\ DIFFRACTION ©.1 Detine diffraction ? when wav edges of the obstacies if the dimensi the waves. The apparent bending of waves round the ed ges of an obstacle (or aperture) is called diffraction, theme! explained diffraction using Huygon's Principle of secondary wavelets in conjunetion with the principle of sup erposition. The diffraction Secondary wavelets origin: the obstacle, -2) Distinguish between Fresnel and Fraunhof Fresnel's diffraction : In this type of aiftr the obstacle or aperture, the phase of second: mathematically complex, Fraunhoffer diffraction In this class of diffraction, the sourc infinite distances from the aperture. ‘Thie incident wavefront is plane. As a result, the second; Point in the plane of aperture. Fraunhoffer diffract 2-3) Distinguish between interference and diffraction, Interference phenomenon is due to mutual '9 from various parts of a wavefront which are not © of light and the screen may be achieved by using two convex lena lary wavelets are in the same Phas tion is a special case of the moi Fresnel diffraction and is easier to handle mathematically, interference of blocked off by fer classes of diffraction, % action, the source of light or screen or both are at finite distances from The incident wavetront is either spherical or cylindrical. nae uclets is not the same at all points in the plane of the aperture. No ake the rays parallel or convergent. The treatment or Fresnel diffraction is As a result are effectively placed at es. The 2 at every re general Diffraction 1) Interference is the result of interaction of Tight | coming from two seperate wavefronts criginating from the same source or from two differen coherent sources. 1) Diffraction is the result of interaction oF light coming from different parts of the same wavefront. 2) Interference fringes may or ‘may not be of the same width, 2) Diffraction fringes are not of the same width, 8) Points of minimum intensity may or may not be perfectly dark, 3) Points of minimum intensity are not perfectly dark.‘Sh bands are of uniform intensity Xplaii ty, Ye diffraction due to a intOMS a plane wave falling at Ncidence oO centr: el rays same o to the Y are in py they will Sentral point of @Ppears, on intensity, al Point Po of the screen extending from the slit Ptical paths, They are Point Po by the ens, hase at the plane of the ein phase at P, and the the diffraction Pattern that '¢ Screen C has a maximum '¢ from the top of the lower half of the slit. The path difference between these {Wo rays and hence the phase difference will decide the intensity at P;. If P; is so chosen, that is, If @ is so chosen that the distance bb is a half wavelength, 1 and rz will be out of Phase and will produce No effect at Py. Likewise every ray from the upper half of the slit will be cancelled by a corresponding ray from the lower half. For the point Py, the first Instant Na long narrow slit of ingle sli Inctaont ro not of the sam is al a) All bright band: Intensity, ndition for minimum e condi h Establis! minimum of the diffraction pattern, the condition for zero intensity is 2 i 2sino=2 sasino=a g8ino=5 = aSinlit is divided jp rt |. aa. the 8 into four : In FB a y leaving the top of each jone. Let 9 pe chosen so that the distance pp; jg one half a wavelength. Rays r, and r, ill th p» Rays 13 and will also be half Wavelength out of phase on ci aislepe ee tnis manner one can proceed across th ‘ath out of phase and will also cance} ne entire slit and conclude that no light rea h means that we have located a S€cond point of 2er0 intensity. : 7 &qual jones, with a ra Hence in Po, which aoe a ; pegonees, = aSind=2, Hence, by extension the general formula for the minima in the single slit diffraction pattern can be written as 8 Sin0=ma, m=1,2,3 . ~~ There is a maximum approximately hallway between each adjacent pair of minima. Q.5) Derive an expre: 'ssion for the intensit Fraunhoffer diffracti 'y distribution at a point on a screen due to ion at a single slit ? Fig. 4.5 shows a slit of width ‘a’ asa radiator of Huygen's secondary wavelets and Produces a characteristic wave divided into NV parallel strips of width Ax. Each strip acts ! se disturbance at point P. Each ff | Strip contributes an electric field [Hee | of amplitude AE at the point P. ryt / The wave disturbances from Wave 1 adjacent strips have a constant phase difference ag between them at P~ given by 49 =22 (ax Sin8) where ( (4x Sin 0) is the path difference for the rays originating at the top edges of adjacent strips. At the point P, N vectors with the same amplitude AE, the same wavelength 4 and the same phase difference Ag between adjacent : ' strips, combine to produce a_ resultant p—-)—-) f { disturbance. The reultant disturbance is found < . by representing the individual wave disturbances a ig 4. Eby phasors (rotating vectors) and calculating Entho resi ‘SUMAN phasor amplitude go shift between adjac is also atthe Conter of tho diffraction pattorn 0 = 0 and the CO neo mae isn : is case a u 0. Fig, 4,6 shows the phasor arrows in this €28¢ Hay maximum has its ‘S Maximum value E,, This corresponds to the center oF and the a i -zer0 value of arronc,ShY Valle of 0 othor than zero, Ag assumes 2 dofinite non Arrows is as shown in Fig. 4.7. The resultant amplitude & is less than En, comtin® (2 inereases further, the phase shit ntinues to increase, and the chain of arrows Curls around through 360°, the tip of the last arrow touching the foot of the first arrow as shown in Fig. 4.8. This corresponds to & = 0, that i, {0 the fist minimum. For this condition, the ray from the top of the slit is 780° out of phase with the ray from the center of the slit. The length of the arc of small arrows in all the figures shown here is the same. (2 Eqr0 As @ increases further, the phase shift continues to increase, and the chain of arrows curls around through an angie greater than 360°. Proceeding in this, way,, one can reach the first maximum beyond the central maximum. This maximum is much smaller than the central maximum. In all the figures shown here, the arrows marked E» correspond to the amplitudes of the Fig 4.8 wave disturbances and not to the tensities. The amplitudes must E- squared to obtain the corresponding relative intensities. The equation @ Sin 0 =m a M= 1, 2,3, ..« tells us how to locate iffraction pattern on the screen as a function of the angle 0, TI every screen point P being associated with a definite value insity / of the pattern as a function of 0, of the minima of the he angle 0 is the 0. Let us now fing single-slit ‘sition locator, Pit an expression for the inter{He AFC of small arrows in Fig. 4.9 shows the phasors repr BNese. the wave disturbances that seoeh an “bitrary point P on the scieen, corresponding {6 2 Pauticular angle 0. The restart amplitude at P 8 Eu. It the slit is divided into infinitesimal SIPS Of Width av, the ate of arrows In Fig. 4.9 esl as Shown. The length of the are (2 Boy Me cag panetude at the centre of the Giffraction Fig 4. the ean because at the centre of the Pattern the wave disturbances are all i; Phase and this are becomes a straight line, ting in amplitude ang - Combining we get &, Fesink, Putting @ for #2 se 2nd ‘squaring Eto get the intensity, we get /, =/,| 2 (2) Where a = $ = Z@ sno) @ Intensity minima will occur whena=mam=1,2,.3,... two Put this result in the equation for @. we find m x =F sino, oF aSind=mi,m |. 2, 3,..(minima), which is exactly the equation we have seen earlier for the minima. The equation 2 n( S22) + when @ Plotted (I'vs £), gives, the intensity distribution in single-siit diffraction Pattern which is shown in Fig 4.10, The secondary - AS m increases, the2.6) What is citt: Action grating 2 wen high resolution, UF is with ced 4 Reed to separate light of difforent wavelength! soly spa 21, close of parallel, Mactent Otten tho tool of cholee. A large number of p surface, usually gla oF slits, and used’ to of very fine or metal, having a large aM eet or Produce optical spectra by diffraction of 2.7) Explain the theory of plane transmission grating, side of } Since all these Secondary waves have travelled equal distance to reach p, they reinforce constructively and hence the Point Po is the Position of central bright maximum, | Let us consider the waves 'e corresponding points A ath difference between the hing P, is CM. In A ACM, and ©. The p; waves on react Sind = MM orem = ACsing = (a+b) sing. The superposition.of these waves at P causes interference. P, will be bright whenG4 d)Simn8,, mawhete m= 0, 4, directions of the 2 9 ele, and angles 4,00) el6.. correspond to the Principal maxima, Henee sing, = ma + ens Oy = MUNA whore = Wis the number of grating elements or lines per wns rating unit width of the g For m= 1, (@ 4h) sin 9% = 2. Ina direction oe inclined at an angle @, to the incident rome direction, first order image is obtained. oe Similarly the second order bright images is onisnae: obtained when 9 = 02 i Tigao ne e.,m=2 sapour lamp (a@+b)sino,=24 ‘Second order maximum Thus different order obtained on both sides Shown in the figure. instead of monochromatic source of light Such @s sodium vapour lamp, if white light source such ‘as mercury is used, in the each diffracted order different colours are diffracted at different angles as shown in the figure. bright images are Of the direct ray as Second order First order Central image Light from Hg. vapour lamp a First order Second order 0.8) What is Rayleigh's criterion for resolving power of an optical instrument 2 i i tas a numerical value, Rayleigh To express the resolving power of an optical instrument : h Proposed an arbitrary eriterion. According to him, two nearly images are said te be resolved if the position of the central maximum of one coincides with the first ‘secondary minimum of the other and vice versa. Q.9) Define resolving power of a grating 7 The resolving power of a grating is its ability to show two neighbouring lines in a it th A and a+ da, aeecirum as separate. If we consider two very close spectral lines of wavelengi its spectral resolution is given byces in waveleng!ns Spee! tho amattost differe tesolving power * 4. where a2 that can be resolved by the grating and viewed separately as the ratio of the Iso be defined inthis line a tion grating may jelongths betwe 5 difference of wi e Al lines can be just seen as separate: Hence the resolving power of a cliff wavelength of any spectral line to neighbouring line such that the {wo spr Q.10) Derive an expression for the resolving power of a grating 7 In the figure, XY is the grating surface. MN is the field of view of the telescope. Position P; corresponds to the n™ primary maximum of spectral line A at an angle of diffraction 0, . Position P2 corresponds to the n™ primary maximum of spectral line (A+ da) at angle of diffraction (6,-+ dd). According to Rayleigh, those two spectral lines appear resolved if the position of Pe corresponds to first minimum of Py and vice versa. The direction of n™ primary maximum of spectral line A is given by (a+b) Sind, =n Similarly the direction of n" primary maximum of spectral line (A | da) is given by (a+b) Sin (0, + d0) = na + da) To satisfy Rayleigh criterion this angle (0, + d0) must also correspond to the direction of first minimum of A. This is possible if the path difference between the fays corresponding to angles of diffraction @,, and (0, + d0) is 4 » Where Nis the total number of lines on the grating surface. From the above two equations the difference introduced is nda. il Hence, nda This expression measures the resolving power of a grating, Thus) the resolving power of a grating is directly proportional to the order of the spectrum and the total number of lines on the grating surface, |7 q te INTERFERENCE O,37State anal explain tho Principle of superpesition: same space independently of one another tn ticles of the meditim is the algebraic Two oF more waves ean traverse the tne region whore they meet, the dlapkicement of the « aeevonte due to individual waves alone. This Process Ot vactor addition of cof a partico is called the principle of superposition. Principle of superposition is valid when the equations describing th e wave motion are linear ie. when the wave amplitudes are smal. the equations deseribin g the wave motion swe net linear, superposition principle fails. Shock waves produced by vio lent explosions do rat obey the principle of syperposition since the equation describing the wave motion is sum of their di the displacement quadratic. Using the superposition principle it Is possible to analyze 8 complicated wave motion 8 a combination of simple waves, Its thus possible to represent a periodic pulse y(t) a8 where @ gives the HO =A, + A,Sin wl + A,SIN2 Of + nr B C08 wl + B,C082 01+ angular frequency ot the pulse, A's and B's are constants. This expression is called the Fourier series. If the motion is not periodic, the above sum is replaced by an integral called the Fourier integral Q.2) Define Interference 2 Two waves of the same frequency travelling approximately in the same direction with constant phase difference can combine to give rise to redistribution of eneray in the form of maxima and minima. This type of redistribution of energy due to superposition is called interference. The series of alternate maxima and minima is called an interference pattern, Interference provides the most convincing evidence that light is a wave. The formation of bright and dark fringes.is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. The energy which apparently disappears at minima has actually been transferred to the maxima, where the intensity is greater than that produced by the two beams acting separately. Q.3) Discuss the techniques for producing interference of light. To produce a pair of coherent beams of light, two techniques are used. One is the division of wavefront and the second is the division of amplitude. (1) Division of wavefront The incident wavefront is divided into two parts by using the phenomenon of ion. They travel unequal distances and reunite at small angle reflection, refraction or diffra to produce interference fringes. Here point sources of light should be used. Young's double slit experiment, Fresnel's Bi-prism, Lloyd's mirror ete., are examples for this method. Here the waves spread out by diffraction at the point sources.The amplitude of nconung beam is divided into (wo parts either by partial i CF Fefraction which reunite after travelling along different paths and prociuce interfer Here extended source of light should be used Tp come Thin film interference such as Newton's rings, Michelson’s interferometer etc.. under this method terference 7 Aw i Pa i 4) What are the essential conditions for producing (1) Conditions for sustained interference : A aaa lu lecutces should sel cofiereniiaee eestieriea tema single source sre in phase with each other or maintain a constant phase difference. Coherent beams of light produce 2 steady interference pattern. (©) The two interfering waves must be of the same wavelength and periodic time and Propagate approximately in the same direction, (2) Conaitions tor observation : (2) ‘The separation between the two sources should be small Large separation leads to smaller fringe width with loss of visibility (b) The distance between the sources. and screen should be large. If this clistance is small then the fringe width will be very small and the fringes will not be separately visible. fc) "ihe background should be dark. If the source is not strong, the finger happen to have low intensity losing clarity against bright background (3) Conditions for good contrast , (2) The two sources should be very narrow. A broad source may be thought of as a group of sources with different frequencies / wavelengths so that superposition of light from any pair can hot give an interference pattern. () The sources should be monochromatic. The fringe width # depends upon the wavelength of light. If the source is monochromatic, # will be constant and hence fringes of good intensity can be observed. If the source used is emitting white light, it is equivalent to an infinite number of monochromatic sources. This results in overlapping of fringes due to different wavelengths, and thus only a few coloured fringes with poor contrast are visible. When the path difference is large, it results in uniform illumination. (©) The amplitudes of the interfering waves should be preferably equal. If a, and a, are the amplitudes of the interfering beams, then Intensity of maxima is (a, + ay)? and Intensity of minima is (a; ~ a,)2. If the difference between the amplitudes a, and agis very large, then the intensity of minima will be practically the same as that of the maxima and hence the contrast will be poor. For a good contrast a; = 22, so that the minima have a low intensity. 9.5) Give the theory of interference of light incident on a thin film. Thin-film interference is an example of interference by division of amplitude. The Striking colours of soap bubbles, oil slicks, peacock feathers, throats of humming birds, inton's rings, interference palterns in Michelson interferometer are some examples of thin ‘im interference. The condition of coherence is satisfied in thin film interference because theray incident on the film A thin fim has. same 1 0 of c yor SUrtae ed trom thon srence process. The interfering waves c, 5 he interference PI 0 ‘SMbine either to tain colours in the spectrum of the incident sun ign, ry cession of selected wavelengths has several applications partici to suppre’ vnancement oF SUPPT cos 9g cer surtae s nee oananee OF erate en" fim of uniform thickness f, ; Pear Let light be incident at A. index of reriant is reflected towards B and the pe Ms ig reflected at C and emerges at D other Par jel to the first parte"tBe condition of at pce is satisfied here because rays 1 and cote derived from 2 single incident ray. At fymal incidence, the path difference Ax Tetween rays 7 and 2 1s twice the optical 2 thickness of the film, the figu Ax=2ut where 4 is the refractive index of the film. At oblique incidence, the optical path differnce is Ax = «(AC +CD)- AB AB_ or AB=2(AE)Sini Inthe Ale ABD, Sini = aE B iD Inthe ale AEC, Tanr 45 or AE=(Tanr = 2 t =_2t AB =2t Tan Sini=2(Tanr wSinr Since AC=@ >= and AC + CD = 52! — weave 2xt i io inn) = 2yt( 12 Taner Sin r Cosr aca GAt -2ytTanr Sinr= ni ote Taner Sinr)= 2,4 te Tenr Sine Cosr) = Sin? ax=2u (se) or Ax=2utCosr , where y is the refractive index of the medium between the surfaces. Since for air 4 = 1, the path difference between rays 1 and 2 is given by 4x=2tCosr However, this is only the apparent path differnce. To calculate the real path difference, one should also consider the change in phase brought in by reflection. According to electromagnetic theory of light, whenever reflection occurs at an interface backed by a denser medium, a phase of change of x or a path difference of 4 is additionally introduced in the reflected component. Hence the real path difference is Ax = 2/1 Cosr + H . ; ence, the condition for maxima for the thin film to appear bright is2 where m= 5 2utCosr4-mi or 2ufCosr~ mA (2m 1)5 where m= 0, 7,2 ‘The film will appear dark in the reflected light when 2ut Cosr+4=(2m+1)S or 2utCosr=mA ,wherem=90, 1, 2, 3,. y to derive the conditions to, If the film is viewed in the transmitted light, it is eas: rive o maxima and minima following similar geometry. The condition for maxima in this case is a 2 Cos r= ma and the condition for minima is 2¢ Cos r= (2m +1) > One can not observe any interference pattern in thick films. For observing the interference pattern, the thickness of the film should be comparable with the wavelength of light. Q.6) Obtain an expression for fringe width in wedge shaped thin film and also obtain the expression for thickness of the spacer, Wedge-film is a film of varying thickness. Such a film can be formed between two glass plates resting on each other at one end and separated by a thin spacer at the other end. At one end, the film thickness is zero and progressively increases to a particular value at the other end. @ is called the wedge angle which is very small. jin sheet for wire Glass plate . Fig. 3.4 When the wedge is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light, the rays reflected from its two surfaces will not be parallel. They appear to diverge from a point near the film. Both the reflected ray BC and ray BFDE are derived from the same ray AB by division of amplitude. Hence the two interfering rays are coherent. Since the path difference for the rays reflected from the difference sections of the wedge are different due to variation in film thickness, the film when viewed in the reflected light will not be uniform in illuriination. Alternate bright and dark fringes Parallel to the contact edge of wedge are seen on its surface, The fringes are localized at the surface of the film. They are straight, parallel and equidistant. When the film is viewed in white light, coloured fringes are observed. Fringe width in wedge-film interference : The conditions of maxima and minima when thin films are viewed in the reflected Monochromatic light are 2ut Cos =(em+1)= (maxima) and 2 Cos =ma (minima) ,n= 0, 1.2 Sus We apply these ondtions 9, eee for the fringe width. Suppose a dar, fringe, » Feng, ees AK = f The dark fringe 18 Governeg b fi I occurs at a C® !0 obtain ay sn near normal ineictonee WN thn air tims, Gog elation ; eerihere the fit dark rae at A becomes 2h = M 4 Let us suppose that Henares So whore the ‘lm thickness CL = 4 Thy Condition (on NOM dark tring, Me im#t)a. Henee the difference in film thicknese for wma! eat thd gai ma Ne (meayh gel ® (in 4 Adjacent dark fringes fe fringe ig ae -h)=4 or Bc CAB, Tano = SS Cs Inthe A" CAB, Tar AB &% 8C= AB Tano. AB is the linear distance b. ark fringes and hence itis the fringe width p, even successiy -pteno=4 or B= Therefore B= & : Wedge angle @ and thickness of the spacer : i The wedge angle @ and the thickness of a spacer like paper can be experimentally determined with the help of a travelling microscope. The positions of dark fringes at two distant points Q and R located at distances x, and X2 from the apex 0 are noted (Fig. 3.8) and the no. of fringes N between Q and R are counted. Let the film thickness at Q and R be t; and ta, respectively. Applying the condition for dark fringe x at Q we get, 2ut,=ma. But t, =x, Tan@~x,0, as os @is very small. Fig. 3.6 “.2ux,8=ma. Similarly for dark fringe at R, we have 2yt,=(m+N)a. Again, t, =x,TanO=x,0=> 2ux,0=(m+N)a. Subtracting the equation for m A from that of 2 Xe PFs NA (m+N) 2, we get 24 (x2-x,)8=NA or 8 Fale =) | write t= L Tan 6 = If tis the thickness of the spacer used to form the wedge, we can L8, where L is the length of the wedge. LNA 2u (x2 - x1)Since the tringe wiath 2 “we can write t 28 ithe film is air, < : N 2p AL 2p “Thickness of the spacer, {= 2 Describe the formation of Newton's rings in reflected light and don, radii of bright and dark rings, ' microscope formed between the two. The film thickness at Glass plate the point of contact is zero, if Monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally, and the firm ic viewed in the reflected light, concentric bright Sodium Source Sas Plano convex lens and darks rings around the point of contact are Fig. 1 Plane glass plate seen, These circular fringes were discovered by Newton and are called Newton's rings. When alata aye the film is viewed in the reflected light, dark spot “or 4 is formed at the point of contact of the lens with the glass plate. The circular fringes are localized and are of equal thickness and get crowded away Ast ‘Ait film from the point of contact c ° The ray diagram in the formation of x¢nange Newton's rings is shown in Figure 2. The ray is incident normally on the lens-plate system. Ray 1 and Ray 2 are the rays reflected from top and bottom surface of the air flm. Ray 1 undergoes no phase change but ray 2 acquires a phase change of x upon reflection, because it is reflected from air-glass interface. Rays 1 and and 2 2t@ coherent because they are derived from the same incident ray. The conditions tor the bright and dark rings are governed by the following relations: Fig. 2 2utCosr=(2m +3 (Bright rings) and 2yt Cos r= ma (ark rings) For normal incidence Cos r= 1 and for the air film y= 1 ual =m +e (Bright fringes) and 2 =ma (Dark fringes)Dark spot Is observed at the point of the conts ine air firn at the pelt of contact is Only a few molgnc, tea wavelonath (<= a). The path difference zero, Le, 25 0. But the wave reflected from les thick and jg i qtosuces between the inte,.© * lass plate suffers 9 whieh is equivalent to a path difference of 4 2 contte are out of phase and interfere destruc tivel e ANd Produce a dark ee Theory of Newton's rings : tp the reflected monochromatic 4; ht Newton's fings are alternate bright ang oak crcles with @ central dark spot. Refer i Fig. 3. Let R be the radius of curvature of the lene, Si Q, let the thickness of the fim PO = 1 eatenast ce condition for a dark ring to form by interference Let it be an m dark ting with a tadius OQ = 5, By the theorem of intersecting chords, 7 (EP) » (HE) = (OB) * (EM). But EP = OQ = HE (EM) =m; OF = PQ=tand (OM-OE) = ( 2R - ty tm =t(2R-t) or tm =2Rt-t? AS2Rto> ee can be neglected, For dark rings, the governing relation is 2t = itm =2Rt \mar M2. = 12 =mAR ot tm ‘The diameter of the dark ring is therefore given by D,, = 2mm can be found by taking m= 0, 1, 2, 3. fo =0, 1, =VAR, 1, = VBAR, ©. The radii of the dark rings . Itcan be seen that = VBAR..... and 60 on. Thus, the radi (also diameters) of the dark rings are proportional to the square root of natural numbers Considering bright rings, let us suppose that a bright ring is located at the point Q. The radius of the m" bright ring is given by r2 = 2Rt. For bright rings, the governing relation is 2t=@m+d 272 =2m+DAR 2M+I)AR the radii of different bright rings can be is OF tm = : ™ 2 2 found b ting m = in A. It is seen that ti 0, 1, 2 3, in above equation. It i found by putting = e423,Lis a i adii (also diamete;, aoe £ and so on. It is clear that the radii ( eters) bright rings are Proportional t © the square root of the odd natural numbers Determination of wavelength @ length of inci forming Newt dark rings usit ident monochromatic light can be fon's rings and measuring the Ng travelling microscope. For the = 4m R. For then dark ting, D? = 4n.R Dj, The wav determined by diameters of the 1 dark ring, D2 No. of ring, m Fig. 4 Q.8) Describe and explain the working principle of Michelson's Interferometer, Interferometers are the instruments based on the principle of interference of light. They can be used to Measure lengths and changes in length with great accuracy by means of interference fringes. Michelson designed an interferometer to determine the wavelength of monochromatic light, to determine thickness and refractive index of various thin transparent materials, to determine the difference between two neighbouring wavelengths and also for standardization of metre in terms of wavelength of light. My Principle of Michelson's Interferometer : directions. The amplitude of the incident light is divided and sent in oe fringes. Thegenre feflected back by plane mirrors to combine giving rise, to imerterence ietacs. These fringes act as a measure of the path difference betwee! can be used for measurementyenolson 8 INLerEFOMELEL Consists jan of the BEAM. Highly polished arch. Ol 8 Partie pendicular directions sth the P wo et Sis " ri. They are reflected back by mings. They can be viewed through MHOrs M Verod a8 shown in Mito jit into two beams, one Wansmit, 7 0. 3.44 led to the gt and mM, mice through the glass plate Gy, A gina® telescope 7.74 is kept parallel to Gy in the path of (rane Gs of the rellacted component in Gy, In this way med bear made the same. Go is called the compensating.en THEO the light bi s the light beams from bo! can see M, and Me', the image of Ms et Ms reach one means one of the interfering beams comes trem yore: This other appears to come by reflection from the vinuet yon the mirror Mz which will appear to be M,'. This syste an ie similar to an air film enclosed between mirrore Me ane ee “he air film will have uniform thickness if Mss excclly wa 4 angles to M,, The formation of air film is shown (Fig’ 3 19) Ty which Ma is near to G; than M; by a distance dand the two interfering beams appear to come to the eye from two virloat images S, and S2 of the original source S. the distance between virtual sources being 2d. Since the ray AB coming after reflection from Mz" suffers reflection at the silvered surface of the glass plate G. ' : : soan additional path difference of > is introduced. Fig. 212 ‘ s Total path differenc A 2d+5 If the eye is placed at an angle a with respect to the normal to the mirrors, Total path difference = 2d Cosa + 4 The condition for getting dark bands will be, 2d Cosa + 4 (m + ths 2d Cosa=ma If M, & Mp" are not parallel, ie., M; & Mz are not perpendicular, one gets straight line fringes similar to the case of wedge. When the two mirrors are exactly at right angles to each other, for an extended ic lis i is t and so the monochromatic light source and for a given value of m, the value of ais constan locus of the fringes is a circle. So one can see bright rings and circular dark rings through {re telescope. For m = 0, ie., when Mz coincides with M;, the air paths AG and AB are execlly jther equal, the total path difference will be 4. ‘one gets total darkness, When M, Is moved ei ‘i Nar fringes. forward or backward parallel to itself, one observes sufficiently spaced circular ing Q.9) Discuss the applications of Michelson’s interferometer, tc 2 f the : inatic f monochromatic light : the field of view of th a‘ ue Oa tiealae to obtain circular fringe Tote G,, the field of view ype. If the mirrors M, and Mz are equidistant from thegusted tll 2 Parte ular brant ¢) 1 centre coinciding with the cross pe with i fringe in the focal plane of } ward, each | moved through a distance 4, fark The position of the mutror My | id of view of the telescop Mis moved Backward or foward, C26, parallel to itself Wher the moved rough a catance 2h ae jicular brig) ition of a part field Of view when th anges by 4 and the position eile he fie og Fee eee teres ic nis the number of fringos that move a ex i umber mirror is displaced through a distance /., then wuil be perfectly appears in the fie When the mirror My telescope is displaced P: 2, Hee ” the i screw attached to The distance L can be measured with the help of a tee ie cactually counted mirror M, and the number of fringes n that move across the fie and thus knowing L and n, 4 can be determined. nination of thickness of a thin transparent plate: fe ah . oe wind the thickness, the interferometer Is set for localized fringes paige Maal ght such that the central fringe coincides with the cross-wire of the telescope. In this position, the paths AB and AC are exactly equal. The thin transparent medium is now in| poaueed Pelee the glass plate G; and the mirror M, such that light passes through it normally. ae ae the increase of optical path by (xc-1)t, where vis the refractive index and tis the thic! ieee oe the transparent medium and the fringes shift their positions. ‘Ihe position of the mirror Msi adjusted till again the central fringe coincides with the cross-wire of the telescope. ne distance L through which the mirror M, is moved is found out from the readings of the micrometer screw and this gives the increase in path 2 (11~1)t 2(u-t)t = 2b If the refractive index zis known the thickness of the plate can be found out. (3) Determination of difference in wavelengths (resolution of spectral lines) Let the source contain two wavelengths 2; and 42 (Ay > 42) which differ slightly like in sodium light. Michelson’s interferometer is set for circular fringes. The two wavelengths form their separate fringe patterns, but because of minute changes in wavelength . the two Patterns overlap. As the mirror M, is moved slowly and when the path difference is such that dark fringe of 2; falls on the bright fringe of 22, the result is maximum indistinctness. Now the mirror Mis moved say through a distance x so that the next indistinct position is reached. In this position, if n® fringe of 2; appears at the centre, then (n+1)" fringe of 22 should appear at the centre of the field of view. nay de 2x 2x x= Pte (n+ 1)425 n= 2 and (ns 1)=2k 2 O20 2, ond o49) da 2x _ 2x Ara A2 ArA2 1a BeBe pf drm del gg, = Arde - Ahr a2 as x Aide joa Cer aiiaa rs pus: by measuring the distance x moved by mirror M, and the distance between two 18) Sarre ndistinctness, the difference between the wavelengths can be determines (4) Standardization of meter : Modified Michelson interferometer is used for defining the standard meter. Michelson Fos ered the number of times the wavelength of a monochromatic light like ‘cadmium red, blue or green was contained in a standard meter. The counting of number of fringes whichsilvered on their front. Tho ¢ afte etalon. Inv nee e standardization of meter y 1 Determination of the.) a lenath of tine wavelength thes 2. Comparison of the 4 standard moter between the 4 at me MemMediate et, Example 1: Two coherent sources whoge intensity ray feinges.Deduce the ratio of maximums IMensity to minimum interseet PFOA Ucey m intensi Since intensity 1is square of the amplitude 9 9 7 4, =9a, Example 2 : A monochromatic beam 1.33 and thickness 0.75 um. Calculate j Optical path = 1x geometrical path = Of light travels ¢! ts optical path 2 hrough a medium of Tefractive index “$3 x 0.75 = 0.998 um, The condition is given by 2utCosr= mA. Taking m causes destructive interference is = 1, the smallest thickness of Plate that = 5890%10"" = Oxi0"” Lo. 2x1.5xCos 60° Example 4: A Newton's ring arrangement is used with a sour 41=6x10%cm and 2 =4.5x10-%om. It is found that nt!” dark ting due to 2, coincides with (n+1)" dark ting for a. If the radius of curvature of the curved surface is 90cm, find the diameter of n" dark ring for Ape r=vmaR, m= 0,1,2,.... for dark ring => r, =¥nx6x10°° x90 lm Due ‘ 5 FVCN+1)*4.5 x10 x 90 and nx 6 x 10°°x 90 = (n+4)4.5 x 10° x 90 On = 4.8(n+4) = 6n= 4.5n + 4.5 = 1,.6n= 4.5 n= 4.5/1.5=3 t =VN3x6x10% x90 =V1620x10> = 0.0162 =0.127cm Diameter of n" ring ce emitting two WavelengthsPROBLEMS FoR PRACTICE ; 1) 2) 3) 4) dark ring changes trom \ In a Newton's "Ng experiment, the diameter of the 10" lens and plate. Calculate; 6m to 1.27 cm, when a liquid is introduced between the I refractive index of the liquid, An air wedge is formed by two Glass plates which touch at one end and are Separated by a thin wire of 0.048 mm diameter at the other endl. The length of each 9188s plate is 12 cm. A broad souree of light of wavelength 6800 A.U, illuminates the 9lass plates normally. How many bright fringes appear over the 72 cm distance? The radius of curvature of a convex lens in a Newton's rings experiment in reflected light is 100 cm and the Wavelength is 5000 A.U, Find the diameter of the 10” dar ring White light falls normally on a soap film of thickness 5000 A.U. and refractive index 1.33. Which wavelength in the visible region is strongly reflected?Determination of wavelength and velocity When ultrasonic waves ene oe venic waves propagate In a liquid medium, the tk 9 sity Of he Medium. Heads to a * fiquid, Such a liquid column subjected to. uitnee 8 PenOde variation of re monochromatic light ts pa: woe ifraction of light ‘tive index oF Fs ex of thu ae waves constitutes an 1 UsroUgh the haunt at ight angles t rf Ora et angles to the waves, the Liquid column The above figure shows the experimental arrangement. Stationary ultrasonic waves re glass tube. The density and hence the refractive index of the liquid produced in a liquid contained in a i maximum at nodal points and minimum at antinodal points. The nodal area acts as opaque regions uhile anti-nodal areas act as transparent regions for light. The liquid column thus resembles 2 ruled grating. When the crystal is at rest, a single image of the slit is formed on the screen. When the crystal is excited a diffraction pattern Is produced. It consists of a central maxima flanked by first order. second order maxima and minima etc. The grating period d equals to 4s and is given by dsind = m2 where 2, is the’ wavelength of ultrasonic waves, 4 is the wavelength of the monochromatic light beam a, = 2ma and mis the order of maxima. ‘sine can be determined. The frequency f of the waves 1s jelocity of waves in the liquid can fe found from the of ultrasonic waves Knowing a, m and by measuring 0, Ay tion of wavelength and velocity known from the frequency of the oscillator. The v relation v = f A, The above method of determina is known as acoustic diffraction methodDIFFRACTION Q.4) Define diffraction ? hey appa “When waves encounter obstactes or small apertures: Ney aphareantly bond « of the obstacies if the dimensions of the obstacles around the ed id the to the w J ges of AN Obs tact (or ae an Of the waves. The apparent bending of waves ireyie called diffraction le of secondary Wavelets in conjunction yt non is due to mutual interferenea Ct erference o tion using Huygen's principh avotront which are not blocked off = a The diffraction phenome! rious parts of a Wi Fresnel explained iff the principle of superposition secondary wavelets originating from v the obstacle .2) Distinguish between Fresnel and Fraunhoffer classes of diffraction, Fresne''s diffraction f light or screen or both are at Finite distances fro In this type of diffraction, the source oO! ical = “ from i or ert, The incident wavefront is either spherical or cylindrical. As a result ee cesandany wavelets is not the same at all points in the plane of the aperture. No ot ca te make the rays parallel or convergent. The treatment of F resnel diffraction is hematically complex. Freunhoffer diffraction : In this class of diffraction, the source of light and the screen are effectively placed at infinite distances from the aperture. This may be achieved by using two convex lenses. The incident wavefront is plane. As a result, the secondary wavelets are in the same phase at every point in the plane of aperture. Fraunhoffer diffraction is a special case of the more general Fresnel diffraction and is easier to handle mathematically. Q.37 Distinguish between interference and diffraction. I Interference Diffraction 7) Diffraction is the result of interaction ofF light coming from different parts of the same wavefront. 1) Interference is the result of interaction of light coming from two seperate wavefronts originating from the same source or from two different coherent sources. 2) Interference fringes may or may not be of the same width. 2) Diffraction fringes are not of the same width. 3) Points of minimum intensily may or may not be perfectly dark, 3) Points of minimum intensity are not perfectly dark.4) All bright bands are NOt of the samt intensity 4) Explain the diffraction due to a single slit. Establish the condition for minimum intensity, Fig, 4.2 shows a plane wave falling at normal incidence on a long narrow slit of width 2, At the central point Po of the screen ©, the parallel rays extending from the slit have the same optical paths. They are converged to the point Po by the lens, Since they are in phase at the plane of the ace" slit, they will be in phase at Po and the central point of the diffraction pattern that appears on the screen C has a maximum intensity. Consider another point P;, on the screen as shown in Fig, 4.3. To study the intensity at the point P;, let us divide the width of the slit into two halves. Let ray r,originate irom the top of the upper half and the ray r_Wixe™ originate from the top of the lower half of the slit. The path difference between these two rays and hence the phase difference will decide the intensity at P;. If P; is so chosen, that is, If @ is so chosen that the distance bb’ is a half wavelength, rand 2 will be out of phase and will produce no effect at P;, Likewise Incident every ray from the upper Wave half of the slit will be cancelled = by =a corresponding ray from the lower half. For the point Py, the first al minimum of the diffraction pattern, the condition for zero intensity is a a by répresenting the individual wave disturbances AE Fig 4.6 Eo by phasors (rotating vectors) and calculating Emthe resultant phasor amplitude At the center of the diffraction pattern 0 = 0 and the phase shift a a zero. Fig. 46 shows the phasor arrows in this case and the amplitude of the Em. This corresponds to the center of the central maxinnum is also has its maximum value For any valu Of arrows is as shown in Fig. 4.7, The resultant amplitude & is less than Ep, AS @ increases further, the phase shift continues to increase, and the chain of arrows Curls 2round through 360°, the tip of the last arrow touching the foot of the first arrow as shown in Fig. 4.8. This corresponds to Ey = 0, that is, to the first (minimum. For this condition, the ray from the top of the slit is 780° out of phase with the ray from the center of the slit. The length of the arc of small arrows in all the figures shown here is the same. As @ increases further, the phase shift continues fo increase, and the chain of arrows curls around through an angle greater than 360°. Proceeding in this way,. one can reach the first maximum beyond the central maximum. This maximum is much smaller than the central maximum, In all the figures shown here, the arrows marked Ep correspond to the amplitudes of the wave disturbances and not to the intensities, The amplitudes must t- squared to obtain the corresponding relative intensities. The equation a Sind = ma m= 1, 2,3, Position locator, every screen point P being associate ‘out an expression for the intensity / of the pattern as le of 0 other than zero, Ag assumes a definite non-zero value a function of 6. and the array Fig 4.7 Fig 4.8 . tells us how to locate the minima of the Single-slit diffraction pattern on the screen as a function of the angle 0. The angle 0 is the d with a definite value of @. Let us now find acent «, Fesuy, \ 3s xe aes 0°