UNIT 4: Diffraction

Topic:Review of single slit and double slit. Multiple slits.

Interference corresponds to the situation when we consider the
superposition of waves coming out from a number of point
sources, and diffraction corresponds to the situation when we
consider waves coming out from an area source such as a
circular or rectangular aperture or even a large number of
rectangular apertures (such as the diffraction grating).
The diffraction phenomena are usually divided into two
categories: Fresnel diffraction and Fraunhofer diffraction.
In the Fresnel class of diffraction the source of light and the
screen are, in general, at a finite distance from the diffracting
aperture.
In the Fraunhofer class of diffraction, the source and the screen
are at infinite distances from the aperture; this is easily
achieved by placing the source on the focal plane of a convex
lens and placing the screen on the focal plane of another convex
lens. The two lenses effectively moved the source and the screen
to infinity because the first lens makes the light beam parallel
and the second lens effectively makes the screen receive a
parallel beam of light.
Figure: (a) When either the source or the screen (or both) is at a
finite distance from the aperture, the diffraction pattern corresponds
to the Fresnel class. (b) In the Fraunhofer class both the source and
the screen are at infinity.
Single Slit

We will first study the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern produced

by an infinitely long slit, of width b. A plane wave is assumed
to fall normally on the slit, and we wish to calculate the
intensity distribution on the focal plane of lens L .
We assume that the slit consists of a large number of equally
spaced point sources and that each point on the slit is a source
of Huygen’s secondary wavelets which interfere with the
wavelets emanating from other points. Let the point sources be
at A1 , A2 , A3 , . . ., and let the distance between two consecutive
points be ∆. Thus, if the number of point sources is n, then
b = (n − 1)∆
Figure: Diffraction of a plane wave incident normally on a long
narrow slit of width b. Notice that the spreading occurs along the
width of the slit
Figure: To calculate the diffraction pattern, the slit is assumed to
consist of a large number of equally spaced points.
We will now calculate the resultant field produced by these n
sources at point P, with P being an arbitrary point (on the
focal plane of the lens) receiving parallel rays making an angle θ
with the normal to the slit. Since the slit actually consists of a
continuous distribution of sources, we will, in the final
expression, let n go to infinity and ∆ go to zero such that n∆
tends to b.
Now, at point P, the amplitudes of the disturbances reaching
from A1 , A2 , . . . will be very nearly the same because point P
is at a distance which is very large in comparison to b.
However, because of even slightly different path lengths to point
P, the field produced by A1 will differ in phase from the field
produced by A2 .
For an incident plane wave, points A1 , A2 , .are in phase, and,
therefore, the additional path traversed by the disturbance
emanating from point A2 will be A2 A02 , where A02 is the foot of
the perpendicular drawn from A1 on A2 B2 . This follows from
the fact that the optical paths A1 B1 P and A02 B2 P are the
same. If the diffracted rays make an angle θ with the normal to
the slit, then the path difference is
A2 A02 = ∆ sin θ
The corresponding phase difference φ is given by φ = 2π∆λsin θ
Thus, if the field at point P due to the disturbance emanating
from point A1 is a cos ωt, then the field due to the disturbance
emanating from A2 is a cos(ωt − φ).
Now the difference in the phases of the disturbance reaching
from points A2 and A3 will also be φ, and thus the resultant
field at point P is given by
E = a[cos ωt + cos(ωt − φ) + ... + cos[(ωt − (n − 1)φ)]
The superposition is the real part of the complex function f (t)
f (t) = a[eiωt + ei(ωt−φ) + ..... + ei(ωt−(n−1)φ) ]
x = e−iφ
f (t) = aeiωt [1 + x + ..... + xn−1 ]
f (t) = aeiωt S
n −1
S = xx−1
e−iN φ−1
S= e−iφ −1
(solve it referring to 1st unit)
nφ φ
sin
f (t) = a φ2 ei(ωt−(n−1) 2 )
sin 2
Finally, E is the real part of f (t). Hence
E = E0 cos[ωt − 21 (n − 1)φ]
sin nφ
E0 = a 2
sin φ
2
In the limit n → ∞ and ∆ −→ 0 in such a way that n∆ → b
We have nφ2 =
n×2π×∆ sin θ
λ×2 = n×π×∆
λ×
sin θ
−→ πb sin
λ
θ

Further φ = 2π∆λsin θ = 2πbnλ

sin θ

sin nφ sin πb sin θ

E0 = a φ
2
=a λ
πb sin θ
2 nλ
sin πb sin θ
πb sin θ
E0 = na λ
πb sin θ Assume β = λ and na = A
λ
E0 = A sinβ β
E = A sinβ β cos[ωt − nφ
2 ]
sin β
E = A β cos[ωt − β]
2
The corresponding intensity distribution is given by I = I0 sinβ 2 β
where I0 represents the intensity at θ = 0.
Double Slit

We will study the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern produced by

two parallel slits (each of width b) separated by a distance d.
We will find that the resultant intensity distribution is a
product of the single-slit diffraction pattern and the interference
pattern produced by two point sources separated by a distance
d.
To calculate the diffraction pattern, we use a method similar to
that used for the case of a single slit. We assume that the slits
consist of a large number of equally spaced point sources and
that each point on the slit is a source of Huygen’s secondary
wavelets. Let the point sources be at A1 , A2 , A3 , . . . (in the
first slit) and at B1 , B2 , B3 , . . . (in the second slit).
As before, we assume that the distance between two consecutive
points in either of the slits is ∆. If the diffracted rays make an
angle θ with the normal to the plane of the slits, then the path
difference between the disturbances reaching point P from two
consecutive points in a slit will be ∆sinθ. The field produced
by the first slit at point P will, therefore, be given by
E1 = A sinβ β cos[ωt − β]
Similarly, the second slit will produce a field
E2 = A sinβ β cos[ωt − β − φ1 ]
at point P, where
φ1 = 2πλ dsinθ
represents the phase difference between the disturbances
(reaching point P) from two corresponding points on the slits;
by corresponding points we imply pairs of points such as
(A1 , B1 ), (A2 , B2 ), . . . which are separated by a distance d.
Hence the resultant field will be E = E1 + E2
E = A sinβ β cos[ωt − β] + A sinβ β cos[ωt − β − φ1 ]
using identity cos A + cos B = 2 cos A+B A−B
2 . cos 2 we obtain
2ωt−2β−φ1 φ1
E = 2cos 2 cos 2
assume φ21 = γ = πλ dsinθ
E = 2A sinβ β cos(ωt − β − γ) cos γ
2
I = 4I0 sinβ 2 β cos2 γ
2
where I0 sinβ 2 β represents the intensity distribution produced by
one of the slits. As can be seen, the intensity distribution is a
2
product of two terms; the first term sinβ 2 β represents the
diffraction pattern produced by a single slit of width b, and the
second term cos2 γ represents the interference pattern produced
by two point sources separated by a distance d.
N Slit
 sin β
E =A cos[ωt − β] + cos[ωt − β − φ1 ] + ... + cos[ωt − β − (n − φ1 )]
β
Solve above equation refer to previously discussed steps in unit
1.
sin β sin nγ 1
E=A cos[ωt − β − (n − φ1 )]
β sin γ 2
where γ = φ21 = πλ dsinθ
Note: Solve intermediate steps to obtain Intensitty
distribution. I will consider this to be one of the
assignment problem.
The corresponding intensity distribution will be
2 2 nγ
I = I0 sinβ 2 β sin
sin2 γ
Intensity Distribution for Single, Double and N Slit

Single Slit
2
I = I0 sinβ 2 β , β = πb sin
λ
θ

Condition for minima: sin β = 0 or β = ±mπ

±mπ = πb sin λ
θ

±mλ = b sin θ, m = 1, 2, 3..

To determine the positions of maxima, we differentiate
2
I = I0 sinβ 2 β with respect to b and set it equal to zero. Thus
dI d sin2 β
dβ = dβ (I0 β 2 ) = 0
2I0 sinβ β (β cos β−sin
β2
β)
=0
I0 6= 0 and sin β = 0 condition for minima
The conditions for maxima are roots of β cos β − sin β = 0 or
β = tan β
The root β = 0 corresponds to the central maximum. The other
roots can be found by determining the points of intersections of
the curves y = β and y = tanβ
The first value of β = 0 is the central maxima I = I0 while the
remaining value are approximately
β = 3π 5π
2 , 2 ....
The exact values are β = 1.43π, 2.46π.... and are known as the
first maximum, the second maximum, etc
2
using values of β in I = I0 sinβ 2 β we can find the value of
intensity.
m
Double Slit
2
I = 4I0 sinβ 2 β cos2 γ, β = πb sin θ φ1
λ , 2 = γ = πλ dsinθ
sin2 β
The first term β 2 represents the diffraction pattern produced
by a single slit of width b. Condition for maxima and
minima are same as discussed in previous slides.
The second term cos2 γ represents the interference pattern
produced by two point sources separated by a distance d.
Condition for Minima: cos2 γ = 0 or cos2 γ = 0 or γ = (2m+1)π
2
m = 0, 1, 2, 3..
Using γ values in γ = πλ dsinθ
we have (2m + 1) λ2 = d sin θ
Similarly, condition for maxima cos2 γ = 1 or cos2 γ = 1 or
γ = ±mπ m = 0, 1, 2, 3..
Using γ values in γ = πλ dsinθ
we have ±mλ = d sin θ
m
m
N slit
2 2
I = I0 sinβ 2 β sin nγ
sin2 γ
,
πb sin θ φ1
β= λ , 2 = γ = πλ dsinθ
N − 1 equispaced minima and N − 2 maxima between
Zero and First order principle maxima.
m
THE DIFFRACTION GRATING

1 We discussed the diffraction pattern produced by a system

of parallel equidistant slits. An arrangement which
essentially consists of a large number of equidistant slits is
known as a diffraction grating; the corresponding
diffraction pattern is known as the grating spectrum.
2 We see that for narrow principal maxima (i.e., sharper
spectral lines), a large value of N is required.
3 A good-quality grating, therefore, requires a large number
of slits (typically about 15,000 per inch).
4 This is achieved by ruling grooves with a diamond point on
an optically transparent sheet of material; the grooves act
as opaque spaces.
Grating Spectrum

1 We showed that the positions of the principal maxima are given by

d sin θ = mλ m = 0, 1, 2, ....
2 This relation, which is also called the grating equation, can be used to
study the dependence of the angle of diffraction θ on the wavelength
λ. The zeroth-order principal maximum occurs at θ = 0 irrespective of
the wavelength. Thus, if we are using a polychromatic source ( white
light), then the central maximum will be of the same color as the
source itself.
3 However, for m 6= 0, the angles of diffraction are different for different
wavelengths, and therefore, various spectral components appear at
different positions.
4 Thus by measuring the angles of diffraction for various colors one can
(knowing the value of m) determine the values of the wavelengths.
5 The intensity is maximum for the zeroth-order spectrum (where no
dispersion occurs), and it falls off as the value of m increases.
m m
 ∆θ m
1 If we differentiate d sin θ = mλ, we obtain ∆λ = d cos θ
2 From above equation(Assuming cos θ ' 1) we see hat thte
angle ∆θ is directly proportional to the order of spectrum
∆θ
m for a given λ, so that for a given m, ∆λ is a constant.
3 Such a spectrum is known as a normal spectrum, and in
this the difference in angle for two spectral lines is directly
proportional to the difference in wavelengths. However, for
large θ, it can be easily shown that the dispersion is greater
at the red end of the spectrum.
Resolving Power of a Grating
In the case of a grating, the resolving power refers to the power of
λ
distinguishing two nearby spectral lines and is defined by the R = ∆λ
where ∆λ is the separation of two wavelengths which the grating can just
resolve; the smaller the value of ∆λ, the larger the resolving power.
The Rayleigh criterion can be used to define the limit of resolution.
According to this criterion, if the principal maximum corresponding to the
wavelength λ + ∆λ falls on the first minimum (on the either side of the
principal maximum) of the wavelength λ, then the two wavelengths λ and
λ + ∆λ are said to be just resolved.

m
UNIT 4: Diffraction

Topic: Fresnel Diffraction: Fresnel’s Half-Period Zones for

Plane Wave. Zone Plate: Multiple Foci of a Zone Plate..
1 Let us consider a plane wave front W W 0 propagating in the
z direction.
1 Let us consider a plane wave front W W 0 propagating in the
z direction.

2 To determine the field at an arbitrary point P due to the

disturbances reaching from different portions of the wave
front, we make the following construction:
1 Let us consider a plane wave front W W 0 propagating in the
z direction.

2 To determine the field at an arbitrary point P due to the

disturbances reaching from different portions of the wave
front, we make the following construction:
3 From point P we drop a perpendicular P O on the wave
front. If P O = d, then with point P as center we draw
spheres of radii d + λ2 , d + 2λ 3λ
2 , d + 2 , . . ., these spheres
0
will intersect W W in circles as shown in Fig..
The radius of the nth circle will obviously be given by
rn = [(d + nλ 2 2 12
2 ) − d )]
1
rn = [(d + nλ
2 − d)(d + nλ
2 + d)] 2
√ 1
rn = nλd(1 + nλ 4d )
2

or √
rn = nλd
where we have assumed d >>> l. We are assuming that n is not
a very large number. The annular region between the nth circle
and (n − 1)st circle is known as the nth half-period zone; the
area of the nth half-period zone is given by An = πrn2 − πrn−12

' π[nλd − (n − 1)λd] = πλd

Thus the areas of all the half-period zones are approximately
equal. Now the resultant disturbance produced by the nth zone
will be p out of phase with the disturbance produced by the
(n − 1)st [or the (n + 1)st ] zone. Thus the areas of all the
half-period zones are approximately equal.
For infinitesimal area surrounding a point Qn in the nth
half-period zone, there is a corresponding infinitesimal area
surrounding point Qn−1 in the (n − 1)st half-period zone such
that
π = 2π
λ ∆
∆ = λ2 or Qn P − Qn−1 P = λ2
which corresponds to a phase difference of p. Since the areas of
the zones are approximately equal, one can have a one-to-one
correspondence between points in various zones.
Thus, the resultant amplitude at point P can be written as
u(p) = u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + (−1)m+1 um + − − −− (1)
Decreasing amplitudes u1 > u2 > u3 > ....
The series expressed by above Eq. can be approximately
summed due to a method by Schuster. We rewrite the Eq. as
u1 u1 u3 u3 u5
u(p) = + ( − u2 + ) + ( − u4 + ) + − − − (2)
2 2 2 2 2
where the last term is either u2m or um−1
2 − um according to
whether m is odd or even.
If un > 12 (un−1 + un+1 )
then the quantities inside the brackets in Eq. 1 will be negative;
consequently,
u(P ) < 12 u1 + 12 um (m odd)
u(P ) < 21 u1 + 12 um−1 − um (m even)
where we have assumed that the amplitudes of the fields
produced by consecutive zones differ only slightly.
To obtain the upper limits, we rewrite Eq.2 in the form
u2 u2 u4 u4 u6
u(p) = u1 − − ( − u3 + ) − ( − u5 + ) + − − − (3)
2 2 2 2 2
where the last term is now − um−1 um
2 + um or − 2 according to
whether m is odd or even respectively.
ZONE PLATE: Multiple Foci of Zone Plate