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Lecture outline

RASTER DATA MODEL

1. Elements of the Raster Data Model

2. Types of Raster Data

Kennedy Mwetu

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 The vector data model uses the geometric

objects of point, line, and area to represent
spatial features.
 Vector data are ideal for discrete features with
well defined locations and shapes.
 The vector data model does not work well with
spatial phenomena that vary continuously
over the space such as precipitation,
elevation, and soil erosion (Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1 A continuous Figure 5.2 Representation of
elevation raster with point, line, and area features:
darker shades for higher raster format on the left and
elevations. vector format on the right

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 Raster data model represents continuous  A wide variety of data used in GIS are
phenomena better. encoded in raster format.
 The raster data model uses a regular grid to  They include digital elevation data, satellite
cover the space. images, digital photos, scanned maps, and
 The value in each grid cell corresponds to the graphic files.
characteristic of a spatial phenomenon at the  Raster data tend to require large amounts of
cell location. computer memory.
 Changes in the cell value reflect the spatial
variation of the phenomenon.

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ELEMENTS OF THE RASTER DATA MODEL

1. cell value,  A raster data model is variously called a grid,

2. cell size, a raster map, a surface cover, or an image in
3. bands, and GIS.
4. spatial reference  A raster consists of rows, columns, and cells.
 Cells are also called pixels with images.
 The origin of rows and columns is typically at
the upper left corner of the raster.
 Rows function as y-coordinates and columns
as x-coordinates.
 Each cell in the raster is explicitly defined by
its row and column position.

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Cell Value

 Each cell in a raster carries a value, which  Floating point cell values represent
represents the characteristic of a spatial continuous, numeric data.
phenomenon at the location denoted by its  Example, a precipitation raster may have
row and column. precipitation values of 20.15, 12.23, and so
 Cell values in a raster can be either an forth.
integer or a floating point.
 An integer value has no decimal digits,
whereas a floating point value does.
 Example a land cover raster may use 1 for
urban land use, 2 for forested land, 3 for water
body, and so on.

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Cell Size

 This determines the resolution of the raster  A large cell size cannot represent the precise
data model. location of spatial features, thus increasing the
 A cell size of 10 meters means that each cell chance of having mixed features such as forest,
pasture, and water in a cell.
measures 100 square meters (10 X 10
meters).  These problems lessen when a raster uses a
 A cell size of 30 meters, on the other hand, smaller cell size.
means that each cell measures 900 square  But a small cell size increases the data volume
meters (30 X 30 meters). and the data processing time.
 Therefore a 10 meter raster has a finer
(higher) resolution than a 30 meter raster.

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Raster Bands Spatial Reference

 A raster may have a single band or multiple  Raster data must have the spatial reference
bands. information so that they can align spatially
 Each cell in a multiband raster is associated with other data sets in a GIS.
with more than one cell value.  For example, to superimpose an elevation
 An example of a multiband raster is a satellite raster on a vector-based soil layer, both data
image, which may have five, seven, or more sets should be based on the same coordinate
bands at each cell location. system.
 Each cell in a single-band raster has only one  A raster that has been processed to match a
cell value. projected coordinate system is often called a
 An example of a single-band raster is an georeferenced raster.
elevation raster, which has one elevation value
at each cell location.

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TYPES OF RASTER DATA Satellite Imagery

 A large variety of data that we use in GIS are  The spatial resolution of a satellite image
encoded in raster format. relates to the ground pixel size.
 These data all share the same basic elements  For example, a spatial resolution of 30 meters
of the raster data model. means that each pixel in the satellite image
corresponds to a ground pixel of 900 square
1. Satellite Imagery meters.
2. USGS Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)  The pixel value, also called the brightness
3. Non-USGS DEMs value, represents light energy reflected or
4. Global DEMs emitted from the Earth's surface.
5. Digital Orthophotos
6. Graphic Files
7. Bi-Level Scanned Files

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 The measurement of light energy is based on  The U.S. Landsat satellites, started by the
spectral bands from a continuum of National Aeronautics and Space Administration
wavelengths known as the electromagnetic (NASA) with the cooperation of the U.S.
spectrum. Geological Survey (USGS) in 1972, have
 Panchromatic images are comprised of a produced the most widely used imagery
single spectral band, whereas multispectral worldwide.
images are comprised of multiple bands.  Landsat 1, 2, and 3 acquired images by the
Multispectral Scanner (MSS) with a spatial
resolution of about 79 meters.

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 In 1982, Landsat 4 with new sensor was  Landsat 7 was launched successfully in April
launched, the Thematic Mapper (TM) 1999 , carrying an Enhanced Thematic Mapper
scanner. Plus (ETM +) sensor (http://Iandsat.usgs.govl).
 TM images have a spatial resolution of 30  The enhanced sensor is designed to seasonally
meters and seven spectral bands (blue, monitor small-scale processes on a global scale,
green, red, near infrared, mid-infrared 1, such as cycles of vegetation growth,
thermal infrared, and mid-infrared 11). deforestation, agricultural land use, erosion and
 A second TM was launched aboard Landsat 5 other forms of land degradation, snow
in 1984. accumulation and melt, and urbanization.
 Landsat 6 failed to reach its orbit after launch
in 1993.

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ASTER

 The spatial resolution of Landsat 7 imagery is  1n December 1999, NASA's Earth Observing
15 meters in the panchromatic band; 30 System launched the terra spacecraft to study
meters in the;" visible, neat infrared, and the interactions among the Earth's
shortwave infrared bands”; and 60 meters in atmosphere, lands, oceans, life, and radiant
the thermal infrared ban energy (heat and light)
 In June 2003, NASA discovered an instrument (http://terra.nasa.gov/Aboutl).
malfunction of the Scan Line Corrector (SLC)  Terra carries five sensors, of which ASTER
on board Landsat 7. (Advanced Space-borne Thermal Emission
 Since then, Landsat 7 ETM + has been and Reflection Radiometer) is the only high-
collecting image data in the "SLC-off" mode. spatial-resolution instrument.

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NOAA

 ASTER's spatial resolution is 15 meters in the  The US. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
visible and near infrared range, 30 meters in Administration (NOAA) uses weather satellites
the shortwave infrared band, and 90 meters in as an aid to weather prediction and
the thermal infrared band. monitoring.
 A major application of ASTER data products is  NOAA's Polar Orbiting Environmental
land cover classification and change Satellites (POES) carry the AVHRR
detection. (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer)
scanner, which provides data useful for large-
area land cover and vegetation mapping
(http://edc.usgs.gov/products/satellite/avhrr.ht
ml)

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SPOT

 AVHRR data have a spatial resolution of 1.1  The French SPOT satellite series began in
kilometers, which may be too coarse for some 1986 (http:// www.spot.coml).
GIS projects.  Each SPOT satellite carries two types of
 But the coarse spatial resolution is offset by sensors.
the daily coverage and reduced volume of  SPOT 1 to 4 acquire single-band imagery with
AVHRR data. a 10-meter spatial resolution and multiband
imagery with a 20-meter resolution.

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Ikonos

 SPOT 5, launched successfully in May 2002,  The French space agency handed over
sends back higher -resolution imagery: 5 and responsibilities of commercial operation of
2.5 meters in single-band, and 10 meters in SPOT 5 to Spot Image in 2002.).
multiband.  Ikonos, a satellite designed by Space Imaging
 High spatial resolution makes SPOT images (http://www.spaceimaging.coml) to acquire
good spatial data sources for GIS projects. panchromatic images with a l-meter spatial
 Other important satellite programs have also resolution and multispectral images with a 4-
been established since the late 1980s in India meter resolution, was successfully launched
(http://www.isro.orgl) and Japan in September 1999.
(http://www.jaxa.jp/index_e.html).  A resolution of 1 meter is high enough to
detect ground objects such as cars, small
houses, fires, and troop deployments.

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Quick Bird USGS Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)

 Digital Globe's Quick Bird reached its orbit  A digital elevation model (DEM) consists of an
successfully in October 2001 array of uniformly spaced elevation data.
(http://www.digitalglobe.coml ).  A DEM is point-based, but it can easily be
 Quick Bird collects panchromatic images with converted to raster data by placing each
a 61-centimeter spatial resolution and elevation point at the center of a cell,
multispectral images with a 2.44-meter  Most GIS users in the US use DEMs from the
resolution. USGS.
 USGS DEMs include the 7.5-minute DEM, 30-
minute DEM, 1-degree DEM, and Alaska
DEM.

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 The 7.5-minute DEMs provide elevation data

at a spacing of 30 meters or 10 meters on a
grid measured in UTM coordinates.
 The Defense Mapping Agency (DMA, now the
National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency or
NGA) originally produced the 1-degree DEMs
by interpolation from digitized contour lines.

Figure 5.4 DEMs at three resolutions: 30 meters, 10

meters, and 3 meters. The 3D-meter and 10-meter
DEMs are USGS DEMs. The 3-meter DEM, which
contains more topographic details than the other two,
is a derived product from LIDAR data

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The end

Thanks

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