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 Chapter 4
Data Models for GIS
In order to visualize natural phenomena, one must first determine how to best represent geographic

space. Data models are a set of rules and/or constructs used to describe and represent aspects of the

real world in a computer. Two primary data models are available to complete this task: raster data

models and vector data models.

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4.1 Raster Data Models

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1. The objective of this section is to understand how raster data models are implemented in GIS

applications.

The raster data model is widely used in applications ranging far beyond geographic information

systems (GISs). Most likely, you are already very familiar with this data model if you have any

experience with digital photographs. The ubiquitous JPEG, BMP, and TIFF file formats (among

others) are based on the raster data model (see Chapter 5 "Geospatial Data Management", Section

5.3 "File Formats"). Take a moment to view your favorite digital image. If you zoom deeply into the

image, you will notice that it is composed of an array of tiny square pixels (or picture elements). Each

of these uniquely colored pixels, when viewed as a whole, combines to form a coherent image (Figure

4.1 "Digital Picture with Zoomed Inset Showing Pixilation of Raster Image").

Figure 4.1 Digital Picture with Zoomed Inset Showing Pixilation of Raster Image

Furthermore, all liquid crystal display (LCD) computer monitors are based on raster technology as

they are composed of a set number of rows and columns of pixels. Notably, the foundation of this

technology predates computers and digital cameras by nearly a century. The neoimpressionist artist,

Georges Seurat, developed a painting technique referred to as “pointillism” in the 1880s, which

similarly relies on the amassing of small, monochromatic “dots” of ink that combine to form a larger

image (Figure 4.2 "Pointillist Artwork"). If you are as generous as the author, you may indeed think

of your raster dataset creations as sublime works of art.

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Figure 4.2 Pointillist Artwork

The raster data model consists of rows and columns of equally sized pixels interconnected to form a

planar surface. These pixels are used as building blocks for creating points, lines, areas, networks,

and surfaces (Chapter 2 "Map Anatomy", Figure 2.6 "Map Overlay Process" illustrates how a land

parcel can be converted to a raster representation). Although pixels may be triangles, hexagons, or

even octagons, square pixels represent the simplest geometric form with which to work. Accordingly,

the vast majority of available raster GIS data are built on the square pixel (Figure 4.3 "Common

Raster Graphics Used in GIS Applications: Aerial Photograph (left) and USGS DEM (right)"). These

squares are typically reformed into rectangles of various dimensions if the data model is transformed

from one projection to another (e.g., from State Plane coordinates to UTM [Universal Transverse

Mercator] coordinates).

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Figure 4.3 Common Raster Graphics Used in GIS Applications: Aerial Photograph (left) and

USGS DEM (right)

Source: Data available from U.S. Geological Survey, Earth Resources Observation and Science

(EROS) Center, Sioux Falls, SD.

Because of the reliance on a uniform series of square pixels, the raster data model is referred to as a

grid-based system. Typically, a single data value will be assigned to each grid locale. Each cell in a

raster carries a single value, which represents the characteristic of the spatial phenomenon at a

location denoted by its row and column. The data type for that cell value can be either integer or

floating-point (Chapter 5 "Geospatial Data Management", Section 5.1 "Geographic Data

Acquisition"). Alternatively, the raster graphic can reference a database management system wherein

open-ended attribute tables can be used to associate multiple data values to each pixel. The advance

of computer technology has made this second methodology increasingly feasible as large datasets are

no longer constrained by computer storage issues as they were previously.

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The raster model will average all values within a given pixel to yield a single value. Therefore, the

more area covered per pixel, the less accurate the associated data values. The area covered by each

pixel determines thespatial resolution of the raster model from which it is derived. Specifically,

resolution is determined by measuring one side of the square pixel. A raster model with pixels

representing 10 m by 10 m (or 100 square meters) in the real world would be said to have a spatial

resolution of 10 m; a raster model with pixels measuring 1 km by 1 km (1 square kilometer) in the

real world would be said to have a spatial resolution of 1 km; and so forth.

Care must be taken when determining the resolution of a raster because using an overly coarse pixel

resolution will cause a loss of information, whereas using overly fine pixel resolution will result in

significant increases in file size and computer processing requirements during display and/or

analysis. An effective pixel resolution will take both the map scale and the minimum mapping unit of

the other GIS data into consideration. In the case of raster graphics with coarse spatial resolution,

the data values associated with specific locations are not necessarily explicit in the raster data model.

For example, if the location of telephone poles were mapped on a coarse raster graphic, it would be

clear that the entire cell would not be filled by the pole. Rather, the pole would be assumed to be

located somewhere within that cell (typically at the center).

Imagery employing the raster data model must exhibit several properties. First, each pixel must hold

at least one value, even if that data value is zero. Furthermore, if no data are present for a given pixel,

a data value placeholder must be assigned to this grid cell. Often, an arbitrary, readily identifiable

value (e.g., −9999) will be assigned to pixels for which there is no data value. Second, a cell can hold

any alphanumeric index that represents an attribute. In the case of quantitative datasets, attribute

assignation is fairly straightforward. For example, if a raster image denotes elevation, the data values

for each pixel would be some indication of elevation, usually in feet or meters. In the case of

qualitative datasets, data values are indices that necessarily refer to some predetermined

translational rule. In the case of a land-use/land-cover raster graphic, the following rule may be

applied: 1 = grassland, 2 = agricultural, 3 = disturbed, and so forth (Figure 4.4 "Land-Use/Land-

Cover Raster Image"). The third property of the raster data model is that points and lines “move” to

the center of the cell. As one might expect, if a 1 km resolution raster image contains a river or

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stream, the location of the actual waterway within the “river” pixel will be unclear. Therefore, there is

a general assumption that all zero-dimensional (point) and one-dimensional (line) features will be

located toward the center of the cell. As a corollary, the minimum width for any line feature must

necessarily be one cell regardless of the actual width of the feature. If it is not, the feature will not be

represented in the image and will therefore be assumed to be absent.

Figure 4.4 Land-Use/Land-Cover Raster Image

Source: Data available from U.S. Geological Survey, Earth Resources Observation and Science

(EROS) Center, Sioux Falls, SD.

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Several methods exist for encoding raster data from scratch. Three of these models are as follows:

1. Cell-by-cell raster encoding. This minimally intensive method encodes a raster by creating

records for each cell value by row and column (Figure 4.5 "Cell-by-Cell Encoding of Raster Data").

This method could be thought of as a large spreadsheet wherein each cell of the spreadsheet

represents a pixel in the raster image. This method is also referred to as “exhaustive

enumeration.”

2. Run-length raster encoding. This method encodes cell values in runs of similarly valued pixels

and can result in a highly compressed image file (Figure 4.6 "Run-Length Encoding of Raster

Data"). The run-length encoding method is useful in situations where large groups of neighboring

pixels have similar values (e.g., discrete datasets such as land use/land cover or habitat

suitability) and is less useful where neighboring pixel values vary widely (e.g., continuous datasets

such as elevation or sea-surface temperatures).

3. Quad-tree raster encoding. This method divides a raster into a hierarchy of quadrants that are

subdivided based on similarly valued pixels (Figure 4.7 "Quad-Tree Encoding of Raster Data").

The division of the raster stops when a quadrant is made entirely from cells of the same value. A

quadrant that cannot be subdivided is called a “leaf node.”

Figure 4.5 Cell-by-Cell Encoding of Raster Data

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Figure 4.6 Run-Length Encoding of Raster Data

Figure 4.7 Quad-Tree Encoding of Raster Data

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Advantages/Disadvantages of the Raster Model

The use of a raster data model confers many advantages. First, the technology required to create raster

graphics is inexpensive and ubiquitous. Nearly everyone currently owns some sort of raster image

generator, namely a digital camera, and few cellular phones are sold today that don’t include such

functionality. Similarly, a plethora of satellites are constantly beaming up-to-the-minute raster graphics

to scientific facilities across the globe (Chapter 5 "Geospatial Data Management", Section 5.3 "File

Formats"). These graphics are often posted online for private and/or public use, occasionally at no cost to

the user.

Additional advantages of raster graphics are the relative simplicity of the underlying data structure. Each

grid location represented in the raster image correlates to a single value (or series of values if attributes

tables are included). This simple data structure may also help explain why it is relatively easy to perform

overlay analyses on raster data (for more on overlay analyses, see Chapter 7 "Geospatial Analysis I: Vector

Operations", Section 7.1 "Single Layer Analysis"). This simplicity also lends itself to easy interpretation

and maintenance of the graphics, relative to its vector counterpart.

Despite the advantages, there are also several disadvantages to using the raster data model. The first

disadvantage is that raster files are typically very large. Particularly in the case of raster images built from

the cell-by-cell encoding methodology, the sheer number of values stored for a given dataset result in

potentially enormous files. Any raster file that covers a large area and has somewhat finely resolved pixels

will quickly reach hundreds of megabytes in size or more. These large files are only getting larger as the

quantity and quality of raster datasets continues to keep pace with quantity and quality of computer

resources and raster data collectors (e.g., digital cameras, satellites).

A second disadvantage of the raster model is that the output images are less “pretty” than their vector

counterparts. This is particularly noticeable when the raster images are enlarged or zoomed (refer

to Figure 4.1 "Digital Picture with Zoomed Inset Showing Pixilation of Raster Image"). Depending on how

far one zooms into a raster image, the details and coherence of that image will quickly be lost amid a

pixilated sea of seemingly randomly colored grid cells.

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The geometric transformations that arise during map reprojection efforts can cause problems for raster

graphics and represent a third disadvantage to using the raster data model. As described in Chapter 2

"Map Anatomy", Section 2.2 "Map Scale, Coordinate Systems, and Map Projections", changing map

projections will alter the size and shape of the original input layer and frequently result in the loss or
[1]
addition of pixels (White 2006). These alterations will result in the perfect square pixels of the input

layer taking on some alternate rhomboidal dimensions. However, the problem is larger than a simple

reformation of the square pixel. Indeed, the reprojection of a raster image dataset from one projection to

another brings change to pixel values that may, in turn, significantly alter the output information (Seong
[2]
2003).

The final disadvantage of using the raster data model is that it is not suitable for some types of spatial

analyses. For example, difficulties arise when attempting to overlay and analyze multiple raster graphics

produced at differing scales and pixel resolutions. Combining information from a raster image with 10 m

spatial resolution with a raster image with 1 km spatial resolution will most likely produce nonsensical

output information as the scales of analysis are far too disparate to result in meaningful and/or

interpretable conclusions. In addition, some network and spatial analyses (i.e., determining directionality

or geocoding) can be problematic to perform on raster data.

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Raster data are derived from a grid-based system of contiguous cells containing specific attribute

information.

• The spatial resolution of a raster dataset represents a measure of the accuracy or detail of the displayed

information.

• The raster data model is widely used by non-GIS technologies such as digital cameras/pictures and LCD

monitors.

• Care should be taken to determine whether the raster or vector data model is best suited for your data

and/or analytical needs.

EXERCISES
1. Examine a digital photo you have taken recently. Can you estimate its spatial resolution?

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2. If you were to create a raster data file showing the major land-use types in your county, which encoding

method would you use? What method would you use if you were to encode a map of the major

waterways in your county? Why?

[1] White, D. 2006. “Display of Pixel Loss and Replication in Reprojecting Raster Data from the Sinusoidal

Projection.” Geocarto International 21 (2): 19–22.

[2] Seong, J. C. 2003. “Modeling the Accuracy of Image Data Reprojection.” International Journal of Remote

Sensing 24 (11): 2309–21.

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4.2 Vector Data Models

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1. The objective of this section is to understand how vector data models are implemented in GIS

applications.

In contrast to the raster data model is the vector data model. In this model, space is not quantized

into discrete grid cells like the raster model. Vector data models use points and their associated X, Y

coordinate pairs to represent the vertices of spatial features, much as if they were being drawn on a

map by hand (Aronoff 1989). [1] The data attributes of these features are then stored in a separate

database management system. The spatial information and the attribute information for these

models are linked via a simple identification number that is given to each feature in a map.

Three fundamental vector types exist in geographic information systems (GISs): points, lines, and

polygons (Figure 4.8 "Points, Lines, and Polygons"). Points are zero-dimensional objects that contain

only a single coordinate pair. Points are typically used to model singular, discrete features such as

buildings, wells, power poles, sample locations, and so forth. Points have only the property of

location. Other types of point features include the node and the vertex. Specifically, a point is a stand-

alone feature, while a node is a topological junction representing a common X, Y coordinate pair

between intersecting lines and/or polygons. Vertices are defined as each bend along a line or polygon

feature that is not the intersection of lines or polygons.

Figure 4.8 Points, Lines, and Polygons

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Points can be spatially linked to form more complex features. Lines are one-dimensional features

composed of multiple, explicitly connected points. Lines are used to represent linear features such as

roads, streams, faults, boundaries, and so forth. Lines have the property of length. Lines that directly

connect two nodes are sometimes referred to as chains, edges, segments, or arcs.

Polygons are two-dimensional features created by multiple lines that loop back to create a “closed”

feature. In the case of polygons, the first coordinate pair (point) on the first line segment is the same

as the last coordinate pair on the last line segment. Polygons are used to represent features such as

city boundaries, geologic formations, lakes, soil associations, vegetation communities, and so forth.

Polygons have the properties of area and perimeter. Polygons are also called areas.

Vector Data Models Structures

Vector data models can be structured many different ways. We will examine two of the more common

data structures here. The simplest vector data structure is called the spaghetti data model (Dangermond
[2]
1982). In the spaghetti model, each point, line, and/or polygon feature is represented as a string of X, Y

coordinate pairs (or as a single X, Y coordinate pair in the case of a vector image with a single point) with

no inherent structure (Figure 4.9 "Spaghetti Data Model"). One could envision each line in this model to

be a single strand of spaghetti that is formed into complex shapes by the addition of more and more

strands of spaghetti. It is notable that in this model, any polygons that lie adjacent to each other must be

made up of their own lines, or stands of spaghetti. In other words, each polygon must be uniquely defined

by its own set of X, Y coordinate pairs, even if the adjacent polygons share the exact same boundary

information. This creates some redundancies within the data model and therefore reduces efficiency.

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Figure 4.9 Spaghetti Data Model

Despite the location designations associated with each line, or strand of spaghetti, spatial relationships

are not explicitly encoded within the spaghetti model; rather, they are implied by their location. This

results in a lack of topological information, which is problematic if the user attempts to make

measurements or analysis. The computational requirements, therefore, are very steep if any advanced

analytical techniques are employed on vector files structured thusly. Nevertheless, the simple structure of

the spaghetti data model allows for efficient reproduction of maps and graphics as this topological

information is unnecessary for plotting and printing.

In contrast to the spaghetti data model, the topological data model is characterized by the inclusion of

topological information within the dataset, as the name implies. Topology is a set of rules that model the

relationships between neighboring points, lines, and polygons and determines how they share geometry.

For example, consider two adjacent polygons. In the spaghetti model, the shared boundary of two

neighboring polygons is defined as two separate, identical lines. The inclusion of topology into the data

model allows for a single line to represent this shared boundary with an explicit reference to denote which

side of the line belongs with which polygon. Topology is also concerned with preserving spatial properties

when the forms are bent, stretched, or placed under similar geometric transformations, which allows for

more efficient projection and reprojection of map files.

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Three basic topological precepts that are necessary to understand the topological data model are outlined

here. First, connectivity describes the arc-node topology for the feature dataset. As discussed previously,

nodes are more than simple points. In the topological data model, nodes are the intersection points where

two or more arcs meet. In the case of arc-node topology, arcs have both a from-node (i.e., starting node)

indicating where the arc begins and a to-node (i.e., ending node) indicating where the arc ends (Figure

4.10 "Arc-Node Topology"). In addition, between each node pair is a line segment, sometimes called a

link, which has its own identification number and references both its from-node and to-node. In Figure

4.10 "Arc-Node Topology", arcs 1, 2, and 3 all intersect because they share node 11. Therefore, the

computer can determine that it is possible to move along arc 1 and turn onto arc 3, while it is not possible

to move from arc 1 to arc 5, as they do not share a common node.

Figure 4.10 Arc-Node Topology

The second basic topological precept is area definition. Area definition states that an arc that connects to

surround an area defines a polygon, also called polygon-arc topology. In the case of polygon-arc topology,

arcs are used to construct polygons, and each arc is stored only once (Figure 4.11 "Polygon-Arc

Topology"). This results in a reduction in the amount of data stored and ensures that adjacent polygon

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boundaries do not overlap. In the Figure 4.11 "Polygon-Arc Topology", the polygon-arc topology makes it

clear that polygon F is made up of arcs 8, 9, and 10.

Figure 4.11 Polygon-Arc Topology

Contiguity, the third topological precept, is based on the concept that polygons that share a boundary are

deemed adjacent. Specifically, polygon topology requires that all arcs in a polygon have a direction (a

from-node and a to-node), which allows adjacency information to be determined (Figure 4.12 "Polygon

Topology"). Polygons that share an arc are deemed adjacent, or contiguous, and therefore the “left” and

“right” side of each arc can be defined. This left and right polygon information is stored explicitly within

the attribute information of the topological data model. The “universe polygon” is an essential component

of polygon topology that represents the external area located outside of the study area. Figure 4.12

"Polygon Topology" shows that arc 6 is bound on the left by polygon B and to the right by polygon C.

Polygon A, the universe polygon, is to the left of arcs 1, 2, and 3.

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Figure 4.12 Polygon Topology

Topology allows the computer to rapidly determine and analyze the spatial relationships of all its included

features. In addition, topological information is important because it allows for efficient error detection

within a vector dataset. In the case of polygon features, open or unclosed polygons, which occur when an

arc does not completely loop back upon itself, and unlabeled polygons, which occur when an area does not

contain any attribute information, violate polygon-arc topology rules. Another topological error found

with polygon features is the sliver. Slivers occur when the shared boundary of two polygons do not meet

exactly (Figure 4.13 "Common Topological Errors").

In the case of line features, topological errors occur when two lines do not meet perfectly at a node. This

error is called an “undershoot” when the lines do not extend far enough to meet each other and an

“overshoot” when the line extends beyond the feature it should connect to (Figure 4.13 "Common

Topological Errors"). The result of overshoots and undershoots is a “dangling node” at the end of the line.

Dangling nodes aren’t always an error, however, as they occur in the case of dead-end streets on a road

map.

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Figure 4.13 Common Topological Errors

Many types of spatial analysis require the degree of organization offered by topologically explicit data

models. In particular, network analysis (e.g., finding the best route from one location to another) and

measurement (e.g., finding the length of a river segment) relies heavily on the concept of to- and from-

nodes and uses this information, along with attribute information, to calculate distances, shortest routes,

quickest routes, and so forth. Topology also allows for sophisticated neighborhood analysis such as

determining adjacency, clustering, nearest neighbors, and so forth.

Now that the basics of the concepts of topology have been outlined, we can begin to better understand the

topological data model. In this model, the node acts as more than just a simple point along a line or

polygon. The node represents the point of intersection for two or more arcs. Arcs may or may not be

looped into polygons. Regardless, all nodes, arcs, and polygons are individually numbered. This

numbering allows for quick and easy reference within the data model.

Advantages/Disadvantages of the Vector Model

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In comparison with the raster data model, vector data models tend to be better representations of reality

due to the accuracy and precision of points, lines, and polygons over the regularly spaced grid cells of the

raster model. This results in vector data tending to be more aesthetically pleasing than raster data.

Vector data also provides an increased ability to alter the scale of observation and analysis. As each

coordinate pair associated with a point, line, and polygon represents an infinitesimally exact location

(albeit limited by the number of significant digits and/or data acquisition methodologies), zooming deep

into a vector image does not change the view of a vector graphic in the way that it does a raster graphic

(see Figure 4.1 "Digital Picture with Zoomed Inset Showing Pixilation of Raster Image").

Vector data tend to be more compact in data structure, so file sizes are typically much smaller than their

raster counterparts. Although the ability of modern computers has minimized the importance of

maintaining small file sizes, vector data often require a fraction the computer storage space when

compared to raster data.

The final advantage of vector data is that topology is inherent in the vector model. This topological

information results in simplified spatial analysis (e.g., error detection, network analysis, proximity

analysis, and spatial transformation) when using a vector model.

Alternatively, there are two primary disadvantages of the vector data model. First, the data structure

tends to be much more complex than the simple raster data model. As the location of each vertex must be

stored explicitly in the model, there are no shortcuts for storing data like there are for raster models (e.g.,

the run-length and quad-tree encoding methodologies).

Second, the implementation of spatial analysis can also be relatively complicated due to minor differences

in accuracy and precision between the input datasets. Similarly, the algorithms for manipulating and

analyzing vector data are complex and can lead to intensive processing requirements, particularly when

dealing with large datasets.

KEY TAKEAWAYS
• Vector data utilizes points, lines, and polygons to represent the spatial features in a map.

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• Topology is an informative geospatial property that describes the connectivity, area definition, and

contiguity of interrelated points, lines, and polygon.

• Vector data may or may not be topologically explicit, depending on the file’s data structure.

• Care should be taken to determine whether the raster or vector data model is best suited for your data

and/or analytical needs.

EXERCISES
1. What vector type (point, line, or polygon) best represents the following features: state boundaries,

telephone poles, buildings, cities, stream networks, mountain peaks, soil types, flight tracks? Which of

these features can be represented by multiple vector types? What conditions might lead you choose one

vector type over another?

2. Draw a point, line, and polygon feature on a simple Cartesian coordinate system. From this drawing,

create a spaghetti data model that approximates the shapes shown therein.

3. Draw three adjacent polygons on a simple Cartesian coordinate system. From this drawing, create a

topological data model that incorporates arc-node, polygon-arc, and polygon topology.

[1] Aronoff, S. 1989. Geographic Information Systems: A Management Perspective. Ottawa, Canada: WDL

Publications.

[2] Dangermond, J. 1982. “A Classification of Software Components Commonly Used in Geographic Information

Systems.” In Proceedings of the U.S.-Australia Workshop on the Design and Implementation of Computer-Based

Geographic Information Systems, 70–91. Honolulu, HI.

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4.3 Satellite Imagery and Aerial Photography

LEARNING OBJECTIVE
1. The objective of this section is to understand how satellite imagery and aerial photography are

implemented in GIS applications.

A wide variety of satellite imagery and aerial photography is available for use in geographic

information systems (GISs). Although these products are basically raster graphics, they are

substantively different in their usage within a GIS. Satellite imagery and aerial photography provide

important contextual information for a GIS and are often used to conduct heads-up digitizing

(Chapter 5 "Geospatial Data Management", Section 5.1.4 "Secondary Data Capture") whereby

features from the image are converted into vector datasets.

Satellite Imagery

Remotely sensed satellite imagery is becoming increasingly common as satellites equipped with

technologically advanced sensors are continually being sent into space by public agencies and private

companies around the globe. Satellites are used for applications such as military and civilian earth

observation, communication, navigation, weather, research, and more. Currently, more than 3,000

satellites have been sent to space, with over 2,500 of them originating from Russia and the United States.

These satellites maintain different altitudes, inclinations, eccentricities, synchronies, and orbital centers,

allowing them to image a wide variety of surface features and processes (Figure 4.14 "Satellites Orbiting

the Earth").

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Figure 4.14 Satellites Orbiting the Earth

Satellites can be active or passive. Active satellites make use of remote sensors that detect reflected

responses from objects that are irradiated from artificially generated energy sources. For example, active

sensors such as radars emit radio waves, laser sensors emit light waves, and sonar sensors emit sound

waves. In all cases, the sensor emits the signal and then calculates the time it takes for the returned signal

to “bounce” back from some remote feature. Knowing the speed of the emitted signal, the time delay from

the original emission to the return can be used to calculate the distance to the feature.

Passive satellites, alternatively, make use of sensors that detect the reflected or emitted electromagnetic

radiation from natural sources. This natural source is typically the energy from the sun, but other sources

can be imaged as well, such as magnetism and geothermal activity. Using an example we’ve all

experienced, taking a picture with a flash-enabled camera would be active remote sensing, while using a

camera without a flash (i.e., relying on ambient light to illuminate the scene) would be passive remote

sensing.

The quality and quantity of satellite imagery is largely determined by their resolution. There are four types
[1]
of resolution that characterize any particular remote sensor (Campbell 2002). The spatial resolution of

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a satellite image, as described previously in the raster data model section (Section 4.1 "Raster Data

Models"), is a direct representation of the ground coverage for each pixel shown in the image. If a satellite

produces imagery with a 10 m resolution, the corresponding ground coverage for each of those pixels is 10

m by 10 m, or 100 square meters on the ground. Spatial resolution is determined by the sensors’

instantaneous field of view (IFOV). The IFOV is essentially the ground area through which the sensor is

receiving the electromagnetic radiation signal and is determined by height and angle of the imaging

platform.

Spectral resolution denotes the ability of the sensor to resolve wavelength intervals, also called bands,

within the electromagnetic spectrum. The spectral resolution is determined by the interval size of the

wavelengths and the number of intervals being scanned. Multispectral and hyperspectral sensors are

those sensors that can resolve a multitude of wavelengths intervals within the spectrum. For example, the

IKONOS satellite resolves images for bands at the blue (445–516 nm), green (506–95 nm), red (632–98

nm), and near-infrared (757–853 nm) wavelength intervals on its 4-meter multispectral sensor.

Temporal resolution is the amount of time between each image collection period and is determined by the

repeat cycle of the satellite’s orbit. Temporal resolution can be thought of as true-nadir or off-nadir. Areas

considered true-nadir are those located directly beneath the sensor while off-nadir areas are those that are

imaged obliquely. In the case of the IKONOS satellite, the temporal resolution is 3 to 5 days for off-nadir

imaging and 144 days for true-nadir imaging.

The fourth and final type of resolution, radiometric resolution, refers to the sensitivity of the sensor to

variations in brightness and specifically denotes the number of grayscale levels that can be imaged by the

sensor. Typically, the available radiometric values for a sensor are 8-bit (yielding values that range from

0–255 as 256 unique values or as 28 values); 11-bit (0–2,047); 12-bit (0–4,095); or 16-bit (0–63,535)

(see Chapter 5 "Geospatial Data Management",Section 5.1.1 "Data Types" for more on bits). Landsat-7, for

example, maintains 8-bit resolution for its bands and can therefore record values for each pixel that range

from 0 to 255.

Because of the technical constraints associated with satellite remote sensing systems, there is a trade-off

between these different types of resolution. Improving one type of resolution often necessitates a

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reduction in one of the other types of resolution. For example, an increase in spatial resolution is typically

associated with a decrease in spectral resolution, and vice versa. Similarly, geostationary satellites (those

that circle the earth proximal to the equator once each day) yield high temporal resolution but low spatial

resolution, while sun-synchronous satellites (those that synchronize a near-polar orbit of the sensor with

the sun’s illumination) yield low temporal resolution while providing high spatial resolution. Although

technological advances can generally improve the various resolutions of an image, care must always be

taken to ensure that the imagery you have chosen is adequate to the represent or model the geospatial

features that are most important to your study.

Aerial Photography

Aerial photography, like satellite imagery, represents a vast source of information for use in any GIS.

Platforms for the hardware used to take aerial photographs include airplanes, helicopters, balloons,

rockets, and so forth. While aerial photography connotes images taken of the visible spectrum, sensors to

measure bands within the nonvisible spectrum (e.g., ultraviolet, infrared, near-infrared) can also be fixed

to aerial sources. Similarly, aerial photography can be active or passive and can be taken from vertical or

oblique angles. Care must be taken with aerial photographs as the sensors used to take the images are

similar to cameras in their use of lenses. These lenses add a curvature to the images, which becomes more

pronounced as one moves away from the center of the photo (Figure 4.15 "Curvature Error Due to

Lenticular Properties of Camera").

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Figure 4.15 Curvature Error Due to Lenticular Properties of Camera

Another source of potential error in an aerial photograph is relief displacement. This error arises from the

three-dimensional aspect of terrain features and is seen as apparent leaning away of vertical objects from

the center point of an aerial photograph. To imagine this type of error, consider that a smokestack would

look like a doughnut if the viewing camera was directly above the feature. However, if this same

smokestack was observed near the edge of the camera’s view, one could observe the sides of the

smokestack. This error is frequently seen with trees and multistory buildings and worsens with

increasingly taller features.

Orthophotos are vertical photographs that have been geometrically “corrected” to remove the curvature

and terrain-induced error from images (Figure 4.16 "Orthophoto"). The most common orthophoto

product is the digital ortho quarter quadrangle (DOQQ). DOQQs are available through the US Geological

Survey (USGS), who began producing these images from their library of 1:40,000-scale National Aerial

Photography Program photos. These images can be obtained in either grayscale or color with 1-meter

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spatial resolution and 8-bit radiometric resolution. As the name suggests, these images cover a quarter of

a USGS 7.5 minute quadrangle, which equals an approximately 25 square mile area. Included with these

photos is an additional 50 to 300-meter edge around the photo that allows users to mosaic many DOQQs

into a single, continuous image. These DOQQs are ideal for use in a GIS as background display

information, for data editing, and for heads-up digitizing.

Figure 4.16 Orthophoto

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Source: Data available from U.S. Geological Survey, Earth Resources Observation and Science

(EROS) Center, Sioux Falls, SD.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Satellite imagery is a common tool for GIS mapping applications as this data becomes increasingly

available due to ongoing technological advances.

• Satellite imagery can be passive or active.

• The four types of resolution associated with satellite imagery are spatial, spectral, temporal, and

radiometric.

• Vertical and oblique aerial photographs provide valuable baseline information for GIS applications.

EXERCISE

1. Go to the EarthExplorer website (http://edcsns17.cr.usgs.gov/EarthExplorer) and download two satellite

images of the area in which you reside. What are the different spatial, spectral, temporal, and radiometric

resolutions for these two images? Do these satellites provide active or passive imagery (or both)? Are

they geostationary or sun-synchronous?

[1] Campbell, J. B. 2002. Introduction to Remote Sensing. New York: Guilford Press.

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