UNIT I-PHYSICAL LAYER

Motivation-Goals of networking-Need for a layered architecture, Network hardware-Network

software -Reference models - Network standardization, RS-232 over serial line - Guided
Transmission media - Wireless transmission media

Motivation:

Technologies related to data communication and networking may be the fastest growing in our
culture today. The appearance of some new social networking applications every year is a testimony to
this claim. People use the Internet more and more every day. They use the Internet for research, shopping,
airline reservations, checking the latest news and weather, and so on. In this Internet-oriented society,
specialists need be trained to run and manage the Internet, part of the Internet, or an organization’s
network that is connected to the Internet.

Data communications and networking have changed the way we do business and the way we live.
Business decisions have to be made ever more quickly, and the decision makers require immediate access
to accurate information. Why wait a week for that report from Europe to arrive by mail when it could
appear almost instantaneously through computer networks? Businesses today rely on computer networks
and internetworks. Data communication and networking have found their way not only through business
and personal communication, they have found many applications in political and social issues. People
have found how to communicate with other people in the world to express their social and political
opinions and problems. Communities in the world are not isolated anymore.

Goals of Networking:

The main goals of computer networks are as follows −

 Resource Sharing
The main goal of the computer network is Resource Sharing. It is to create all the programs, data and
hardware accessible to anyone on the network without considering the resource’s physical area and the
client.
 Saving Money
The second goal of a computer network is saving money. Small computers have a much excellent value
proportion than higher ones. Mainframes are approximately a method ten times quicker than the quickest
single-chip microprocessors, but they cost a huge number of times more.
This imbalance has made numerous system designers build systems, including dynamic personal
computers, one per customer, with data kept on at least one shared document server machines. This
objective prompts networks for specific computers situated in a similar building, including a network is
known as LAN (Local Area Network).
 High Reliability
The third goal is to support high reliability by acquiring a different authority of supply. For example, all
files can be recreated on a few machines, and thus if one of them is nonexistent, the additional copies
could be available.
 Improve Performance
The fourth goal of a computer network is to improve accessibility and the performance of the system. A
system’s performance can be improved by inserting one or more processors into it as its workload grows.
For example, if the system is full, replacing it with a larger one at a large expense, it is better to add more
processors to it at less cost and less disruption to the user. This improves both accessibilities as well as
the performance of a system.
 Communication Medium
The fifth goal of the computer network offers a powerful communication medium. The different user on
the network can immediately identify a document that has been refreshed on a network.
Need for a layered architecture:

Introduction to Networks

Data Communications:

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form oftransmission
medium such as a wire cable.

1. Characteristics:

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:

a. Delivery:

The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended device or
user and only by that device or user.

b. Accuracy:

The system must deliver data accurately.

c. Timeliness:
The system must deliver data in a timely manner. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means
delivering the data as they are produced. In the same order, that they are produced, and without significant
delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.

d. Jitter:

Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or
video packet.

2. Components:

A data communication system has five components.

a. Message:

The message is the information to be communicated. Popular forms of information include text, numbers,
pictures audio and video.

b. Sender:

The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.

c. Receiver:

The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset,
television and so on.

d. Transmission medium:

The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Ex.
Twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable and radio waves.

e. Protocol:

A protocol is the set of rules that governs data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices.
3. Data Representation:

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and Video.

a. Text:

Text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or 1s). Different sets of bit patterns have been
designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is
called coding.

b. Numbers:

Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. The number is directly converted to a binary number to
simplify mathematical operations.

c. Images:

Images are also represented by bit patterns. An image is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture
elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends on the resolution.

d. Audio:

Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. It is continuous, not discrete.

e. Video:
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be produced as a
continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a discrete entity,
arranged to convey the idea of motion.

4. Data Flow:

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

a. Simplex:

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure 1.2a). Keyboards and traditional
monitors are examples of simplex devices.

b. Half-Duplex:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (see Figure 1.2b). Walkie-talkies and CB
(citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.

c. Full-Duplex:

In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (see
Figure 1.2c). One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.

Networks:

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can
be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network.

1. Distributed Processing:

Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers. Instead
of one single large machine being respons ible for all aspects of process, separate computers (usually a
personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.

2. Network Criteria:

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.

a. Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit timeand response time.

Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response
time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.

The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of
transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
b. Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by thefrequency of
failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a disaster.

c. Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,protecting data
from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches
and data losses.

3. Physical Structures:

Type of Connection: A network is two or more devices connected through links. A linkis a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.

There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

a. Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between twodevices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices (see Figure 1.3a).

b. Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more thantwo specific
devices share a single link (see Figure 1.3b). In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is
shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially
shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
Physical Topology:

The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Two or more
devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.

There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring (see Figure 1.4)

a. Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every otherdevice. A
fully connected mesh network with n nodes has n(n -1) /2 physical channels.

To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n – 1 input/output (I/O) ports
(see Figure 1.5) to be connected to the other n – 1 stations.

Advantages:

1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire
system.

3. Privacy or security.

4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.

Disadvantages:

1. Every device must be connected to every other device, installation and reconnection are difficult.

2. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors)
can accommodate.

3. The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively expensive.

One practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of telephone regional offices in which each
regional office needs to be connected to every other regional office.

b. Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to acentral
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh
topology, A star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an
exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays
the data to the other connected device (see Figure 1.6).

Advantages:
1. Less expensive than a mesh topology.

2. Easy to install and reconfigure.

3. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one
connection: between that device and the hub.

4. It includes Robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain active.

Disadvantages:

1. It is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the
whole system is dead.

2. A star requires far less cable than a mesh; each node must be linked to a central hub. For this
reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).

The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs). High-speed LANs often use a star topology
with a central hub.

c. Bus Topology: A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link allthe devices
in a network (see Figure 1.7). Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.

A drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.

A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create
a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed
into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason there
is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.
Advantages:

1. Ease of installation.

2. Less cabling

Disadvantages:

1. Difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation.

2. Difficult to add new devices.

3. Signal reflection at top can degradation in quality.

4. If any fault in backbone can stops all transmission.

Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are less popular now.

d. Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connectionwith only
the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device
receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes along them (see
Figure 1.8).

Advantages:
1. Easy to install.

2. Easy to reconfigure.

3. Fault identification is easy.

Disadvantages:

1. Unidirectional traffic.

2. Break in a single ring can break entire network.

Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses. Today high speed LANs made
this topology less popular.

e. Hybrid Topology: A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topologywith each
branch connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure 1.9.

4. Network models:

Computer networks are created by different entities. Standards are needed so that these heterogeneous
networks can communicate with one another. The two best-known standards are the OSI model and the
Internet model.
 The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model defines a seven-layer network.

 The Internet model defines a five-layer network.

Types of Networks:

Networks are generally referring to two primary categories: local-area networks and wide-area networks.

A LAN normally covers an area less than 2 Meters. A WAN can be worldwide.

Networks of a size in between are normally referred to as metropolitan area networks and span tens of
miles.

a. Local Area Network:

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building,
or campus (see Figure 1.10). Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology used,
a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone's home office; or it can extend throughout a
company and include audio and video peripherals. Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers

LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or workstations. The
resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application program) or
data. LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their transmission media and topology. In
general, a given LAN will use only one type of transmission medium. The most common LAN topologies
are bus, ring, and star. Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second (Mbps) range.
Today, however, speeds are normally 100 or 1000 Mbps.

Wireless LANs are the newest evolution in LAN technology.

b. Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio and video
information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent or even the whole
world. A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up line
that connects a home computer to the Internet. We normally refer to the f irst as a switched WAN and to
the second as a point-to-point WAN (Figure 1.11).
The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a router (internetworking
connecting device) that connects to another LAN or WAN. The point-to-point WAN is normally a line
leased from a telephone or cable TV provider that connects a home computer or a small LAN to an
Internet service provider (lSP). This type of WAN is often used to provide Internet access.

An early example of a switched WAN is X.25, a network designed to provide connectivity between end
users. X.25 is being gradually replaced by a high-speed, more efficient network called Frame Relay. A
good example of a switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network, which is a network
with fixed-size data unit packets called cells. Another example of WANs is the wireless WAN that is
becoming more and more popular.

e. Metropolitan Area Networks:

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a

WAN. It normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for customers who need a high-
speed connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city. A good
example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line
to the customer.
Interconnection of Networks : Interconnect

When two or more networks are connected, they become an internetwork, or internet. As an example,
assume that an organization has two offices, one on the east coast and the other on the west coast. The
established office on the west coast has a bus topology LAN; the newly opened office on the east coast
has a star topology LAN. The president of the company lives somewhere in the middle and needs to have
control over the company from her horne.
To create a backbone WAN for connecting these three entities (two LANs and the president's computer),
a switched WAN (operated by a service provider such as a telecom company) has been leased. To connect
the LANs to this switched WAN, however, three point-to-point WANs are required. These point-to-point
WANs can be a high-speed DSL line offered by a telephone company or a cable modern line offered by a
cable TV provider as shown in Figure 1.12.

Need for a layered architecture:

o Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design process in such a

way that the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and manageable tasks. In short, we can
say that this approach reduces the complexity of the design.
o Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the independence of
layers, which is easier to understand and implement.
o Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in one layer can be
changed without affecting other layers.
o Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and tested individually.

Protocol Layering

Figure 1.14 shows the layers involved when a message is sent from device A to device B. As the
message travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes. These intermediate nodes
usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI Model.

Each layer defines a family of functions distinct from those of the other layers. By defining and
localizing functionality in this fashion, the designers created an architecture that is both comprehensive
and flexible.

2. Peer-to-Peer Processes:

At the physical layer, communication is direct: In Figure 1.14, device A sends a stream of bits to device
B (through intermediate nodes). At the higher layers, however, communication must move down through
the layers on device A, over to device B, and then back up through the layers. Each layer in the sending
device adds its own information to the message it receives from the layer just above it and passes the
whole package to the layer just below it.
At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that can be transmitted to the receiving device. At the
receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each process receiving and removing
the data meant for it. For example, layer 2 removes the data meant for it, and then passes the rest to layer
3. Layer 3 then removes the data meant for it and passes the rest to layer 4, and so on.

3. Interface be tween layers:

The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the sending device and back
up through the layers of the receiving device is made possible by an interface between each pair of
adjacent layers.

4. Organization of the layers:

The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups. Layers I, 2, and 3-physical, data link,
and network-are the network support layers; they deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one
device to another. Layers 5, 6, and 7-session, presentation, and application-can be thought of as the user
support layers; they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems. Layer 4, the transport layer
ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use. The upper
OSI layers are almost always implemented in software; lower layers are a combination of hardware and
software, except for the physical layer, which is mostly hardware.

In Figure 1.15, which gives an overall view of the OSI layers, D7 means the data unit at layer 7, D6
means the data unit at layer 6, and so on. The process starts at layer 7 (the application layer), then moves
from layer to layer in descending, sequential order. At each layer, a header, or possibly a trailer, can be
added to the data unit. Commonly, the trailer is added only at layer 2. When the formatted data unit passes
through the physical layer (layer 1), it is changed into an electromagnetic signal and transported along a
physical link.
5. Encapsulation:

A packet (header and data) at level 7 is encapsulated in a packet at level 6. The whole packet at level 6 is
encapsulated in a packet at level 5, and so on. In other words, the data portion of a packet at level N - 1
carries the whole packet (data and header and maybe trailer) from level N. The concept is called
encapsulation; level N - 1 is not aware of which part of the encapsulated packet is data and which part is
the header or trailer. For level N - 1, the whole packet coming from level N is treated as one integral unit.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

1. Physical and Data Link Layers: 2. Network Layer: 3. Transport Layer: 4. Application Layer:

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP
protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model.

The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport,
and application.

The TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application.
The first four layers provide physical standards, network interfaces, internetworking, and transport
functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model. The three topmost layers in the OSI
model, however, are represented in TCP/IP by a single layer called the application layer (see Figure 1.23).

1. Physical and Data Link Layers :

At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It supports all the
standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a local-area network or a
wide-area network.
2. Network Layer:

At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports the Internetworking
Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.

a. Internetworking Protocol (IP)

The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols. It
is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery service. The term best effort means that
IP provides no error checking or tracking.

b. Address Resolution Protocol

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a physical address. On
a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is identified by a physical or station
address, usually imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). ARP is used to find the physical address
of the node when its Internet address is known.

c. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet address when
it knows only its physical address. It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time
or when a diskless computer is booted.

d. Internet Control Message Protocol

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send
notification of datagram problems back to the sender. ICMP sends query and error reporting messages.

e. Internet Group Message Protocol

The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of
a message to a group of recipients.
3. Transport Layer:

Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP and UDP. IP is a host-
to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one physical device to another. UDP and TCP
are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message from a process (running program) to
another process. A new transport layer protocol, SCTP, has been devised to meet the needs of some newer
applications.

a. User Datagram Protocol

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two standard TCP/IP transport

protocols. It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error control, and
length information to the data from the upper layer.

b. Transmission Control Protocol

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services to applications. TCP
is a reliable stream transport protocol. The term stream, in this context, means connection-oriented: A
connection must be established between both ends of a transmission before either can transmit data.

c. Stream Control Transmission Protocol

The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) provides support for newer applications

such as voice over the Internet. It is a transport layer protocol that combines the best features of UDP and
TCP.

4. Application Layer:

he application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation and application layers
in the OSI model. Many protocols are defined at this layer.

ADDRESSING:

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical (link)
addresses, logical (IP) addresses, port addresses, and specific addresses.
Each address is related to a specific layer in the TCP/IP architecture.

Reference models:

OSI Model:

Network Models:

A network is a combination of hardware and software that sends data from one location to another. The
hardware consists of the physical equipment that carries signals from one point of the network to another.
The software consists of instruction sets that make possible the services that we expect from a network.
Different types of network models are available.

Ex. OSI Model.

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless of
their underlying architecture. The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication
between different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and
software. The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.

The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows communication
between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which
defines a part of the process of moving information across a network (see Figure 1.13).

The OSI Model - Features, Principles and Layers

There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are located over the world. So to ensure,
national and worldwide data communication, systems must be developed which are compatible to
communicate with each other ISO has developed a standard. ISO stands for International organization
of Standardization. This is called a model for Open System Interconnection (OSI) and is commonly
known as OSI model.

The ISO-OSI model is a seven layer architecture. It defines seven layers or levels in a complete
communication system. They are:

1. Application Layer
2. Presentation Layer
3. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Network Layer
6. Datalink Layer
7. Physical Layer
Below we have the complete representation of the OSI model, showcasing all the layers and how they
communicate with each other.

In the table below, we have specified the protocols used and the data unit exchanged by each layer of the
OSI Model.
Feature of OSI Model

1. Big picture of communication over network is understandable through this OSI model.
2. We see how hardware and software work together.
3. We can understand new technologies as they are developed.
4. Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
5. Can be used to compare basic functional relationships on different networks.

Principles of OSI Reference Model

The OSI reference model has 7 layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers can be
briefly summarized as follows:

1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown together
in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that architecture does not become unwieldly.

Functions of Different Layers

Following are the functions performed by each layer of the OSI model. This is just an introduction, we
will cover each layer in details in the coming tutorials.

OSI Model Layer 1: The Physical Layer

1. Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over network.
4. Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
5. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
 6. Data encoding is also done in this layer.

OSI Model Layer 2: Data Link Layer

1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent respectively.
Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this layer.
5. This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame traffic
control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame buffers are full.

OSI Model Layer 3: The Network Layer

1. Network Layer routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
3. It decides by which route data should take.
4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into messages
for higher levels.

OSI Model Layer 4: Transport Layer

1. Transport Layer decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into smaller units and
passes it on to the Network layer.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.

Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more efficiently by the
network layer.

OSI Model Layer 5: The Session Layer

1. Session Layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different applications.
2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are marked and are
resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is
avoided.

OSI Model Layer 6: The Presentation Layer

1. Presentation Layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will understand
the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the application
layer.
3. Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this condition
presentation layer plays a role of translator.
4. It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.
OSI Model Layer 7: Application Layer

1. Application Layer is the topmost layer.

2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this layer. Mail services,
directory services, network resource etc are services provided by application layer.
3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to be sent data.

Merits of OSI reference model

1. OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and protocols.
2. Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
3. Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
4. Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.

Demerits of OSI reference model

1. Model was devised before the invention of protocols.

2. Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
3. It is just used as a reference model.

Network hardware:
Network hardware is defined as a set of physical or network devices that are essential for
interaction and communication between hardware units operational on a computer network.

Network hardware is a set of physical or network devices that are essential for interaction and
communication between hardware units operational on a computer network. These are dedicated
hardware components that connect to each other and enable a network to function effectively and
efficiently.

Network hardware plays a key role as industries grow as it supports scalability. It integrates any number
of components depending on the enterprise’s needs. Network hardware helps establish an effective mode
of communication, thereby improving the business standards. It also promotes multiprocessing and
enables sharing of resources, information, and software with ease.

Network equipment is part of advancements of the Ethernet network protocol and utilizes a twisted pair or
fiber cable as a connection medium. Routers, hubs, switches, and bridges are some examples of network
hardware.

Fundamental devices of a computer network.

 Modems: A modem enables a computer to connect to the internet via a telephone line. The
modem at one end converts the computer’s digital signals into analog signals and sends
them through a telephone line. At the other end, it converts the analog signals to digital
signals that are understandable for another computer.
 Routers: A router connects two or more networks. One common use of the router is to
connect a home or office network (LAN) to the internet (WAN). It generally has a
plugged-in internet cable along with cables that connect computers on the LAN.
 Alternatively, a LAN connection can also be wireless (Wi-Fi-enabled), making the
network device wireless. These are also referred to as wireless access points (WAPs).
 Hubs, bridges, and switches: Hubs, bridges, and switches are connecting units that allow
multiple devices to connect to the router and enable data transfer to all devices on a
network. A router is a complex device with the capabilities of hubs, bridges, and even
switches.
Hubs: A hub broadcasts data to all devices on a network. As a result, it consumes a
lot of bandwidth as many computers might not need to receive the broadcasted data. The
hub could be useful in linking a few gaming consoles in a local multiplayer game via a
wired or wireless LAN.
Bridges: A bridge connects two separate LAN networks. It scans for the receiving
device before sending a message. This implies that it avoids unnecessary data transfers if
the receiving device is not there. Moreover, it also checks to see whether the receiving
device has already received the message. These practices improve the overall performance
of the network.
Switches: A switch is more powerful than a hub or a bridge but performs a similar
role. It stores the MAC addresses of network devices and transfers data packets only to
those devices that have requested Thus, when the demand is high, a switch becomes more
efficient as it reduces the amount of latency.
 Network interface cards: A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware unit installed on a
computer, which allows it to connect to a network. It is typically in the form of a circuit
board or chip. In most modern machines, NICs are built into the motherboards, while in
some computers, an extra expansion card in the form of a small circuit board is added
externally.
 Network cables: Cables connect different devices on a network. Today, most networks
have cables over a wireless connection as they are more secure, i.e., less prone to attacks,
and at the same time carry larger volumes of data per second.
 Firewall: A firewall is a hardware or software device between a computer and the rest of
the network open to attackers or hackers. Thus, a LAN can be protected from hackers by
placing a firewall between the LAN and the internet connection. A firewall allows
authorized connections and data-like emails or web pages to pass through but blocks
unauthorized connections made to a computer or LAN.

Network Software:
Network software is an umbrella term used to describe a wide range of software that streamlines
the operations, design, monitoring, and implementation of computer networks.

Network software is a fundamental element for any networking system. It helps administrators and
security personnel reduce network complexities, and manage, monitor, and better control network traffic.
Network software plays a crucial role in managing a network infrastructure and simplifying IT operations
by facilitating communication, security, content, and data sharing.

Network software offers useful benefits to organizations. It has become an important tool in facilitating
round-the-clock communication and allowing an uninterrupted exchange of information. One of the most
significant advantages of network software is its direct correlation with productivity. The centralized
nature of network software increases the productivity of the complete system. This helps reduce end-user
technical support problems.
For example, if an end user accidentally damages their computer, the chances of losing data are reduced
substantially as all its data is already shared on the network. Another key benefit of network software is
its ability to enable programmatic management of network resources. This eliminates the need for manual
processes, thereby providing a dynamic and efficient network configurat ion to work with.

Functions of network software

 User management allows administrators to add or remove users from the network. This is
particularly useful when hiring or relieving
 File management lets administrators decide the location of data storage and control user
access to that data.
 Access enables users to enjoy uninterrupted access to network resources.
 Network security systems assist administrators in looking after security and preventing
data breaches.

Although, it is important to note that traditional networks were hardware-based and comprised elements
such as routers and switches with embedded software. The decoupling of software from hardware,
called software-defined networking (SDN), works exceptionally well to simplify the management of
infrastructure, making it more adaptable to the constantly evolving course of the tech world. The
introduction of SDN has been a turning point and has completely changed the way networking is done.

Key Components of Network Software

Network software is an advanced, robust, and secure alternative to traditional networking, making the
network easier to administer in terms of management, modifications, configuration, supply resources,
and troubleshooting. The use of network software makes it possible to administer from one centralized
user interface while completely eliminating the need to acquire additional hardware. It offers
administrators the option to customize with greater flexibility to change and define the network speed,
expand network capacity, and look after security.
The main role of network software is to eliminate the dependence on hardware by streamlining
communications across multiple devices, locations, and systems. Not only are they extremely useful for
end-user hardware (laptops, desktops), the addition of software is bound to have a positive effect on the
organization’s everyday functioning and operations.
 Components of Network Software

1. Application layer

The first component is the application layer or the application plane, which refers to the applications and
services running on the network. It is a program that conveys network information, the status of the
network, and the network requirements for particular resource availability and application. This is done
through the control layer via application programming interfaces (APIs). The application layer also
consists of the application logic and one or more API drivers.

2. Control layer

The control layer lies at the center of the architecture and is one of the most important components of
the three layers. You could call it the brain of the whole system. Also called the controller or the control
plane, this layer also includes the network control software and the network operating system within it.
It is the entity in charge of receiving requirements from the applications and translating the same to the
network components. The control of the infrastructure layer or the data plane devices is also done via
the controller. In simple terms, the control layer is the intermediary that facilitates communication
between the top and bottom layers through APIs interfaces.

3. Infrastructure layer

The infrastructure layer, also called the data plane, consists of the actual network devices (both physical
and virtual) that reside in this layer. They are primarily responsible for moving or forwarding the data
packets after receiving due instructions from the control layer. In simple terms, the data plane in the
network architecture components physically handles user traffic based on the commands received by
the controller.

The application program interface (API) ties all three components together. Communication between
these three layers is facilitated through northbound and southbound application program interfaces.
The northbound API ties communication between the application and the control layers, whereas the
southbound API enables communication between the infrastructure and the control layers.

1. Northbound API

Applications communicate to the controller to present the status of the network infrastructure and
request resources based on availability. This communication between the application and the control
layer happens via northbound APIs that help instruct what resources the application requires and routes
them to the destination in question.
Northbound APIs are majorly RESTful APIs. The control layer decides how the applications are allotted
the resources available in the network. Through its automated intelligence, the control layer also finds an
ideal route for the application as per its latency and security.

2. Southbound API

The control layer communicates with the infrastructure layer (routers and switches) via southbound
APIs. The network infrastructure is informed about the route the application data must move on base d
on the configurations made by the controller. The controller can control and change how the routers
and switches move the data.

A major difference between traditional network software architecture and SDN architecture is that the
former’s control and infrastructure layers are integrated. This only allows limited changes to the overall
system as the network devices become an obstruction in the logical network traffic flow. On the other
hand, SDN separates the control layer from the infrastructure layer and centrally integrates the network
intelligence. The centralized and separated operations enable organizations to have greater agility to
manage, monitor, deploy, expand, automate, and troubleshoot the network.

Network Standards
Networking standards define the rules for data communications that are needed for interoperability of
networking technologies and processes. Standards help in creating and maintaining open markets and
allow different vendors to compete on the basis of the quality of their products while being compatible
with existing market products.
During data communication, a number of standards may be used simultaneously at the different layers.
The commonly used standards at each layer are −

 Application layer − HTTP, HTML, POP, H.323, IMAP

 Transport layer − TCP, SPX
 Network layer −IP, IPX
 Data link layer − Ethernet IEEE 802.3, X.25, Frame Relay
 Physical layer −RS-232C (cable), V.92 (modem)

Types of Standards

Standards are of two types

 De facto − These are the standards that are followed without any formal plan or approval by any
organization. They have come into existence due to traditions or facts. For example, the HTTP
had started as a de facto standard.
  De jure − These standards are the ones which have been adopted through legislation by any
officially recognized standards organization. Most of the communication standards that are used
today are de jure standards.

Standards Organizations

Some of the noted standards organizations are

 International Standards Organization (ISO)

 International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
 Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Internet Research Task Force (IETF)
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

Standards help in creating and maintaining open markets and allow different vendors to compete on
the basis of the quality of their products while being compatible with existing market products.

RS-232 over serial line

RS-232 is the name of an interface for the interchange of serial binary data between two devices. Serial means that the data bits
are send one by one after the other. RS-232 was commonly used in computers to connect devices like a
printer or a telephone modem. In computer terminology the RS-232 connector is often referred to as the
"serial port". The RS-232 port is not much used anymore. Connection of devices is nowadays done
through the use of USB.

RS-232 is defined by RETMA, a predecessor of the Electronic Industries Association (EIA). Hence the
name RS, RETMA Standard. RS-232 was initially developed to standardize the connection of computers
with telephone line modems. The standard allows as many as 20 signals to be defined, but gives
complete freedom to the user. Three wires are sufficient: send data, receive data, and signal ground. The
remaining lines can be hardwired on or off permanently.

Common connectors in personal computers use either a 9 pins or a 25 pins connector.

 A 9-pins RS-232 connector. A 25-pins RS-232 connector.

The signals used for the connectors are:

1 8 DCD Data Carrier Detect IN

2 3 RX Received Data IN
3 2 TX Transmitted Data OUT
4 20 DTR Data Terminal Ready OUT
5 7 GND Ground -
6 6 DSR Data Set Ready IN
7 4 RTS Request To Send OUT
8 5 CTS Clear To Send IN
9 22 RI Ring Indicator IN
RS-232 signals

The signal transmission is bipolar, requiring two voltages, from 5 to 25 volts, of opposite polarity.
Voltages above +3 V indicate an "ON" or 0-state condition. This state is also called SPACE. A voltage
below -3 V indicate an "OFF" or 1-state condition. This state is also called MARK. The area between -
3V and +3V is called the "dead area". This area is used to cope with noise on the line.

Modern computer equipment does not use the negative voltages and accepts a zero voltage as the "OFF"
state. In this case the "ON" state is usually pwered by a signal level of +5V. However, this reduces the
transmission distance dramatically.

Physical Layer: Performance

a. Physical Addresses:
The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or
WAN. It is included in the frame used by the data link layer. It is the lowest-level address.

The physical addresses have authority over the network (LAN or WAN). The size and format of these
addresses vary depending on the network. For example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical address
that is imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). LocalTalk (Apple), however, has a I-byte dynamic
address that changes each time the station comes up.

b. Logical Addresses

Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are independent of underlying
physical networks. Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork environment where different
networks can have different address formats. A universal addressing system is needed in which each host
can be identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network.

The logical addresses are designed for this purpose. A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit
address that can uniquely define a host connected to the Internet.
c. Port Addresses:

The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data to travel from a source to the
destination host. However, arrival at the destination host is not the final objective of data communications
on the Internet. A system that sends nothing but data from one computer to another is not complete.
Today, computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the same time. The end objective of
Internet communication is a process communicating with another process. For example, computer A can
communicate with computer C by using TELNET. At the same time, computer A communicates with
computer B by using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). For these processes to receive data simultaneously,
we need a method to label the different processes. In other words, they need addresses. In the TCP/IP
architecture, the label assigned to a process is called a port address. A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in
length.

d. Specific Addresses:

Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific address.

Examples include the e-mail address and the Universal Resource Locator (URL). The first defines the
recipient of an e-mail; the second is used to find a document on the World Wide Web. These addresses,
however, get changed to the corresponding port and logical addresses by the sending computer.

Transmission Media-Guided media:

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair
cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and
contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper)
conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that
accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

1. Twisted-Pair Cable

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together.

One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference.

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-pair
(UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair
(STP). STP cable has a metal foil or braidedmesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors.
Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it
is bulkier and more expensive. Figure 7.4 shows the difference between UTP and STP.
Connectors

The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack), as shown in Figure 1.36. The
RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one way.

Applications

1. Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines.

2. TP used in telephone network.

3. In LAN, TP wires are mainly used for low cost, low performance applications.
2. Coaxial cable:

Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair cable. It has a
central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which
is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer
conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover (see
Figure 1.31).

Coaxial Cable Standards

Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings. Each RG number denotes a
unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and
type of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing. Each
cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNe), connector.
Figure 1.32 shows three popular types of these connectors: the BNC connector, the BNC T connector, and
the BNC terminator. The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as a TV
set. The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a connection to a computer or
other device. The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.

Applications

 Coaxial cable was widely used for both analog and digital data transmission.

 It has higher bandwidth.

 Inexpensive when compared to fiber optical cables.

 It uses for longer distances at higher data rates.

 Excellent noise immunity

 Used in LAN and Television distribution.

3. Fiber-Optic Cable:

A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. Light travels in a
straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance. If a ray of light traveling through
one substance suddenly enters another substance, then the ray changes direction. Figure 1.33 shows how a
ray of light changes direction when going from a denser to a less dense substance.
As the figure shows, if the angle of incidence I (the angle the ray makes with the line perpendicular to the
interface between the two substances) is less than the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves closer to
the surface. If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the light bends along the interface. If
the angle is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn) and travels again in the denser
substance. Note that the critical angle is a property of the substance, and its value differs from one
substance to another.

Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a
cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a
beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it. See
Figure 1.34

Propagation Modes

Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for propagating light along optical
channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics. Multimode can be implemented in
two forms: step-index or graded-index.
a. Multimode:

Multimode beams from a light source move through the core in different paths. How these beams move
within the cable depends on the structure of the core.

In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges. A
beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the
core and the cladding. At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to a lower density; this alters the
angle of the beam's motion. The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which
contributes to the distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber.

A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion of the signal
through the cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction. A graded-index fiber, therefore,
is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to its
lowest at the edge. Figure 1.36 shows the impact of this variable density on the propagation of light
beams.

b. Single-Mode:

Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams to a small range
of angles, all close to the horizontal. The single mode fiber is manufactured with a much smaller
diameter. The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90° to make the
propagation of beams almost horizontal. In this case, propagation of different beams is almost identical,
and delays are negligible.
Fiber Sizes

Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the diameter of their cladding, both
expressed in micrometers. The common sizes are shown in Table 1.2.

Note that the last size listed is for single-mode only.

Cable Composition

The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon. Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to strengthen the
cable. Kevlar is a strong material used in the fabrication of bulletproof vests. Below the Kevlar is another
plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at the center of the cable, and it consists of cladding and
core.

Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors

There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables.

Figure 1.38 Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors

The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses a push/pull locking system. The
straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to networking devices. It uses a bayonet locking
system and is more reliable than SC. MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.

Applications

Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective.
Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we can transfer data at a rate of 1600 Gbps.
Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable, thus creating a hybrid
network. Optical fiber provides the backbone structure while coaxial cable provides the connection to the
user premises. This is a cost-effective configuration since the narrow bandwidth requirement at the user
end does not justify the use of optical fiber. Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast
Ethernet) and 1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable.

Advantages of Optical Fiber:

Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted pair or coaxial).

 Higher bandwidth.

 Less signal attenuation.

 Immunity to electromagnetic interference.

 Resistance to corrosive materials.

 Light weight.

 Greater immunity to tapping.

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber:

There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.

 Installation and maintenance.

 Unidirectional light propagation.

 Cost.

Unguided media:

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Figure 1.39 shows the part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900 THz, used for wireless communication.
Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways: ground propagation, sky
propagation, and line-of-sight propagation, as shown in Figure 1.40

We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups: radio waves, microwaves, and infrared
waves.

1. Radio Waves:
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio
waves; waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves. Radio waves, for
the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions. Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long
distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as AM radio.

Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and paging
systems.

Omnidirectional Antenna

Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all directions.

Applications

The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting, in which there is
one sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging
are examples of multicasting.
2. Microwaves

Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between I and 300 GHz are called Microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly
focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional
property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another
pair of aligned antennas

Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks,
and wireless LANs.

Unidirectional Antenna

Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction. Two types of antennas
are used for microwave communications: the parabolic dish and the hom.

A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola: Every line parallel to the line of
symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at angles such that all the lines intersect in a common point
called the focus. The parabolic dish works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and directing them
to a common point. In this way, more of the signal is recovered than would be possible with a single -point
receiver.
Applications

Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when unicast (one -to-one)
communication is needed between the sender and the receiver. They are used in cellular phones, satellite
networks and wireless LANs.

3. Infrared:

Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be
used for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and another; a short-range
communication system in one room cannot be affected by another system in the next room.

Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line -of-sight
propagation.

Applications

The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data transmission. Such a wide
bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate. The Infrared Data Association
(IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared waves, has established standards for using these
signals for communication between devices such as keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers. For example,
some manufacturers provide a special port called the IrDA port that allows a wireless keyboard to
communicate with a PC.