − 0 .A
0 0 1 2 2
1 1 1
(− 4 −
4
− )
4
Apply 𝑅1 → 𝑅1 − 6𝑅3 and 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 + 3𝑅3 , we get
3
3 1
2
1 0 0 5 1 3
(0 1 0) = − − − .A
0 0 1 4 4 4
1 1 1
−
( 4 − − )
4 4
3
3 1
2
5 1 3
𝐼= − − − .A
4 4 4
1 1 1
(− 4 − 4 − )
4

12 4 6
1
Hence 𝐴−1 = 4 (−5 −1 −3).
−1 −1 −1
MATHEMATICS KSOU

9.6 Questions for Self study

−1 3 4
1) Find the rank of A = [ 4 1 − 1].
−8 −2 2
1 2 −2 3
2 5 4 7
2) Find the rank of 𝐴 = [ ].
−1 −3 2 −1
2 4 −1 3
1 2 −2 3
2 5 4 7
3) Using elementary transformations, reduce the matrix 𝐴 = [ ] to
−1 −3 2 −1
2 4 −1 3
1 2 −2 3
0 1 8 1
[ ].
0 0 1 −1
0 0 0 1
−1 3 4
4) Find the rank of A = [ 4 1 − 1].
−8 −2 2
1 −3 1 2
5) Find the rank of 𝐴 = [0 1 2 3 ].
3 4 1 −2
1 −1 3 6
6) Find the rank of 𝐴 = [1 3 −3 −4].
5 3 3 11
1 2 −1
7) Find inverse of A = [3 8 2 ] by elementary row operations
4 9 −1
−1 3 4
8) Find inverse of A = [ 4 1 − 1] by elementary row operations
−8 −2 1

9.7 Answers to check your progess

1) Rank = 3 2) Rank = 4 3) Rank = 3 4) Rank = 2
MATHEMATICS KSOU

−26 −7 12
5) Rank = 3 6) Rank = 3 7) [ 11 3 − 5]
−5 −1 2
1 11 7
− 13 − 13 − 13
8) ( 4 31 15 )
13 13 13
0 −2 −1

9.8 References
1. A text book of Matrices by Shanthinarayan and P. K. Mittal.
2. A text book of B.Sc Mathematics by G. K. Ranganath.
3. College Mathematics by Jayaram and Prabhakara.
 BLOCK – 3
Matrix Theory
UNIT – 2 System of Linear Equations
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2.1 Linear homogeneous equations
10.2.2 Linear non-homogeneous equations
10.3 Check your progress
10.4 Keywords
10.5 Worked examples
10.6 Questions for self study
10.7 Answers to check your progress
10.8 References

10.0 Objectives
Objectives of this module is to

 Know what is a system of linear equations and how to represent them in matrix form
 Solve system of linear homogeneous equations
 Solve system of linear non-homogeneous equations

10.1 Introduction
Definition: A system of equations in which all the unknown quantities occur in the first
degree alone is called a system of linear equations.

The system of equations

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + 𝑎13 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + 𝑎23 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑚3 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚
Where, 𝑎11 , 𝑎12 , 𝑎13 , … , 𝑎𝑚𝑛 and 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑚 are constants, is called a system of m
linear equations in n unknowns.

Matrix representation of system of linear equations

The above system of m linear equations in n unknowns can be represented in the matrix
form AX = B, Where

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 … … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 … … 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥2 𝑏2
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 … … 𝑎3𝑛 . .
𝐴= … … … …… … , 𝑋= . , 𝐵=
.
… … … …… … . .
[𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚3 … … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ]𝑚x𝑛 [𝑥𝑛 ]nx1 [𝑏𝑛 ]nx1

A-Coefficient Matrix
X-Matrix of Unknowns
B- Matrix of Independent Terms

10.2.1 Linear Homogeneous Equations

If 𝑏1 = 𝑏2 = 𝑏3 = ⋯ = 𝑏𝑚 = 0 in the above system of equations, then that system of
equations is called linear homogeneous equations.
i.e., In A·X = B, The matrix B = 0, then that system of equations is called linear
homogeneous equations.
• A solution of linear equations is the set of values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 which satisfy all the
m equations simultaneously
• The homogeneous system of linear equations has always one set of solution 𝑥1 =
0, 𝑥2 = 0, 𝑥3 = 0, … , 𝑥𝑛 = 0. This solution is called trivial solution.
• Any other solution (other than trivial solution) of homogeneous system is called non
trivial solution.

Working Rule to Find the Solution of Homogeneous System AX = 0

1. Reduce the coefficient matrix A to row reduced echelon form by applying
elementary row operations and hence find the rank of A. Let 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝑟.

2. If 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝑟 < 𝑛, then the system will have a non trivial solution (otherwise it will
have only trivial solution).
 3. Write the equivalent system of equations associated with the echelon form obtained
in step 1.
4. The equivalent system will have r equations. Choose (n-r) parameters, in terms of
which write the complete solution of the system.

Example
Solve the system of equations

𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 0, 3𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0, 5𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0.
Solution: The coefficient matrix is
1 2 −3
𝐴 = (3 −1 1)
5 3 2
Applying elementary row operations we get the row reduced echelon form

1 2 −3
𝐴~ (0 −7 10 )
0 0 7
Here 𝜌(𝐴) = 3 = 𝑛 (number of unknowns).
i.e., the given system has trivial solution.
Therefore the solution is 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑧 = 0.

10.2.2 Linear Non-homogeneous Equations

Consider the system of m non homogenous linear equations in n unknowns
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + 𝑎13 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + 𝑎23 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑚3 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚
where, 𝑎11 , 𝑎12 , 𝑎13 , … , 𝑎𝑚𝑛 and 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑚 are constants, is called a linear non-
homogeneous equation if not all 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑚 is zero i.e., at least one 𝑏𝑖 , 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑚 is
non-zero.
This system can be written in the matrix form as
A·X = B
where A is the coefficient matrix, X is the matrix of unknowns and the matrix B is the

matrix of independent terms, a11,a12,a13 , …,, amn , b1,b2,…,bm are constants.

The matrix formed by combining the elements of A and that of B, as given below

is called augmented matrix, associated with the above linear non-homogeneous system.
The non homogeneous system of m equations AX=B in n unknowns is consistent iff the
matrix A and the Augmented matrix [A:B] have the same rank.

Working Rule for finding the solution for the system of equations AX=B
• Reduce the augmented matrix [A:B] to an echelon form. Find the ranks of A and
[A:B].
• If ρ(A) ≠ ρ[A:B], then conclude that the system is inconsistent and therefore has no
solution.
• If ρ(A) = ρ[A:B] then the system is consistent. Write the equivalent system using the
echelon form of [A:B], solve the system of equations
• If ρ(A) = ρ[A:B] and number of equations is equal to number of unknowns then the
system of equations has exactly one solution

• If ρ(A) = ρ[A:B] and number of equations is less than number of unknowns then the
system of equations has infinitely many solutions.

Example:
Verify the system of equations
x + y -2z =5
x - 2y + z = -2
-2x + y + z = 4 for consistency.
Solution: The augmented matrix is
1 1 −2 : 5
[A:B] = [ 1 −2 1 : −2]
−2 1 1 : 4
Applying R2 → R2-R1 , R3 → R3+2R1 , we get
1 1 −2 : 5
~ [0 −3 3 : −7]
0 3 −3 : 14
Applying R3 → R3+R2 , we get
1 1 −2 : 5
~ [0 −3 3 : −7]
0 0 0 : 7
=> ρ(A) = 2 and ρ[A:B] = 3
Thus, ρ(A) ≠ ρ[A:B].
Hence the system is inconsistent.

10.3 Check your progress

1) What is a system of linear homogeneous equations?
2) Under what condition a system of homogeneous equations has non-trivial solution?
3) What is a system of linear non-homogeneous equations?
4) When does a system of non-homogeneous equations has exactly one solution?
5) What is an Augmented matrix?

6) When do we say that a system of non-homogeneous equations is consistent?

10.4 Key words: Linear homogeneous equations, Non-homogeneous equations,

Augmented matrix, consistency, rank, echelon form

10.5 Worked examples

1) Solve the system of equations

𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 0, 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0, 𝑥 − 11𝑦 + 14𝑧 = 0.
Solution: The coefficient matrix is
1 3 −2
𝐴 = (2 −1 4)
1 −11 14
Applying elementary row operations we get the row reduced echelon form
 1 3 −2
𝐴~ (0 −7 8)
0 0 0
Here 𝜌(𝐴) = 2 < 𝑛 (number of unknowns=3).
i.e., the given system has non trivial solution.
The equivalent system of equations
𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 0----- (1)
−7𝑦 + 8𝑧 = 0---------(2)
8
Equation (2) implies 𝑦 = 7 z
8
Let z = k, then 𝑦 = 7 k
8
Equation (1) implies 𝑥 + 3 (7 𝑘) − 2𝑘

10
∴𝑥=−
𝑘
10 8
Therefore the solution is 𝑥 = − 𝑘 , 𝑦 = 7 k and z = k, where k is any real number.

2) Solve the system of equations

x + 2y + 3z = 0
3x + 4y + 4z = 0
7x + 10y + 12z = 0
Solution: The given system is a homogenous system of equations in 3 unknowns and
can be written in the form A.X = O
1 2 3
Where A = [3 4 4]
7 10 12
Reducing the coefficient matrix A to echelon form by applying only elementary
row transformations on it. Applying R2→ R2 - 3R1 , R3→ R3 - 7R1, we get
1 2 3
A = [0 −2 −5]
0 −4 −9
thus 𝜌(A) = 3.
Thus the rank of the coefficient matrix is equal to the number of unknowns.
Therefore the given system of equations does not possess any linearly

independent solutions.
x = y = z = 0 is the only solution of the given system of equations.
3) Find the value of λ for which the following system has a non-trivial solution
2x-y+2z=0
3x+y-2z=0
λx-2y+z=0
Solution: The given system is the system of 3 equations in 3 unknowns. Thus the system
will have non trivial solution iff |A|=0, where A is the coefficient matrix. Now
|A|= 0
2 −1 2
Implies |3 1 −1| = 0
𝜆 −2 1
Thus 2(1-2)+1(3+ λ)+2(-6- λ)=0

=> -2+3+ λ-12-2 λ =0

=> λ = -11

4) Solve the system of equations

x + 3y + 2z = 0
2x – y + 3z = 0
3x - 5y + 4z = 0
x + 17y + 4z = 0
Solution: The coefficient matrix A is
1 3 2
[2 −1 3]
3 −5 4
1 17 4

1 3 2
⟹ ~ [0 −7 −1] R → R -2R R → R -3R , R → R -R
2 2 1, 3 3 1 4 4 1
0 −14 −2
0 14 2
1 3 2
⟹ ~ [ 0 −7 −1 ] R3 → R3-2R2 , R4 → R4 +2R2
0 0 0
0 0 0
⟹ 𝜌(A) = 2 and hence the system has non-trivial solution.
Now the equivalent system is
 x + 3y + 2z = 0 ……(1)
-7y – z = 0 …….(2)
(2) => z = -7y; (1) => x = -3y + 14y ; => x = 11y;

choose y=k. Then the complete solution is x = 11k, y = k, z = -7k

5) For what value of λ will the following system will fail to have unique solution?
3x – y + λz = 1
2x + y + z = 2
x + 2y – λz = -1
Solution: A non homogeneous system of n equations in n unknowns will have unique
solution if the coefficient matrix A is of rank n. That is A is non-singular.
Thus the given system will fail to have a unique solution if A is singular i.e., |A|=0
3 −1 𝜆
Now |A|=0 ⟹ |2 1 1 | = 0 ⟹ λ = -7/2
1 2 −𝜆
Therefore the system fails to have unique solution if λ = -7/2 .

In other words the given system of equation will have unique solution for λ≠-7/2.

6) Test the following system for consistency and solve if it is consistent.

x + 2y - z=3
3x – y + 2z=1
2x - 2y + 3z=2
Solution: The augmented matrix is
1 2 −1 : 3
[A:B] = [ 3 −1 2 : 1]
−2 −2 3 :2
Applying R2 → R2-3R1 , R3 → R3-2R1 , we get
1 1 −2 : 5
~ [0 −7 5 : −8]
0 −6 5 : −4
Applying R3 → 7R3-6R2 , we get
1 2 −1 : 5
~ [0 −7 5 : −8]
0 0 5 : 20
=> ρ(A) = 3 and ρ[A:B] = 3 hence the system has non-trivial solution.
 Now the equivalent system is
x + 2y - z = 3 ……(1)
-7y + 5z = -8 ….(2)

5z = 20 ..…(3)
(3) => z = 4; (2) => 7y = 5z + 8 => y = 4
(1) => x = 3 - 2y + z ; => x = -1;
Then the complete solution is x = -1, y = 4, z = 4
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 𝑎
7) Show that the system of equations 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 𝑏 is consistent, only when 𝑐 = 4𝑎 +
5𝑥 + 7𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 𝑐
𝑏, Assuming this condition express x, y in terms of a, b, z.
1 1 2: 𝑎
Solution: The augment matrix is [𝐴: 𝐵] = (1 3 −2: 𝑏 )
5 7 6: 𝐶
1 1 2: 𝑎 R 2 → R 2 − R1
(
~ 0 2 −4: 𝑏 − 𝑎 )
R 3 → R 3 − 5R1
0 𝑧 −4: 𝑐 − 5𝑎
1 1 2: a
~ (0 2 −4: b − a ) R3 → R3 − R2
0 0 0 :c − 4a − b
The given system of equations will be consistent if 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌[𝐴: 𝐵]
This is possible if 𝑐 − 4𝑎 − 𝑏 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝑐 = 4𝑎 + 𝑏

When 𝑐 = 4𝑎 + 𝑏, the equivalent system will be

𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 𝑎 … (1)
2𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 𝑏 − 𝑎 … (2)
1
From (2), 𝑦 = 2 (4𝑧 + 𝑏 − 𝑎)

From (1), 𝑥 = 𝑎 − 𝑦 − 2𝑧
1
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎 − 2 (4𝑧 + 𝑏 − 𝑎) − 2𝑧
1
⇒ 𝑥 = 2 (3𝑎 − 𝑏 − 8𝑧)
1 1
∴ 𝑥 = 2 (3𝑎 − 𝑏 − 8𝑧) and 𝑦 = 2 (4𝑧 + 𝑏 − 𝑎)

Hence the solution.

8) Find the values of 𝜆 and 𝜇 such that the system of equation has
𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 5, 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3, 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝜆𝑧 = 𝜇
i. No solution
ii. Unique solution
iii. Many solution
Solution: consider the augmented matrix
1 3 4: 5
[𝐴: 𝐵] = (1 2 1 : 3)
1 3 𝜆: 𝜇
1. If 𝜆 = 4 and 𝜇 ≠ 5, then we have 𝜌[𝐴] ≠ 𝜌[𝐴: 𝐵] then system is inconsistent
hence there is no solution.
2. If 𝜆 ≠ 4 then |A|≠ 0. In this case 𝜌[𝐴] = 3 = number of unknowns. Thus the
system will have unique solution.
3. If 𝜆 = 4 and 𝜇 = 5, then we have 𝜌[𝐴] = 2 = 𝜌[𝐴: 𝐵] and 𝜌[𝐴] = 2 < number
of unknowns, hence the system will have an infinitely many solutions.

10.6 Questions for self study

1) Test for consistency and solve:
x – y + z = 2, 3x – y + 2z = -6, 3x + y + z = -18.
2) Test for consistency and solve:
3x + y + z = 8, -x + y -2z = -5, 2x + 2y + 2z = 12, -2x + 2y - 3z = -7
3) Find the value of λ for which the system x + y + z = 1, x + 2y + 4z = λ, x + 4y + 10z = λ2
have a solution.
4) Find the value of λ for which the system x+y-z=2, λx+y+z=1, x-y+3z=-3 has many
solutions.
5) Show that the system of equations −2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 𝑎, 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑏, 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 𝑐
have no solution unless 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0. Solve when a=1, b=1, c=-2.
6) Show that the system of equations 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 𝑎, 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 𝑏
5𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 𝑐 do not have solution unless 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 2𝑏.
7) Find the values of 𝜆 and 𝜇 such that the following system of equation
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 9, 7𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 8, 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝜆𝑧 = 𝜇
has

i. No solution

ii. Unique solution

 iii. Many solution

10.7 Answers
1) Consistent 2) Consistent 3) λ = 0 or 3
4) λ = 3

10.8 References
1. A text book of Matrices by Shanthinarayan and P. K. Mittal

2. A text book of B.Sc Mathematics by G. K. Ranganath

3. College Mathematics by Jayaram and Prabhakara
MATHEMATICS KSOU

BLOCK – 3
Matrix Theory
UNIT – 3 Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2.1 Properties
11.2.2 Diagonalizing a Matrix
11.3 Self
11.4 Keywords
11.5 Worked examples
11.6 Exercise
11.7 Answers
11.8 References

11.0 Objectives
Objectives of this module is to

 know what are Eigen values and Eigen vectors and their properties.
 know how to find Eigen values and Eigen vectors
 know how to diagonalize a square matrix

11.1 Introduction
Definition
If A is a square matrix of order n, then |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0, where 𝜆 is a scalar and I is the unit
matrix of order n, is called the characteristic equation of matrix A and the roots of this
equation are Eigen values (or characteristic roots) of A.

Let A be a square matrix of order n. If there exists a non-zero column matrix X of order n x 1
and a scalar 𝜆 such that 𝐴 ∙ 𝑋 = 𝜆 ∙ 𝑋 then X is called an Eigen vector of the matrix A
corresponding to the Eigen value 𝜆 of A.

11.1.1 Properties
1) The constant term of characteristic polynomial of the matrix A is the determinant of A.
MATHEMATICS KSOU

Proof: The characteristic polynomial of the matrix A is given by |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0

On expanding, we get

|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 𝑐0 𝜆𝑛 + 𝑐1 𝜆𝑛−1 + 𝑐2 𝜆𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 …….(1)

Where 𝑐0 , 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … . , 𝑐𝑛 are constants which are functions of the elements of A

Put 𝜆=0 in (1), we get |𝐴| = 𝑐𝑛 .

2) 0 is an Eigen value of a square matrix if and only if the matrix is singular.

Proof: Let A be a square matrix of order n. we know that the constant term of the
characteristic polynomial of A is |A|.

0 is an eigen value of A ⟺ constant term of characteristic polynomial is zero

⟺ |𝐴| = 0

⟺ A is singular.

3) For a given Eigen vector, there corresponds only one Eigen value

Proof: Let 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 be two eigen values corresponding to the same eigen vector X of the
matrix A.

⇒ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑋 = 𝜆1 ∙ 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐴 ∙ 𝑋 = 𝜆2 ∙ 𝑋

⇒ 𝜆1 ∙ 𝑋 = 𝜆2 ∙ 𝑋

⇒ 𝜆1 = 𝜆2

Which proves the result.

4) If X is an eigen vector corresponding to eigen value 𝜆, then for any scalar 𝑘(≠ 0), kX is
also an eigen vector corresponding to same eigen value.

Proof: We have ⇒ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑋 = 𝜆 ∙ 𝑋

Now for any scalar 𝑘 ≠ 0, we have

⇒ 𝐴 ∙ (𝑘𝑋) = 𝑘(𝐴 ∙ 𝑋)

⇒ 𝐴 ∙ (𝑘𝑋) = 𝑘(𝜆 ∙ 𝑋)

⇒ 𝐴 ∙ (𝑘𝑋) = 𝜆 ∙ (𝑘𝑋)

⇒ 𝑘𝑋 is an eigen vector.
MATHEMATICS KSOU

Which proves the result.

5) If 𝑋1 and 𝑋2 are two eigen vectors of a matrix A corresponding to same eigen value
𝜆, then 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 is also an eigen value for the same 𝜆

Proof:

By the data, we have

𝐴 ∙ 𝑋1 = 𝜆 ∙ 𝑋1 and 𝐴 ∙ 𝑋2 = 𝜆 ∙ 𝑋2

Now 𝐴(𝑋1 + 𝑋2 ) = 𝐴 ∙ 𝑋1 + 𝐴 ∙ 𝑋2

= 𝜆 ∙ 𝑋1 + 𝜆 ∙ 𝑋2

= 𝜆(𝑋1 + 𝑋2 )

𝐴(𝑋1 + 𝑋2 ) = 𝜆(𝑋1 + 𝑋2 )

⇒ (𝑋1 + 𝑋2 ) is also an eigen vector.

6) Let 𝑉(𝜆1 ) and 𝑉(𝜆2 ) be the set of all eigen vectors of the matrix A corresponding to
distinct eigen values 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 respectively. Then 𝑉 (𝜆1 ) ∩ 𝑉 (𝜆2 ) = ∅.

Proof: Let if possible 𝑉 (𝜆1 ) ∩ 𝑉 (𝜆2 ) ≠ ∅,

⇒ ∃𝑋, such that 𝑋 ∈ [𝑉(𝜆1 ) ∩ 𝑉 (𝜆2 )]

⇒ 𝑋 ∈ 𝑉 (𝜆1 )and 𝑋 ∈ 𝑉 (𝜆2 )

⇒ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑋 = 𝜆1 ∙ 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 ∙ 𝑋 = 𝜆2 ∙ 𝑋

⇒ 𝜆1 ∙ 𝑋 = 𝜆2 ∙ 𝑋

⇒ 𝜆1 = 𝜆2

This contradicts that the eigen values are distinct.

Hence 𝑉(𝜆1 ) ∩ 𝑉(𝜆2 ) = ∅.

7) If 𝜆 is an eigen value of the matrix A, then

i). 𝜆2 is an eigen value of 𝐴2 .

1
ii). 𝜆 is an eigen value of 𝐴−1 provided A is non singular.
1
iii). 𝜆 |𝐴| is an eigen value of adjA, provided A is non singular.
MATHEMATICS KSOU

Proof: (Left as an exercise)

8) If A is any square matrix, then A and its transpose A’ have the same eigen values.

Proof: For any square matrix A, we have

(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 )′ = 𝐴′ − (𝜆I)′ ⇒ (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 )′ = 𝐴′ − 𝜆I

Again we know that the determinant of the matrix and its transpose are equal.

|(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 )| = |𝐴′ − (𝜆I)′ | ⇒ | (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 ) | = |𝐴′ − 𝜆I|

⇒ the matrices A and A’ have the same characteristic polynomials and have same eigen
values.

11.2.2 Diagonalizing a Matrix

Definition
Real Symmetric matrix: A symmetric matrix with real entries is called a real symmetric
matrix
2 −4 5
Example: (−4 3 −6)
5 −6 7
Diagonalization of a square matrix: A square matrix A is said to be diagonalizable if there
exists an invertible matrix P such that 𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃 is a diagonal matrix.

Working Rule:
1. Determine the eigenvalues of the matrix say 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , 𝜆3 …

2. Obtain the corresponding eigenvectors 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , 𝑋3 …

𝑋1
3. Write the non-singular matrix P = (𝑋2 )
𝑋3

4. Determine 𝑃−1

5. Matrix 𝑃 −1 𝐴𝑃 will be required diagonal matrix whose diagonal entries are the
eigenvalues.

11.3 Self

11.4 Keywords: Characteristic equation, characteristic roots, Eigen values, Eigen vectors,
Diagonalization
MATHEMATICS KSOU

11.5 Worked Examples

1 2
1) Find the Eigen Values and Eigenvectors of the matrix ( )
5 4
1 2
Solution: The characteristic equation of matrix A = ( ) 𝑖𝑠
5 4
|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0
1−𝜆 2
| |=0
5 4−𝜆
⟹ (1 − 𝜆)(4 − 𝜆) − 10 = 0 ⟹ 𝜆2 − 5𝜆 − 6 = 0

⟹ 𝜆 = 6, −1 are the Eigenvalues of the matrix A

𝑥
Let 𝑋 = (𝑦) be the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalues 𝜆

Then we have (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 )𝑋 = 0
1−𝜆 2 𝑥 0
i.e ( ) (𝑦) = ( )
5 4−𝜆 0
(1 − 𝜆)𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0
⟶ (1)
5𝑥 + (4 − 𝜆)𝑦 = 0

Now for 𝜆 = 6, equation (1) becomes

5𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 0

⟹ 5𝑥 = 2𝑦

choose 𝑦 = 𝑘 then 𝑥 = 2𝑘 , where 𝑘 ∈ ℝ and 𝑘 ≠ 0

2𝑘
thus 𝑋 = ( ) is eigenvector for eigenvalue 𝜆 = 6
5𝑘
Similarly for 𝜆 = −1, equation (1) becomes 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0 and 5𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0

choose 𝑦 = 𝑘 then 𝑥 = −𝑘, where 𝑘 ∈ ℝ and 𝑘 ≠ 0

−𝑘
thus 𝑋 = ( ) is eigenvector for eigenvalue 𝜆 = −1.
𝑘

3 2 4
2) Find the Eigen Value and Eigenvectors of the matrix A = (2 0 2)
4 2 3
Solution: The characteristic equation of matrix A is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0
3−𝜆 2 4
i.e, | 2 −𝜆 2 |=0
4 2 3−𝜆
MATHEMATICS KSOU

(3 − 𝜆)[−𝜆(3 − 𝜆) − 4] − 2[2(3 − 𝜆) − 8] + 4[4 + 4𝜆] = 0

⟹ 𝜆3 − 6𝜆2 − 15𝜆 − 8 = 0

⟹ 𝜆 = −1, −1, 8 are the eigenvalues of A

𝑥
Let 𝑋 = (𝑦) be the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue 𝜆
𝑧
Then we have (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 )𝑋 = 0
3−𝜆 2 4 𝑥 0
We get ( 2 −𝜆 2 ) (𝑦 ) = (0)
4 2 3−𝜆 𝑧 0
(3 − 𝜆)𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0
⟹ 2𝑥 − 𝜆𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0 } − − − − − (1)
4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + (3 − 𝜆)𝑧 = 0

Now for 𝜆 = −1, equation (1) becomes

4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0 } the three equations are identical
4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0

⟹ 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0………………(2)

Putting 𝑥 = 𝑡 and 𝑧 = 𝑠 in equation (2) to get, 𝑦 = −2𝑡 − 2𝑠, where 𝑡, 𝑠 ∈ ℝ and 𝑡, 𝑠 not
both zero.
𝑥 𝑡
𝑦
Hence the eigenvector corresponding to eigenvalue 𝜆 = −1 𝑖𝑠 X = ( ) = (−2𝑡 − 2𝑠).
𝑧 𝑠
Similarly for 𝜆 = 8, equation (1) becomes
−5𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0 } − − − − − (2)
4𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 0
−5 2 4
Equation (2) can be written as AX = 0, where A = [ 2 −8 2]
4 2 −5
−5 2 4 𝑅 → 5𝑅 + 2𝑅
2 2 1
~[ 0 −36 18 ] 𝑅 → 5𝑅 + 4𝑅
3 3 1
0 18 −9
−5 2 4
~[ 0 −36 18] 𝑅3 → 2𝑅3 + 𝑅2
0 0 0
−5 2 4 1
~[ 0 −2 1] 𝑅2 → 𝑅
18 2
0 0 0
MATHEMATICS KSOU

Now equation (2) becomes

−5𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0
−2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0

choose 𝑦 = 𝑘 then 𝑧 = 2𝑦 = 2𝑘 , where 𝑘 ∈ ℝ and 𝑘 ≠ 0.

−2𝑦−4𝑧 −2𝑘−8𝑘
Then −5𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = = = 2𝑘.
−5 −5

𝑥 2𝑘
Hence the eigenvector is X = (𝑦) = ( 𝑘 ) corresponding to 𝜆 = 8.
𝑧 2𝑘
2 −3 0
3) Find the Eigen Value and Eigenvectors of the matrix A = (2 −5 0)
0 0 3
Solution: The characteristic equation of matrix A is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0
2−𝜆 −3 0
i.e, | 2 −5 − 𝜆 0 |=0
0 0 3−𝜆
Hence characteristic equation is

𝜆3 − 13𝜆 + 12 = 0

⟹ 𝜆 = 1, 3, −4 are the eigenvalues of A

𝑥
Let 𝑋 = (𝑦) be the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue 𝜆 = 1
𝑧
Then we have (𝐴 − 𝜆. 1)𝑋 = 0
1 −3 0 𝑥 0
We get (2 −6 0) (𝑦) = (0)
0 0 2 𝑧 0
After reducing it to echelon form we get,
1 −3 0 𝑥 0
(0 0 1) (𝑦) = (0)
0 0 0 𝑧 0
3𝑦
Now we have z = 0, and x = 3y. Therefore we have X = ( 𝑦 ). So when y = 1 we get
0
3
𝑋1 = (1)
0
Similarly when 𝜆 = 3, we get the eigen vector as
MATHEMATICS KSOU

0
𝑋2 = (0)
1
and when 𝜆 = −4, we get the eigen vector as
1
𝑋3 = (2)
0
2 0 0
4) Find the Eigen Value and Eigenvectors of the matrix A = (0 3 4)
0 4 9
Solution: The characteristic equation of matrix A is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0
2−𝜆 0 0
i.e, | 0 3−𝜆 4 |=0
0 4 9−𝜆
Hence characteristic equation is

𝜆3 − 14𝜆2 + 35𝜆 − 22 = 0

⟹ 𝜆 = 1, 2, 11 are the eigenvalues of A

𝑥
Let 𝑋 = (𝑦) be the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue 𝜆 = 1
𝑧
Then we have (𝐴 − 𝜆. 1)𝑋 = 0
1 0 0 𝑥 0
We get (0 2 4) (𝑦) = (0)
0 4 8 𝑧 0
After reducing it to echelon form we get,
1 0 0 𝑥 0
(0 1 2) (𝑦) = (0)
0 0 0 𝑧 0
0
Now we have x = 0, and xy = –2z. Therefore we have X = (−2𝑧). So when z = 1 we get
𝑧
0
𝑋1 = (−2)
1
Similarly when 𝜆 = 2, we get the eigen vector as
1
𝑋2 = (0)
0
and when 𝜆 = 11, we get the eigen vector as
MATHEMATICS KSOU

0
𝑋3 = (1)
2
1 2
5) Diagonalize the matrix A = ( ).
2 1
Solution: The characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0

|1 − 𝜆 2 |
=0
2 1−𝜆
Therefore the eigenvalues are 𝜆 = -1, 3
𝑥
Let X=(𝑦) be the corresponding eigenvector for the eigenvalues 𝜆

∴ (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 )𝑋 = 0
1−𝜆 2 𝑥
( ) (𝑦 ) = 0
2 1−𝜆

(1 − λ)x + 2y = 0
}…..(1)
2x + (1 − λ)y = 0

If 𝜆 = −1 then (1) becomes

2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0

2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0

⟹𝑥+𝑦=0

𝑥 = −𝑦

Choose 𝑦 = 𝑘 then 𝑥 = −𝑘 for 𝑘 = 1

−𝑘 −1
Thus 𝑋1 = ( ) = ( ) is the eigenvector for eigenvalue 𝜆 = −1
𝑘 1
Again Now 𝜆 = 3 then (1) becomes

−2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0

2𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 0

⟹𝑥−𝑦=0

𝑥=𝑦

Choose 𝑦 = 𝑘 then 𝑥 = 𝑘 for 𝑘 = 2

𝑘 2
Thus 𝑋2 = ( ) = ( ) is the eigenvector for eigenvalue 𝜆 = 3
𝑘 2
MATHEMATICS KSOU

−1 2
Thus the required P is given by P = [𝑋1 𝑋2 ] = ( )
1 2
−1 2 −2
𝑃−1 = ( )
4 −1 −1
−1 2 −2 1 2 −1 2
∴ 𝑃−1 𝐴𝑃 = ( )( )( )
4 −1 −1 2 1 1 2
−1 4 0
= ( )
4 0 −12
−1 0
=( ). This is the required diagonal matrix.
0 3

11.6 Exercise:
1 3
1. Find the Eigen Values and Eigenvectors of the matrix ( ).
4 5
2 2
2. Find the Eigen Values and Eigenvectors of the matrix ( ).
2 −1
2 0 1
3. Find the Eigen Values and Eigenvectors of the matrix (0 2 0).
1 0 2
5 4
4. Diagonalize the Matrix ( ).
4 −1
2 4
5. Diagonalize the matrix ( ).
0 5

11.7 Answers
1. Eigen values are 7 and -1. Eigen vectors are (1, 2) and (1, -2/3)

2. Eigen values are 3 and -2. Eigen vectors are (1, 1/2) and (1, -2)

3. Eigen values are 1. 2 and 3. Eigen vectors are (1, 0, -1), (0, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 1)

4. Eigen values are -3 and 7. Eigen vectors are (1, -2) and (1, 1/2)

5. Eigen values are 2 and 5. Eigen vectors are (1, 0) and (1, 3/4)

11.8 References
1. A text book of Matrices by Shanthinarayan and P. K. Mittal
2. A text book of B.Sc Mathematics by G. K. Ranganath
3. College Mathematics by Jayaram and Prabhakara
MATHEMATICS KSOU

BLOCK – 3
Matrix Theory
UNIT – 4 Cayley Hamilton Theorem
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2.1 Cayley-Hamilton theorem: Statement and proof
12.2.2 Applications
12.3 Progress
12.4 Keywords
12.5 Worked examples
12.6 Exercise
12.7 Answers
12.8 References

12.0 Objectives
Objectives of this module is to

 Know the statement of Cayley-Hamilton theorem and its proof

 Learn how to use Cayley-Hamilton theorem to find power of a square matrix, inverse
of a non-singular square matrix

12.1 Introduction
In linear algebra, Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that every square matrix satisfies
its own characteristic equation. This theorem can be used to find inverse of a non-singular
matrix and integral power of a square matrix. If A is a n x n matrix, and In is the identity
matrix of order n, the this theorem allows An to be expressed as a linear combination of
lower powers of A

12.2.1 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

Statement: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.

Proof: Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then

|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = (−1)𝑛 [𝑐0 𝜆𝑛 + 𝑐1 𝜆𝑛−1 + 𝑐2 𝜆𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 ]
MATHEMATICS KSOU

is the characteristic polynomial., where 𝑐0 , 𝑐1 ,……. 𝑐𝑛 are scalars.

Hence the characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0

i.e, 𝑐0 𝜆𝑛 + 𝑐1 𝜆𝑛−1 + 𝑐2 𝜆𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 = 0

And it is satisfied by 𝜆 = A

∴ we have to prove that

𝑐0 𝐴𝑛 + 𝑐1 𝐴𝑛−1 + 𝑐2 𝐴𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 I = 0

Since the elements of (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) are at most of the first degree in 𝜆

and the elements of adj(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) are polynomial in 𝜆 of degree atmost (n-1).

∴ adj(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) can be expressed as a matrix polynomial of degree (n-1) in 𝜆

Let adj(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = 𝐵𝑛−1 𝜆𝑛−1 + 𝐵𝑛−2 𝜆𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝐵1 𝜆 + 𝐵0

where 𝐵0 , 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 , … … 𝐵𝑛−1 are the matrices of order n x n and their elements being the
elements of A.

We know that 𝐴. adj(𝐴) = |𝐴|𝐼

∴ (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) [adj(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)]=|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 |𝐼

⟹(𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)[𝐵𝑛−1 𝜆𝑛−1 + 𝐵𝑛−2 𝜆𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝐵1 𝜆 + 𝐵0 ] =

(−1)𝑛 [𝑐0 𝜆𝑛 + 𝑐1 𝜆𝑛−1 + 𝑐2 𝜆𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 ]𝐼

Equating the coefficient of like powers.

We get

−𝐵𝑛−1 =(−1)𝑛 𝑐0 𝐼

𝐴𝐵𝑛−1 − 𝐵𝑛−2 =(−1)𝑛 𝑐1 𝐼

𝐴𝐵𝑛−2 − 𝐵𝑛−3 =(−1)𝑛 𝑐2 𝐼

…………………….

……………………

𝐴𝐵0 = (−1)𝑛 𝑐𝑛 𝐼

Pre multiplying the above equation respectively by 𝐴𝑛 , 𝐴𝑛−1 , 𝐴𝑛−2 , … . , 𝐴, 𝐼 and adding

we get

⇒ 𝑐0 𝐴𝑛 + 𝑐1 𝐴𝑛−1 + 𝑐2 𝐴𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 I = 0

Hence A satisfies the characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0.

MATHEMATICS KSOU

Hence the theorem.

12.2.2 Applications
• Finding the positive integral powers of a square matrix.

• Determining the inverse of a matrix.

• Also if A is any non-singular matrix , any negative integral powers of A can be

obtained.

• If A is a n x n matrix, and In is the identity matrix of order n, the this theorem

allows An to be expressed as a linear combination of lower powers of A

Working Rule:

Method 1:
The characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0

Method 2:

For 3 x 3 matrix
The characteristic equation is given by

𝜆3 − 𝑆1 𝜆2 + 𝑆2 𝜆 − 𝑆3 = 0

where S1 = sum of the main diagonal elements,

S2 = sum of the minors of the diagonal elements,

S3 = Determinant of A = det(A)

For 2 x 2 matrix
The characteristic equation is given by

𝜆2 − 𝑆1 𝜆 + 𝑆2 = 0

where S1 = sum of the main diagonal elements,

S2 = Determinant of A = det(A)
MATHEMATICS KSOU

12.3 Progress
1. What is Cayley-Hamilton theorem?

2. How to find characteristic polynomial of a 2 x 2 matrix?

3. How to find characteristic polynomial of a 3 x 3 matrix?

12.4 Keywords: Cayley-Hamilton theorem, Characteristic polynomial, Determinant,

inverse of a matrix

12.5 Worked examples

1 1
1) Verify C-H theorem for the matrix ( ).
2 1
1 1
Solution: The characteristic equation of matrix A= ( ) 𝑖𝑠
2 1
|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0

∴ we get 𝜆2 − 2𝜆 − 1 = 0 … … … . (1)

By C-H theorem A must satisfy the equation (1)

i.e we have to show that 𝐴2 − 2A − I = 0.

3 2
Now 𝐴2 = ( )
4 3
3 2 1 1 1 0 0 0
∴ 𝐴2 − 2𝐴 − 𝐼 = ( )− 2( )−( )=( ) = 0.
4 3 2 1 0 1 0 0
Hence the matrix A satisfies the equation (1).

Hence C-H theorem is verified.

1 0
2) If A = ( ) write A2 in terms of A and I, using C-H theorem
0 5
Solution: The characteristic equation of matrix A is given by

𝜆2 − 𝑆1 𝜆 + 𝑆2 = 0

where S1 = sum of the main diagonal elements = 6

S2 = Determinant of A = det(A) = 5

∴ we get 𝜆2 − 6𝜆 + 5 = 0

By C-H theorem we have 𝐴2 − 6A + 5I = 0

MATHEMATICS KSOU

Hence 𝐴2 = 6A − 5I

1 1
3) If A= ( ) find 𝐴6 using C-H theorem.
−1 3
Solution: The characteristic equation of matrix A is given by

|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0

∴ we get 𝜆2 − 4𝜆 + 4 = 0

By C-H theorem we have 𝐴2 − 4A + 4I = 0

𝐴2 = 4A − 4I……(2)

Now multiply by 𝐴4

We get 𝐴6 = 4 𝐴5 − 4𝐴4 = 4 𝐴4 (A − I)

From equation (2) we get

𝐴6 = 4(4A − 4I)(4A − 4I)(A − I)

𝐴6 = 43 (A − I)3 = 64 (𝐴3 − 𝐼 − 3𝐴2 + 3𝐴)

𝐴6 = 64 (3A − 5I), using equation (2) repeatedly

𝐴6 = 192A – 320I
−128 192
𝐴6 = ( )
−192 256

1 2
4) Verify C-H theorem for the matrix ( ) and hence find 𝐴4
2 −1
1 2
Solution: The characteristic equation of 𝐴 = ( ) is 𝜆2 − 𝑆1 𝜆 + 𝑆2 = 0
2 −1
where S1 = sum of the main diagonal elements = 0,

S2 = Determinant of A = det(A) = -5

Therefore characteristic equation is 𝜆2 − 5 = 0.

To prove 𝐴2 − 5𝐼 = 0.
1 2 1 2 1 0
We have 𝐴2 − 5𝐼 = ( )( )− 5( )
2 −1 2 −1 0 1
5 0 5 0 0 0
=( )−( )=( )
0 5 0 5 0 0
MATHEMATICS KSOU

To find 𝑨𝟒
5 0
We have 𝐴2 = 5𝐼 ⇒ 𝐴2 = ( ) ⇒ 𝐴4 = 𝐴2 ∙ 𝐴2
0 5
5 0 5 0 25 0
= ( )( )= ( )
0 5 0 5 0 25
1 3 7
5) Verify C-H theorem for the matrix (4 2 3)
1 2 1
Solution: The characteristic equation is given by

𝜆3 − 𝑆1 𝜆2 + 𝑆2 𝜆 − 𝑆3 = 0

where S1 = sum of the main diagonal elements = 1 + 2 + 1 = 4

S2 = sum of the minors of the diagonal elements = -4 -6 - 10 = -20

S3 = Determinant of A = det(A) = 35

∴ we get 𝜆3 − 4𝜆2 − 20𝜆 − 35 = 0 … … … . (1)

By C-H theorem A must satisfy the equation (1)

i.e we have to show that 𝐴3 − 4𝐴2 − 20A − 35I = 0 ,………(2)

20 23 23
Consider 𝐴2 = (15 22 37)
10 9 14
135 152 232
and 𝐴3 = 𝐴2 𝐴 = (140 163 208)
60 76 111
Now 𝐴3 − 4𝐴2 − 20A − 35I =
135 152 232 80 92 92 20 60 140 35 0 0
(140 163 208) − (60 88 148) − (80 40 60 ) − ( 0 35 0)
60 76 111 40 36 56 20 40 20 0 0 35
0 0 0
= (0 0 0) = 0
0 0 0

2 1 0
6) Verify C-H theorem for the matrix (0 2 1 ) and hence find 𝐴−1
1 1 −1
Solution: The characteristic equation of matrix A is given by

|𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼 | = 0
MATHEMATICS KSOU

2−𝜆 1 0
⟹( 0 2−𝜆 1 )=0
1 1 −1 − 𝜆
∴ we get 𝜆3 − 3𝜆2 − 𝜆 + 5 = 0 … … … . (1)

By C-H theorem A must satisfy the equation (1)

i.e we have to show that 𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 − A + 5I = 0 ,………(2)

4 4 1
Consider 𝐴2 = (1 5 1)
1 2 2
9 13 3
and 𝐴3 = 𝐴2 𝐴 = (3 12 4)
4 7 0
Now 𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 − A + 5I =
9 13 3 12 12 3 2 1 0 5 0 0
(3 12 4 ) − ( 3 15 3 ) − (0 2 1 ) + ( 0 5 0)
4 7 0 3 6 6 1 1 −1 0 0 5
0 0 0
= (0 0 0) = 0.
0 0 0
Hence C-H theorem is verified.

To find 𝐴−1

Consider equation (2) 𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 − A + 5I = 0 . Then

5I = − 𝐴3 + 3𝐴2 + A. Multiply both sides by 𝐴−1 . Then

5𝐴−1 = − 𝐴2 + 3A + I
3 −1 −1
= (−1 2 2)
2 1 −4
3 −1 −1
−1 1
Hence 𝐴 = 5 (−1 2 2 ).
2 1 −4
2 −1 2
7) Verify C-H theorem for the matrix (−1 2 −1) and hence find 𝐴−1 and A4
1 −1 2
Solution: The characteristic equation is given by

𝜆3 − 𝑆1 𝜆2 + 𝑆2 𝜆 − 𝑆3 = 0

where S1 = sum of the main diagonal elements = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6

MATHEMATICS KSOU

S2 = sum of the minors of the diagonal elements = 3 + 2 + 3 = 8

S3 = Determinant of A = det(A) = 3

∴ we get 𝜆3 − 6𝜆2 + 8𝜆 − 3 = 0 … … … . (1)

By C-H theorem A must satisfy the equation (1)

i.e we have to show that 𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 8A − 3I = 0 ,………(2)

7 −6 9
Consider 𝐴2 = (−5 6 −6)
5 −5 7
29 −28 38
and 𝐴3 = 𝐴2 𝐴 = (−22 23 −28)
22 −22 29
Now 𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 8A − 3I =
29 −28 38 42 −36 54 16 −8 16 3 0 0
(−22 23 −28) − (−30 36 −36) + (−8 16 −8) − (0 3 0)
22 −22 29 30 −30 42 8 −8 16 0 0 3
0 0 0
= (0 0 0) = 0.
0 0 0
Hence C-H theorem is verified.

To find 𝑨𝟒

𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 8A − 3I = 0 ⇒ 𝐴3 = 6𝐴2 − 8A + 3I

Multiply both sides by A, we have

𝐴4 = 6𝐴3 − 8𝐴2 + 3A = 6(6𝐴2 − 8A + 3I) − 8𝐴2 + 3A

= 36𝐴2 − 48A + 18I − 8𝐴2 + 3𝐴 = 28𝐴2 − 45A + 18I

7 −6 9 2 −1 2 1 0 0
4
Hence 𝐴 = 28 (−5 6 −6) − 45 (−1 2 −1) + 18 (0 1 0)
5 −5 7 1 −1 2 0 0 1
196 −168 252 90 −45 90 18 0 0
= (−140 168 −168) − (−45 90 −45) + ( 0 18 0)
140 −140 196 45 −45 90 0 0 18
124 −123 162
= (−95 96 −123)
95 −95 124
MATHEMATICS KSOU

To find 𝑨−𝟏

Consider equation (2) 𝐴3 − 6𝐴2 + 8A − 3I = 0 . Then

3I = − 𝐴3 + 6𝐴2 − 8A. Multiply both sides by 𝐴−1 . Then

3𝐴−1 = − 𝐴2 + 6A − 8I
3 0 −3
1
Hence 𝐴−1 = 3 ( 1 2 0 ).
−1 1 3

1 0 3
8) Using C-H theorem find 𝐴−1 for the matrix (2 1 −1)
1 −1 1
Solution: The characteristic equation is given by

𝜆3 − 𝑆1 𝜆2 + 𝑆2 𝜆 − 𝑆3 = 0

where S1 = sum of the main diagonal elements = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3

S2 = sum of the minors of the diagonal elements = 0 - 2 + 1 = --1

S3 = Determinant of A = det(A) = -9

∴ we get 𝜆3 − 3𝜆2 − 𝜆 + 9 = 0 … … … . (1)

By C-H theorem A must satisfy the equation (1)

i.e 𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 − A + 9I = 0 ,………(2)

To find 𝑨−𝟏

Consider equation (2) 𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 − A + 9I = 0 . Then

−9I = 𝐴3 − 3𝐴2 − A. Multiply both sides by 𝐴−1 . Then

9𝐴−1 = − 𝐴2 + 3A + I
0 3 3
1
Hence 𝐴−1 = 9 (3 2 −7).
3 −1 −1

12.6 Exercise
1 2
1. If A = ( ) find 𝐴−1 using C-H theorem.
3 2
3 −1 1 4
2. Verify C-H theorem for i) ( ) ii) ( )
−1 5 2 3
MATHEMATICS KSOU

1 1
3. Verify C-H theorem for A = ( ) and hence find 𝐴−1 and 𝐴5
3 −1
2 2 1
4. Verify C-H theorem for A = (1 3 1) and hence find 𝐴−1
1 2 2
1 0 0
5. If 𝐴 = (1 0 1) show by C-H theorem 𝐴4 = 2𝐴2 − 𝐼. Further deduce that any
0 1 0
positive integer 𝑛 ≥ 2 , 𝐴2𝑛 = 𝑛𝐴2 − (𝑛 − 1)𝐼 hence find 𝐴100 .

12.7 Key answers

−1 2 −2 −1 −1 −1 1 1
1. 𝐴−1 = ( ) 3. 𝐴−1 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴5 = ( )
4 −3 1 4 −3 1 243 −1
5 −3 −1
1
4. 𝐴−1 = 6 (−1 3 −1)
−2 0 4

12.8 References
1. A text book of Matrices by Shanthinarayan and P. K. Mittal
2. A text book of B.Sc Mathematics by G. K. Ranganath
3. College Mathematics by Jayaram and Prabhakara

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