Unit-1

Introduction The Physical Layer

• Uses of Computer Networks • The Theoretical Basis for
• Network Hardware Data Communication
• Network Software • Guided Transmission Media
• Reference Models • Wireless Transmission,
• The OSI Reference Model Digital Modulation and
Multiplexing
• The TCP/IP Reference Model
• The Mobile Telephone
• A Comparison of the OSI and System
TCP/IP Reference Models
• A Critique of the OSI Model
and Protocols
• A Critique of the TCP/IP
Reference Model
• Example Networks
A Computer Network is a system in which multiple computers
are connected to each other to share information and resources.
 Introduction

• A Computer Network is a system in which multiple computers

are connected to each other to share information and
resources.
• The computers use common communication protocols over
digital interconnections to communicate with each other.
• These interconnections are made up of telecommunication
network technologies, based on physically wired, optical, and
wireless radio-frequency methods that may be arranged in a
variety of network topologies.
Structure of Computer Network
 Uses of Computer Networks

• Business Applications
• Home Applications
• Mobile Users
• Social Issues
 Data Communications

• When we communicate, we are sharing information. This

sharing can be local or remote.
• Between individuals, local communication usually occurs
face to face, while remote communication takes place over
distance.
• The term telecommunication, which includes telephony,
telegraphy, and television, means communication at a
distance (tele is Greek for "far").
• The word data refers to information presented in whatever
form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the
data.
 Data Communications

• Data communications are the exchange of data between two

devices via some form of transmission medium such as a
wire cable.
• For data communications to occur, the communicating
devices must be part of a communication system made up
of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and
software (programs).
• The effectiveness of a data communications system depends
on four fundamental characteristics:
Delivery, Accuracy, Timeliness, and Jitter.
 Fundamental Characteristics

Delivery:
• The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
• Data must be received by the intended device or user and only
by that device or user.
Accuracy:
• The system must deliver the data accurately.
• Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.
 Fundamental Characteristics
Timeliness:
• The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
• Data delivered late are useless.
• In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering
data as they are produced, in the same order that they are
produced, and without significant delay.
• This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.

Jitter:
• Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
• It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets.
• For example,
• Let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms.
• If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-
ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
Components
 Components
• A data communications system has five components.
Message:
• The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
Popular forms of information include text, numbers,
pictures, audio, and video.
Sender:
• The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can
be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video
camera, and so on.
Receiver:
• The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can
be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television,
and so on.
 Components

Transmission Medium:
• The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver.
• Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

Protocol:
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
• It represents an agreement between the communicating
devices.
• Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
 Data Representation

• In data communication, Information comes in different forms

such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video through which
devices can communicate.

Text:
• In data communications, the text is represented as a bit pattern, a
sequence of bits (0’s or 1’s).
• Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text
symbols.
• Each set is called a code, and the process of representing
symbols is called coding.
 Data Representation
Numbers:
• Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.
• However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent
numbers.
• The number is directly converted to a binary number to
simplify mathematical operations.
Images:
• Images are also represented by bit patterns.
• In its simplest form, an image is composed of a matrix of
pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot.
• The size of the pixel depends on the resolution. For example,
an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels.
• In the second case, there is a better representation of the image
(better resolution), but more memory is needed to store the
image.
 Data Representation

Audio:
• Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or
music.
• Audio is, by nature, different from text, numbers, or images.
• It is continuous, not discrete.
Video :
• Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or
movie.
• Video can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by
a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a
discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.
 Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be
• Simplex Mode
• Half-duplex Mode
• Full-duplex Mode
Simplex Mode:
• In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as
on a one-way street.
• Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit.
• The other can only receive.
• Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex
devices.
• The keyboard can only introduce input.
• The monitor can only accept output.
• The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel
to send data in one direction.
Half-Duplex Mode:
• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time.
• When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa.
• The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic
allowed in both directions.
• When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the
other way must wait.
• Examples: Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are
both half-duplex systems.
Full Duplex Mode:
• In full-duplex mode (Also called duplex), both stations can
transmit and receive simultaneously.
• One common example of full-duplex communication is the
telephone network.
• When two people are communicating by a telephone line,
both can talk and listen at the same time.
• The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic
flowing in both directions at the same time.
Networks
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network.
Distributed Processing
• Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is
divided among multiple computers.
• Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all
aspects of a process, separate computers (usually a personal
computer or workstation) handle a subset.
Network Criteria
• A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.
The most important of these are
• Performance
• Reliability
• Security.

Performance:
• Performance can be measured in many ways, including
transit time and response time.
• Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to
travel from one device to another.
• Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response.
Reliability
• In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to
recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a
catastrophe.

Security
• Network security issues include protecting data from
unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.
Physical Structures

Type of Connection:
• A network is two or more devices connected through
links. A link is a communications pathway that
transfers data from one device to another.

There are two possible types of connections:

• Point-to-Point
• Multipoint
Point-to-Point Connection:
• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link
between two devices.
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices.

Multipoint Connection:
• A multipoint (also called multi drop) connection is one in
which more than two specific devices share a single link
Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
Network Hardware:

Network Topologies
Physical Topology
• The term physical topology refers to the way in which a
network is laid out physically.
• Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links
form a topology.
• The topology of a network is the geometric representation of
the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually
called nodes) to one another.
Network Topologies
Bus Topology
• The bus topology all the computers are connected through a
single cable known as a backbone cable (bus).
• When a computer wants to send a message over the network,
it puts a message over the network.
• All the stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has been addressed or not.
• A bus topology is commonly used in LAN(802.3 (ethernet)
and 802.4 standard networks)
• In a bus network the failure of a single computer does not
effect the performance of the rest of the network.
• The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as
compared to other topologies.
• The most common access method of the bus topologies is
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).
Star Topology
• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every
computer device is connected to the central hub, switch or a
central computer.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral
devices attached to the server are known as clients.
• In a star networks all messages must go through the server.
• When we want to send message from one computer to another,
It is first send to the server which then retract the massage to
the distention computer.
• The disadvantage of star network is the if the server fails the
entire network doesn’t work a good e.g. of star network is
telephone switching computer in the telephone exchange
which is used to connect computers as well as telephones.
Ring Topology
• In ring topology, each host machine(computer) connects to
exactly two other machines, creating a circular network
structure.
• When one host tries to communicate or send message to a
host which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all
intermediate hosts.
• Each message consists of its distension address and the data
to be transmitted as the message proceeds around the ring
each computer determines whether it is the recipient of the
message.
• If it is not the message is send to the next computer.
• Each station takes an active role in transferring the message.
• Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring.
Mesh Topology
• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which
computers are interconnected with each other through various
redundant connections.
• There are multiple paths from one computer to another
computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer
which acts as a central point of communication.
• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
• Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
 Device 1

Device 5 Device 2

Device 4 Device 3
Hybrid topology
• The combination of various different topologies is known as
Hybrid topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links
and nodes to transfer the data.
• When two or more different topologies are combined
together is termed as Hybrid topology and if similar
topologies are connected with each other will not result in
Hybrid topology.
Categories of Networks
Personal Area Network (PAN)
• The interconnection of devices within the range of an
individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
• For example, a wireless network connecting a computer
with its keyboard, mouse or printer is a PAN.
• Another example of PAN is a Bluetooth.
• Typically, this kind of network could also be interconnected
without wires to the Internet or other networks.
Local Area Network (LAN)
• Privately-owned networks covering a small geographic area, like
a home, office, building or group of buildings (e.g. campus).
• They are widely used to connect computers in company offices
and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange
information.
• LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case
transmission time is bounded and known in advance.
• Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of
designs that would not otherwise be possible.
• It also simplifies network management.
• Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have
low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and make very few
errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Covers a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from
several blocks of buildings to entire cities.
• MANs can also depend on communications channels of
moderate-to-high data rates.
• A MAN might be owned and operated by a single
organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals
and organizations.
• MANs might also be owned and operated as public utilities.
• They will often provide means for internetworking of
LANs.
• Metropolitan Area Networks can span up to 50km, devices
used are modem and wire/cable.
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
• Computer network that covers a large geographical area,
often a country or continent. (any network whose
communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or
national boundaries).
• A WAN network will have a larger coverage area that can
range up to 100,000 KM and in some cases, stretches
globally or over international borders.
• Less formally, a network that uses routers and public
communications links.
 Internetworks
• Many networks exist in the world, often with different
hardware and software.
• People connected to one network often want to
communicate with people attached to a different one.
• The fulfillment of this desire requires that different, and
frequently incompatible, networks be connected.
• A collection of interconnected networks is called an
internetwork or internet.
• These terms will be used in a generic sense, in contrast to
the worldwide Internet (which is one specific internet),
• The Internet uses ISP networks to connect enterprise
networks, home networks, and many other networks.
• Subnets, networks, and internetworks are often confused.
• The term ‘‘subnet’’ makes the most sense in the context of a
wide area network, where it refers to the collection of
routers and communication lines owned by the network
operator.
• As an analogy, the telephone system consists of telephone
switching offices connected to one another by high-speed
lines, and to houses and businesses by low-speed
• lines.
• These lines and equipment, owned and managed by the
telephone company, form the subnet of the telephone
system.
• The telephones themselves (the hosts in this analogy) are
not part of the subnet.
• A network is formed by the combination of a subnet and its
hosts.
• However, the word ‘‘network’’ is often used in a loose sense
as well.
• A subnet might be described as a network, as in the case of
the ‘‘ISP network’’.
• An internetwork might also be described as a network, as in
the case of the WAN.
• We will follow similar practice, and if we are distinguishing
a network from other arrangements, we will stick with our
original definition of a collection of computers
interconnected by a single technology.
 Network Software
Protocols and Standards
• We define two widely used terms: Protocols and Standards.
• First, we define protocol, which is synonymous with rule.
• Then we discuss standards, which are agreed-upon rules.

Protocol:
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
• A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated.
The key elements of a protocol are
• Syntax
• Semantics
• Timing.
Syntax:
• The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data,
meaning the order in which they are presented.
• For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of
data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the
address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the
message itself.
Semantics:
• The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of
bits.
• How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action
is to be taken based on that interpretation? For example, does
an address identify the route to be taken or the final
destination of the message?
Timing:
• The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data
should be sent and how fast they can be sent.
• For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the
receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission
will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.
Standards
• Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and
competitive market for equipment manufacturers and in
guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data
and telecommunications technology and processes.
• Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,
government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the
kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and
in international communications.
• Data communication standards fall into two categories:
De facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention")
De jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation")
De facto standard : (meaning "by fact" or "by convention")
• These are the standard s that have not been approved by any
Organization, but have been adopted as Standards because
of it’s widespread use. Also , sometimes these standards are
often established by Manufacturers.
• For example : Apple and Google are two companies
which established their own rules on their products which
are different. Also they use some same standard rules for
manufacturing for their products.
De jure standard: (meaning "by law" or "by regulation")
• Thus , these are the standards that have been approved by
officially recognized body like ANSI , ISO , IEEE etc.
These are the standard which are important to follow if it is
required or needed.
• For example : All the data communication
standard protocols like SMTP , TCP , IP , UDP etc. are
important to follow the same when we needed them.
Standards Organizations:
Standards are developed through the cooperation of
• Standards creation committees
• Forums
• Government regulatory agencies
Standards creation committees:
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication
Standards Sector (ITU-T).
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
Connection-Oriented Versus Connectionless Service:
• Layers can offer two different types of service to the layers
above them: connection- oriented and connectionless.
• In this section we will look at these two types and examine
the differences between them.
Connection-oriented service :
• Connection-oriented service is modeled after the telephone
system. To talk to someone, you pick up the phone, dial the
number, talk, and then hang up.
• Similarly, to use a connection-oriented network service, the
service user first establishes a connection, uses the
connection, and then releases the connection.
• The essential aspect of a connection is that it acts like a
tube: the sender pushes objects (bits) in at one end, and the
receiver takes them out at the other end.
• In most cases the order is preserved so that the bits arrive in
the order they were sent.
• In some cases when a connection is established, the sender,
receiver, and subnet conduct a negotiation about the
parameters to be used, such as maximum message size,
quality of service required, and other issues.
• Typically, one side makes a proposal and the other side can
accept it, reject it, or make a counterproposal.
• A circuit is another name for a connection with associated
resources, such as a fixed bandwidth.
• This dates from the telephone network in which a circuit
was a path over copper wire that carried a phone
conversation.
 Connectionless service
• In contrast to connection-oriented service, connectionless
service is modeled after the postal system.
• Each message (letter) carries the full destination address,
and each one is routed through the intermediate nodes
inside the system independent of all the subsequent
messages.
• There are different names for messages in different
contexts; a packet is a message at the network layer.
• When the intermediate nodes receive a message in full
before sending it on to the next node, this is called store-
and-forward switching.
 Reference Models
• We will discuss two important network architectures:
• The OSI reference model
• The TCP/IP reference model
• Although the protocols associated with the OSI model are not
used any more, the model itself is actually quite general and
still valid, and the features discussed at each layer are still
very important.
• The TCP/IP model has the opposite properties: the model
itself is not of much use but the protocols are widely used.
• For this reason we will look at both of them in detail.
• Also, sometimes you can learn more from failures than from
successes.
OSI Reference model :
• Established in 1947,
• The International Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model.
• It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
• The OSI model has seven layers.
• The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers
can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is
needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye
toward defining internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the
information flow across the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct
functions need not be thrown together in the same layer
out of necessity and small enough that the architecture
does not become unwieldy.
Seven layers of the OSI model
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model
Summary of layers
 Physical Layer
The Physical layer is responsible for movements of individual
bits from one hop (node) to the next.

• The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry

a bit stream over a physical medium.
• It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the
interface and transmission medium.
• It also defines the procedures and functions that physical
devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission to
Occur.
Physical Layer
Functions of Physical Layer are:
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
• Representation of bits
• Data rate
• Synchronization of bits
• Line configuration
The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium:
• The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface
between the devices and the transmission medium. It also
defines the type of transmission medium.
Representation of bits:
• The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence
of Os or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits
must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical.
• The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how Os and
I s are changed to signals).
Data rate:
• The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is
also defined by the physical layer. In other words, the physical
layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long it lasts.
Synchronization of bits:
• The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but
also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the
sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
Line configuration:
• The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices
to the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are
connected through a dedicated link.
• In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several
devices.
Physical topology:
• The physical topology defines how devices are connected to
make a network.
• Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology, star
topology, ring topology, bus topology and hybrid topology.
Transmission mode:
• The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission
between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
 Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is responsible for moving frames from

one hop (node) to the next.

• The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw

transmission facility, to a reliable link.
• It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper
layer (network layer).
Data Link Layer
Functions of Data link layer are:
• Framing
• Physical addressing
• Flow control
• Error control
• Access control
Responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
Framing:
• The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from
the network layer into manageable data units called frames.
Physical addressing:
• If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to
define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.
• If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's
network, the receiver address is the address of the device
that connects the network to the next one.
Flow control:
• If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less
than the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data
link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.
Error control:
• The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames.
• It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error
control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end
of the frame.
Access control:
• When two or more devices are connected to the same link,
data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which
device has control over the link at any given time.
Hop-to-hop delivery
 Network Layer
The Network Layer is responsible for the delivery of individual
packets from the source host to the destination host.
• The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks (links).
• Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet
between two systems on the same network (links), the network
layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its
final destination.
• If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually
no need for a network layer.
• However, if the two systems are attached to different networks
(links) with connecting devices between the networks (links),
there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish
source-to-destination delivery.
Network Layer
Functions of Network Layer are:
• Logical addressing
• Routing
Responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
Logical addressing:
• The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer
handles the addressing problem locally.
• If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and
destination systems.
• The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the
upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical
addresses of the sender and receiver.
Routing:
• When independent networks or links are connected to create
internetworks (network of networks) or a large network, the
connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch
the packets to their final destination. One of the functions of
the network layer is to provide this mechanism.
Source-to-destination delivery
 Transport layer
The Transport Layer is responsible for the delivery of a message
from one process to another.
• The Transport layer is responsible for process-to-process
delivery of the entire message.
• A process is an application program running on a host. Whereas
the network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of
individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship
between those packets.
• It treats each one independently, as though each piece belonged
to a separate message, whether or not it does.
• The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error
control and flow control at the source-to-destination level.
Transport layer:
Functions of Transport layer are:
• Service-point addressing
• Segmentation and reassembly
• Connection control
• Flow Control
• Error Control
Responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
Service-point addressing:
• Computers often run several programs at the same time. For
this reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not
only from one computer to the next but also from a specific
process (running program) on one computer to a specific
process (running program) on the other.
• The transport layer header must therefore include a type of
address called a service-point address (or port address).
• The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer;
the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct
process on that computer.
Segmentation and reassembly:
• A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number.
• These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the
message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to
identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
Connection control:
• The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection
oriented.
• A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an
independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the
destination machine.
• A connection oriented transport layer makes a connection with
the transport layer at the destination machine first before
delivering the packets.
• After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
Flow Control:
• Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for
flow control. However, flow control at this layer is performed
end to end rather than across a single link.
Error Control:
• Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for
error control.
• However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-
process rather than across a single link.
• The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message
arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage,
loss, or duplication).
• Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
 Session Layer
The Session Layer is responsible for dialog control and
synchronization.
• The services provided by the first three layers (physical,
data link, and network) are not sufficient for some
processes.
• The session layer is the network dialog controller.
• It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction
among communicating systems.
Session Layer
Functions of Session Layer are:
• Dialog control
• Synchronization
Responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
Dialog control:
• The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog.
• It allows the communication between two processes to take
place in either half duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex
(two ways at a time) mode.
Synchronization:
• The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points, to a stream of data.
• For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is
advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure
that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged
independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the
transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be resent
after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to
501 need not be resent.
 Presentation Layer

The Presentation Layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and

semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems.
Functions of Presentation Layer are:
• Translation
• Encryption
• Compression
Translation:
• The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually
exchanging information in the form of character strings,
numbers, and so on.
• The information must be changed to bit streams before being
transmitted.
• Because different computers use different encoding systems,
the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between these different encoding methods.
• The presentation layer at the sender changes the information
from its sender-dependent format into a common format.
• The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the
common format into its receiver-dependent format
Encryption:
• To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to
ensure privacy.
• Encryption means that the sender transforms the original
information to another form and sends the resulting message
out over the network.
• Decryption reverses the original process to transform the
message back to its original form.
Compression:
• Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in
the information.
• Data compression becomes particularly important in the
transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
 Application Layer
The application layer is responsible for providing services
to the user.
• The application layer enables the user, whether human or
software, to access the network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information
services.
Application Layer
Functions of Application Layer are:
• Network Virtual Terminal
• File Transfer, Access, and Management
• Mail Services
• Directory Services
Specific services provided by the application layer include the
following:
Network Virtual Terminal:
• A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical
terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host.
• To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a
terminal at the remote host.
• The user's computer talks to the software terminal which, in
turn, talks to the host, and vice versa.
• The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its
own terminals and allows the user to log on.
File Transfer, Access, and Management:
• This application allows a user to access files in a remote host (to
make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote
computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or
control files in a remote computer locally.
Mail Services:
• This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and
storage.
Directory Services:
• This application provides distributed database sources and
access for global information about various objects and services.
 Transport Layer

Network Layer

Packet

Data Link Layer

Frame
 The TCP/IP Reference Model
(Transmission Control Protocol /Internet Protocol)
• The TCPI/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI
model.
• The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical
model.
• It was designed to describe the functions of the
communication system by dividing the communication
procedure into smaller and simpler components.
• But when we talk about the TCP/IP model, it was designed
and developed by Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and
is based on standard protocols.
• It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model.
• It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI
model. The layers are:
• Host-to- Network Layer
• Internet Layer
• Transport Layer
• Application Layer
The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are:
Host-to- Network Layer :
• It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the physical
transmission of data.
• TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol here but
supports all the standard protocols.

Internet Layer :
• It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over
the network.
• The main protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and
it is supported by the protocols ICMP, IGMP, RARP, and
ARP.
Transport Layer :
• It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data.
• The protocols defined here are Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

Application Layer :
• This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host
programs with the transport layer services.
• This layer includes all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS,
HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.
Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models
 Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

OSI TCP/IP
OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control
Interconnection. Protocol/Internet Protocol
It is a generic, protocol independent
This is a protocol-dependent model that
standard that serves as a communication
allows the connection of hosts over a
gateway between the network and the
network.
end-user.

It is less reliable. TCP/IP is more reliable.

Protocols are easy to replace. Protocols are not easy to replace.

It offers standardization to different It provides a connection between

hardware devices, such as routers and various computers but does not provide
switches. standardization to hardware devices.
 OSI TCP/IP
Follows a vertical approach. Follows a horizontal approach.
The data link and physical layers are
The data link layer and physical are
combined as a single host-to-network
separate.
layer.
In the OSI model, the network layer
In this model, the network layer
provides connection-oriented and
provides only connectionless service.
connectionless services.
The transport layer in this model does
The transport layer provides a guarantee
not provide assurance delivery of
for the delivery of packets.
packets.
The session and presentation layers are
The session and presentation layers are
not segregated and are included in the
separate.
application layer.

The minimum header size is 5 bytes. The minimum header size is 20 bytes.
 Addressing
• Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing
the TCP/IP protocols: Physical, Logical, Port, and Specific

Addresses in TCP/IP
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
 Physical addresses

In Figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a

node with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected
by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure shows, the
computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the
computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.
Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address
written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal
digits) is separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

2.121
 IP addresses

Figure shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting

three LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a pair of
addresses (logical and physical) for each connection. In this case,
each computer is connected to only one link and therefore has
only one pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each router
has three pairs of addresses, one for each connection.

2.122
IP addresses

2.123
 Port Address

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three processes at this
time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving computer is
running two processes at this time with port addresses j and k.
Process a in the sending computer needs to communicate with
process j in the receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port addresses
remain the same from the source to destination.

2.124
A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal
number as shown.

753
A 16-bit port address represented
as one single number.

2.126
 Example Networks
• The Internet
• The ARPANET
• NSFNET

• Connection-Oriented Networks
• X.25
• Frame Relay
• ATM

• Ethernet

• Wireless LANs
• 802.11
ARPANET
• ARPANET, in full Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network, experimental computer network that was the
forerunner of the Internet.
• The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), an arm
of the U.S. Defense Department, funded the development of
the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET) in the late 1960s.
• Its initial purpose was to link computers at Pentagon-funded
research institutions over telephone lines.
NSFNET
• (National Science Foundation NETwork) The network
funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation, which
linked five supercomputer sites across the country in the
mid-1980s.
• Universities were also allowed to connect. In 1988, NSFnet
was upgraded from its original 56 Kbps lines to T1 circuits.
• By the early 1990s, it was using a T3 line that served as the
primary Internet backbone until 1995, when the Net became
commercialized.
Ethernet
• Ethernet is a family of wired computer networking
technologies commonly used in local area networks (LAN),
metropolitan area networks(MAN) and wide area networks
(WAN).
• It was commercially introduced in 1980 and first
standardized in 1983 as IEEE 802.3.
• Ethernet has since been refined to support higher bit rates,
a greater number of nodes, and longer link distances.
 Connection-Oriented Networks
X.25
• X.25 is a protocol suite defined by ITU-T for packet switched
communications over WAN (Wide Area Network).
• It was originally designed for use in the 1970s and became
very popular in 1980s.
• Presently, it is used for networks for ATMs and credit card
verification. It allows multiple logical channels to use the
same physical line.
• It also permits data exchange between terminals with different
communication speeds.
• X.25 has three protocol layers.
• Physical layer, Data link layer, Network layer
Frame relay
• Frame relay is a type of telecommunications technology
that can be used to connect local area networks (LANs) and
to transmit data between endpoints in wide area networks
(WANs).
• Frame relay uses packet switching technology This means
that it breaks data, such as call data, into smaller packets,
also known as frames, to transmit it through a shared frame
relay network.
• These data packets are then reassembled at the data’s
destination.
• Frame relay has long been used as part of many companies’
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) systems.
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
• Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a switching
technique used by telecommunication networks that uses
asynchronous time-division multiplexing to encode data
into small, fixed-sized cells.
• This is different from Ethernet or internet, which use
variable packet sizes for data or frames.
• ATM is the core protocol used over the synchronous optical
network (SONET) backbone of the integrated digital
services network (ISDN).
 Wireless LANs

802.11
• 802.11 and 802.11x refers to a family of specifications
developed by the IEEE for wireless LAN (WLAN)
technology.
• 802.11 specifies an over-the-air interface between a wireless
client and a base station or between two wireless clients.
The IEEE accepted the specification in 1997.
Physical Layer
 Wired Communication

Guided Transmission media

• Magnetic Media
• Twisted Pair
• Coaxial Cable
• Fiber Optics
Guided Transmission media
Magnetic Media
• One of the most convenient way to transfer data from one
computer to another, even before the birth of networking,
was to save it on some storage media and transfer physical
from one station to another.
• Though it may seem old-fashion way in today’s world of
high speed internet, but when the size of data is huge, the
magnetic media comes into play.
• For example, a bank has to handle and transfer huge data of
its customer, which stores a backup of it at some
geographically far-away place for security reasons and to
keep it from uncertain calamities. If the bank needs to store
its huge backup data then its, transfer through internet is not
feasible.
• The WAN links may not support such high speed.
• Even if they do; the cost too high to afford.
• In these cases, data backup is stored onto magnetic tapes or
magnetic discs, and then shifted physically at remote places.
Twisted Pair Cable
• A twisted pair cable is made of two plastic insulated copper
wires twisted together to form a single media.
• Out of these two wires, only one carries actual signal and
another is used for ground reference.
• The twists between wires are helpful in reducing noise
(electro-magnetic interference) and crosstalk.
• There are two types of twisted pair cables:
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in
the center and it is made of solid conductor.
• The core is enclosed in an insulating sheath. The second
wire is wrapped around over the sheath and that too in turn
encased by insulator sheath.
• This all is covered by plastic cover.
• Because of its structure, the coax cable is capable of
carrying high frequency signals than that of twisted pair
cable. The wrapped structure provides it a good shield
against noise and cross talk.
• Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of up to 450
mbps.
Fiber Optics
• Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. When light ray
hits at critical angle it tends to refracts at 90 degree. This
property has been used in fiber optic.
• The core of fiber optic cable is made of high quality glass or
plastic. From one end of it light is emitted, it travels through
it and at the other end light detector detects light stream and
converts it to electric data.
• Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in
two modes, one is single mode fiber and second is
multimode fiber.
• Single mode fiber can carry a single ray of light whereas
multimode is capable of carrying multiple beams of light.
 Wireless Transmission
• Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media.
• Wireless communication involves no physical link
established between two or more devices, communicating
wirelessly.
• Wireless signals are spread over in the air and are received
and interpreted by appropriate antennas.
• When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a
computer or wireless device, it converts the digital data into
wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency
range.
• The receptor on the other end receives these signals and
converts them back to digital data.
Unguided Transmission media
• Radio Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Infrared Transmission
• Light Transmission
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Propagation methods
Bands
Radio Transmission
• Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large
wavelength it can penetrate through walls and structures like.
• Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm – 100,000 km
and have frequency ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely Low
Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely High Frequency).
• Radio frequencies are sub-divided into six bands.
• Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls
whereas higher RF can travel in straight line and bounce back.
• The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they
cover long distance. High frequency radio waves have more
power.
• Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, MF bands can travel on
the ground up to 1000 kilometers, over the earth’s surface.
• Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed
by rain and other obstacles.
• They use Ionosphere of earth atmosphere.
• High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands are
spread upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are
refracted back to the earth.
• Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such
as radio and television, and paging systems.
• They can penetrate through walls.
• Highly regulated. Use omni directional antennas
Microwave Transmission
• Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a
straight line and signals over them can be sent by beaming
those waves towards one particular station.
• Because Microwaves travels in straight lines, both sender
and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight.
• Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm – 1
meter and frequency ranging from 300 MHz to 300 GHz.
• Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a
beam of it.
• Multiple antennas can be aligned to reach farther.
• Microwaves have higher frequencies and do not penetrate
wall like obstacles.
• Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather
conditions and the frequency it is using.
Infrared Transmission
• Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and
microwaves.
• It has wavelength of 700-nm to 1-mm and frequency ranges
from 300-GHz to 430-THz.
• Infrared wave is used for very short range communication
purposes such as television and it’s remote.
• Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by
nature.
• Because of high frequency range, Infrared cannot cross
wall-like obstacles.
Light Transmission
• Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used
for data transmission is light or optical signaling.
• This is achieved by means of LASER.
• Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in
straight line.
• Hence the sender and receiver must be in the line-of-sight.
• Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at both ends of
communication the laser and the photo-detector needs to be
installed.
• Laser beam is generally 1mm wide hence it is a work of
precision to align two far receptors each pointing to lasers
source.
Laser works as Tx (Transmitter)
and photo-detectors works as Rx (Receiver).
• Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and
thick fog.
• Additionally, laser beam is distorted by wind, atmosphere
temperature, or variation in temperature in the path.
• Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to
tap 1mm wide laser without interrupting the communication
channel.
 Satellite Communication
• Satellite communication is transporting information from
one place to another using a communication satellite in orbit
around the Earth.
• A communication satellite is an artificial satellite that
transmits the signal via a transponder by creating a channel
between the transmitter and the receiver at different Earth
locations.
• Telephone, radio, television, internet, and military
applications use satellite communications.
• More than 2000 artificial satellites are hurtling around in
space above your heads.
How Satellite Communications Work?
• The communication satellites are similar to the space
mirrors that help us bounce signals such as radio, internet
data, and television from one side of the earth to another.
• Three stages are involved, which explain the working of
satellite communications. These are:
• Uplink
• Transponders
• Downlink
• Let’s consider an example of signals from a television.
• In the first stage, the signal from the television broadcast on the
other side of the earth is first beamed up to the satellite from the
ground station on the earth. This process is known as uplink.
• The second stage involves transponders such as radio receivers,
amplifiers, and transmitters.
• These transponders boost the incoming signal and change its
frequency so that the outgoing signals are not altered.
• Depending on the incoming signal sources, the transponders vary.
• The final stage involves a downlink in which the data is sent to
the other end of the receiver on the earth.
• It is important to understand that usually, there is one uplink and
multiple downlinks.
Communication satellites are broadly categorized into three types
depending upon the orbit in which they are placed.

Geostationary Satellite (GEO) :

• They are at 36,000 km from the earth’s surface. They have same
orbital period as earth’s rotation. So they appear to be still in the
sky. At least 3 GEOs are needed for global coverage.

Medium Earth Orbit Satellite (MEO):

• They are placed between the two Van Allen belts, at a distance
between 2,000 km to 36,000 km from the earth’s surface. At least
10 MEOs are needed for global coverage.

Low Earth Orbit Satellite (LEO):

• They are situated below the Lower Van Allen belt. Their orbital
altitude is 160 km to 2000 km. For global coverage, as high as 50
LEOs are required.
 Digital Modulation and Multiplexing

Modulation
• Modulation is the process of transforming a carrier signal so
that it can carry the information of a message signal.
• It superimposes the contents of the message signal over a
high-frequency carrier signal, which is then transmitted
over communication channels.
• Modulation can be of two types
• Analog Modulation
• Digital Modulation
Analog Modulation
• Here, the analog information signal is transformed to the
analog carrier signal so that it can travel large distances
without substantial loss.
• Analog modulation can be of three types
• Amplitude Modulation
• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
Digital Modulation
• Digital modulation is the process of converting a digital bit
stream into an analog carrier wave for transmission via a
communication channel.
• Digital modulation is broadly divided into two into two groups
depending on the range of frequencies they use to transmit
information.
• BASEBAND and PASSBAND
• Baseband transmission sends the information signal as it is
without modulation (without frequency shifting) while
passband transmission shifts the signal to be transmitted in
frequency to a higher frequency and then transmits it, where at
the receiver the signal is shifted back to its
original frequency.
BASEBAND
PASSBAND
 Multiplexing
What is Multiplexing?
• Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the
multiple data streams over a single medium.
• The process of combining the data streams is known as
multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is known
as a multiplexer.
• Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer
(MUX) that combines n input lines to generate a single output
line.
• Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one
output line.
• Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called
Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving end.
• DEMUX separates a signal into its component signals (one input
and n outputs).
• Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing follows the
one-to-many approach.
Dividing a link into channels
 Categories of multiplexing

• Frequency-Division Multiplexing
• Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
• Time-Division Multiplexing
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

• FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines

analog signals.
• Multiplexing process:
• Demultiplexing Process:
 Wavelength-division multiplexing (FDM)
• WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine
optical signals.
Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

• TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several

low-rate digital channels into one high-rate one.
 Mobile Telephone System

• Simply, the "G" stands for "GENERATION".

• While connected to the internet, the speed of the connection
depends upon the signal strength that is shown in abbreviations
like 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G, etc. on any mobile device.
• Each generation of wireless broadband is defined as a set of
telephone network standards that describe the technological
implementation of the system.
First-Generation(1G):
• 1G refers to the first-generation of wireless telephone
technology, mobile telecommunications.
• These are the analog telecommunications standards that were
introduced in the 1980s and continued until being replaced by
2G digital telecommunications.
• The main difference between two succeeding mobile telephone
systems, 1G and 2G is that the radio signals that 1G networks
use are analog, while 2G networks are digital.
Second-Generation(2G):
• 2G is short for second-generation wireless telephone
technology.
• Second generation 2G cellular telecom networks were
commercially launched on the GSM standard in Finland by
Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991.
• 2G technologies enabled the various mobile phone networks to
provide the services such as text messages, picture messages
and MMS (multi media messages).
• All text messages sent over 2G are digitally encrypted,
allowing for the transfer of data in such a way that only the
intended receiver can receive and read it.
Third-Generation(3G):
• 3G stands for third-generation and refers to technology that
allows mobile phones to access the internet – from surfing web
pages to making video calls and downloading music.
• 3G telecommunication networks support services that provide
an information transfer rate of at least 200 kbit/s.
• 3G finds application in wireless voice telephony, mobile
Internet access, fixed wireless Internet access, video calls and
mobile TV.
• General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a packet oriented
mobile data service on the 2G and 3G cellular communication
system’s global system for mobile communications (GSM).
Fourth-Generation(4G):
• 4G is the fourth generation of mobile phone mobile
communication technology standards.
• It is a successor to the third generation (3G) standards.
• A 4G system provides mobile ultra-broadband Internet access.
• Conceivable applications include amended mobile web access,
IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video
conferencing, 3D television, and cloud computing.
Fifth-Generation(5G):
• 5G (5th generation mobile networks or 5th generation wireless
systems) projects to denote the next major phase of mobile
telecommunications standards beyond the current 4G/IMT-
Advanced standards. (Information Management Technology)
• 5G is Up to 100 times faster than 4G, 5G is creating never-
before-seen opportunities for people and businesses.
• Faster connectivity speeds, ultra-low latency and greater
bandwidth is advancing societies, transforming industries and
dramatically enhancing day-to-day experiences.
• Services that we used to see as futuristic, such as e-health,
connected vehicles and traffic systems and advanced mobile
cloud gaming have arrived.
• With 5G technology, we can help create a smarter, safer and
more sustainable future.