8 FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS Introduction A wide range of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and their alloys are used steel, aluminium, copper, lead and zine predominate, Over the last decade titanium has featured signifi- cantly in construction, having previously been used in construction, but iron, ‘mainly in the chemical process industry and for military purposes, Recent trends have been towards the development of more durable alloys and the use of coatings both to protect and give visual diversity to the product ranges large energy input for their production from raw materials; however, this high embodied energy is partially offset by the long life and recycling of most metals. The recovery rate of steel from demolition sites is 9496, with 10% being reused and 8496 being recycled. Approximately 5096 of current steel produc- ‘ion is from serap, and steel can be reeycled any number of times without any degradation of the material erally the metals require a Ferrous metals Ferrous metals are defined as those in which the ele- ‘ment iron predominates. The earliest use of the metal vas for the manufacture of implements and weapons in the Iron Age commencing in Europe eirea 1200 BC. Significant developments were the use by Wren in 1675 of a wrought-iron chain in tension to restrain the ‘outward thrust from the dome of St Paul’s Cathedral; the use of east iron in compression for the Ironbridge at Coalbrookdale in 1779; and by Paxton in the pre ‘of the Crystal Palace in 1851. Steel is a relatively recent material, only being available in 149 fabricated section ‘quantity after the development of the Bessemer ‘converter in the late nineteenth century. The first stee- frame high-rise building of 10 storeys was built in 1885 in Chicago by William le Baron Jenney. ‘The platform level of the Waterloo International ‘Terminal in London (Fig, 5.1) is covered by curved and tapered 3-pin steel arches, which are designed to accommodate the flexing inevitably caused by the ‘movement of trains at this evel, The steel arches, each ‘consisting of two prismatic bow-string trusses con- nected by a knuckle joint, are asymmetrical to allow for the tight curvature of the site. The tops of the longer trusses are covered with toughened glass pro- viding views towards old London, with profiled stain- less steel spanning between. The area spanned by the shorter trusses is fully glazed. The structure is de- signed for a minimum lifetime of 100 years. (MANUFACTURE OF STEEL ‘The production of steel involves a sequence of opera- tions which ate closely inter-related in order to ensure maximum efficiency of a highly energy-intensive process. The key stages in the production process are the making of pig iron, its conversion into steel, the casting of the molten stel and its formation into sec- tions or strip. Finally, coils of steel strip are cold rolled into thin sections and profiled sheet. Manufacture of pig ion "The raw materials for the production of iron ate iron ‘ore, coke and limestone. Most iron ote is imported from America, Australia and Scandinavia, where the iron content of the ore is high. Coke is produced from, ‘coking coal, mainly imported from Europe, in batteries150 MATERIALS FOR ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS Fig. 5.1 Structural stehvrk — Waterlo Internaana Tring, London, Architects: Nicholas Grimshaw and Farner. Photographs: Courtesy of ‘Jo Reid & John Pack, Poe StrobeFERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS 151 of coking ovens, Some of this coke is then sintered with iron ore prior to the iron-making proces. Iron ore, coke, sinter and limestone are charged {nto the top of the blastlurnace (Fig. 5.2). A hot air blast, sometimes enriched with oxygen, is fed through the tuyéres into the base of the furnace. This heats the furnace to white heat, converting the coke into carbon monoxide which then reduces the iron oxide to iron, The molten metal collects at the bottom of the fur nace, The limestone forms a liquid slag, loating on Charging comeyor "Aus ming pipe —> te lt ———— ‘Sag nok Slog lle —~ 5.2 Blasttrnace the surface of the molten ion. Putification occurs as impurities within the molten iron are preferentially absorbed into the slag layer. —> 1 carton monoxide x + 0 cabo (coke) oxygen FQ, + (hoemsie) 30 —> te + 30, carton iron carbon dod monoxide Dower Bi foc gosto aesceing lot Receiving hopper — Upper elig ves P. atria fw vas lover selng elves = Dstiting ht Woteecled reed ning Hot i lst Te Tope152 MATERIALS FOR ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS ‘The whole process is continuous, as relining the blastfurnace with the special refractory bricks is expensive and time-consuming. From time to time as the molten slag level rises, excess is tapped off for sub- sequent disposal as a by-product of the steel-making industry. When hot metal is required for the subse- {quent steel-making process it is tapped off into huge ladles for transportation direct to the steel converter At this stage the iron is only 90-95% pure with sulfur, phosphorus, manganese and silicon as impurities and aa carbon content of 45%, Waste gases from the blast- furnace are cleaned and recycled as fuel within the plant. A blastfurnace will typically operate non-stop for ten years producing 40.000 tonnes per week. Steelmaking ‘There are two standard processes used within the UK for making steel The basic axygen process is used for the manufacture of bulk quantities of standard-grade steels and the electric arc furnace process is used for the production of high-quality special steels and par- ticularly stainless steel. The Manchester Stadium (Fig. 5.3) built for the Commonwealth Games in 2002 and Manchester City Football Club used approxi- ‘mately 2000 tonnes of structural steel. Basic oxygen process Bulk quantities of stel are produced by the basic oxygen process in a refractory lined steel furnace which can be tilted for charging and tapping. A typical furnace (Fig. 54) will take a charge of 350 tonnes and convert it into steel within 30 minutes. Initially serap metal, ac- ‘counting for one quarter ofthe charge, isloaded into the tilted furnace, followed by the remainder of the charge as, hhot metal direct from the blasturnace. A water-cooled. lance is then lowered to blow high-pressure oxygen into Comet umes to ceoing plot Wetec cold fone calecing bod ovate sel Woiercned nygn ane arr ing Molen mata Stel shel cfoneer Fig. 5.4 Boi oxygen furnace 3 Sircural seevork— Monchesiar iy Stadium, Aces: Arp Assocs. Photograph: Courtesy of Arup AsociaesFERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS 153 the converter. This burns off impurities and reduces the excess carbon content while raising the temperature Argon and a small quantity of nitrogen are introduced at the bottom of the furnace Lime is added to form afloat- ing slg to remove further impurities and alloying com- ponents are added to adjust the steel composition, prior to tapping. Finally, the furnace is inverted to run out any remaining slag prior to the next eyde. Electric arc process ‘The clectric arc furnace (Fig. 5.5) consists of a refrac tory lined hearth, covered by a removable roof, through which graphite electrodes can be raised and lowered. With the roof swung open, scrap metal is charged into the furnace, the roof is closed and the clectrodes lowered to near the surface of the metal. A powerful electric arc is struck between the electrodes and the metal, which heats it up to melting point. Lime and fluorspar are added to form a slag, and oxygen is blown into the furnace to complete the purification process. When the temperature and chemical analysis are correct, the furnace is tilted to tap off the metal, to which appropriate alloying components may then be added. A typical furnace will produce 150 tonnes of, high-grade or stainless steel within 90 minutes Casting ‘Traditionally the molten steel was cast into ingots, prior to hot rolling into slabs and then sheet. However, most steel is now directly poured, or teemed, and cast into continuous billets or slabs, which are then cut to appro- Pom cablos Fig. 5.5. Hedicae furnace priate lengths for subsequent processing. Continuous casting (Fig. 5.6), which saves on reheating, is not only more enetgy efficent than processing through the ingot stage but also produces a better surface finish to the steel. However, components such as the nodes for rec- tangular and circular hollow-section constructions and large pin-joint units, are manufactured directly as indi- vidual castings. They may then be welded to the stan- dard milled stel sections to give continuity of structure Hot-roled ste Sheet steel is produced by passing 25-tonne hot slabs at approximately 1250°C through a series of com: pputer-controlled rollers which reduce the thickness to typically between 1.5 and 20 min prior to water cool: ing and coiling. A 25-tonne slab would produce 1 km coil of 2 mm sheet. Steel sections such as universal beams and columns, channels and angle (Fig. 5.7) are rolled from hot billets through a series of stands to the appropriate section old-rolled steel Sheet steel may be further reduced by cold rolling, ‘hich gives a good surface finish and increases its te sile strength. Light round sections may be processed into steel for concrete reinforcement, whilst coiled sheet may be converted into profiled sheet or light steel sections (Fig. 5.7). Cold-reduced steel for con- struction is frequently factory finished with zinc, alloys including terne (lead and tin) or plastic coating. Gopi erodes er coned func ol Relator ining Woe coned panels nd elroy nig Tapping po154 MATERIALS FOR ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS Watered ald }<—eoring ile olen sed — ‘Witdawal and steightoner os Fig. 5.6 Coninuous casing CARBON CONTENT OF FERROUS METALS ‘The quantity of carbon alloyed with iron has a pro- found influence on the physical properties of the metal due to its significant effect on the microscopic erystal structure (Fig. 5.8). Atambient temperature a series of crystal forms (ferrite, pearlte and cementite) associ ated with different proportions of iron and carbon are stable. However, on increasing the temperature, crystal forms that were stable under ambient conditions, become unstable and are recrystallised into the high temperature form (austenite) Ths latter crystal struc ture can be trapped at room temperature by the rapid quenching of red-hot steel, thus partially or om: pletely preventing the natural recrystallisation processes which otherwise would occur on slow cool: ing, These effects are exploited within the various heat treatments that are applied to steels in order to widen the available range of physical properties. Wrought iron ‘Wrought iron contains only about 0.0296 of carbon. It was traditionally made by re-melting and oxidising pig ion in a reverberatory furnace. The process was con: ‘inued until virtually all the high carbon content of the pig iron had been burat off to produce a pasty wrought iron which was withdrawn from the furnace and then hammered out. Wrought iron is fibrous in character due to the incidental incorporation within the metal of slag residues and impurities such as magnesium sulfide, Which are formed into long veins by the hammering process. Wrought iron has a high melting point, approaching 1540°C, depending upon its purity. It was traditionally used for components in tension due to its, tensile strength of about 350 N/mm. It is ductile and ‘easily worked or forged when red hot, thus eminently suitable for crafting into ornamental iconwork, an appropriate use because ofits greater resistance to cor~ rosion than steel. Because of its high melting point, wrought iron cannot be welded oF cast. Production ceased in the UK in 1973 and modern wrought iron is either recycled old material or, mote frequently, low- carbon steel, with its attendant corrosion problems. os Cast iron contains in excess of 2% carbon in iron. It is ‘manufactured by the carbonising of pig iron and scrap with coke in a furnace. The low melting point of around 1130°C and its high fluidity when molten, give rise to its excellent casting properties but, unlike ‘wrought iron, it cannot be hot worked and is generally a brittle material. The corrosion resistance of cast iron thas been exploited in its use for boiler castings, street furniture and traditional rainwater goods. Modern foundries manufacture castings to new designs and as reproduction Victorian and Edwardian components. Differing grades of cast iron are associated with different microscopic crystal structures. The com- mon grey cast iron contains flakes of graphite, which ‘cause the characteristic brittleness and impart the grey colour to fractured surfaces. White cast iron contains the carbon as crystals of cementite (ironFERROUS AND NOW ‘Stondard hot-olled sect Unites clara Struc ee J L Joi Chonae Oa Solow section rele hallow ston Squre tecangn hollow section 2 hallow saci: old rolled sections t / ~ | — Li Phin cite ge son edn a ~ 4 7 ) | { ( Sropeleon aie Wo sn Fig. 5.7 Hot-rolled ond cold-rolled sections (after Trebilcock, PJ. 1994: Building design using cold formed ste! sections: an architect's vide. Stal Construction Inte) carbide, Fe,C) formed by rapid cooling of the melt. This material may be annealed to reduce its brittle character. A_more ductile cast iron (spheroidal cast iron) is produced by the addition of magnesium and ferrosilicon and annealing which causes the carbon to crystallse into graphite nodules. This material has an increased tensile strength and significantly greater FERROUS METALS 155 ugh ton 02% chon Lop cab so 07-05% Ail steel 0.15-0.25% edi cabo se 75-05% Higheabon seg 05-09% (eben eal steels 1 Iain di Incesng os ol Iceaig esl sterth lnceasng quenched hordes Caton conten by wight (3) Fig, 5.8 fe of carbon content on the properties of wrought ron and sels impact resistance. All cast irons are strong in com- pression, Road iron goods, such as manhole covers, made from largely recycled grey cast iron are heavy but brit- tle, Where increased impact resistance is required for public roads, lighter and stronger ductile iron compo nents are used, Traditional sand cast rainwater goods are usually manufactured from grey cast iron, while ‘ast iron drainage systems are manufactured from both grey and ductile iron. Unlike steel, cast iron does not soften prematurely in a fire, but may crack if cooled too quickly with water from a fire hose, Cast iron drainage systems in both grey and spheroidal cast. iron are covered by the standard BE EN 877: 1998. ‘Cast iron drainage systems are particularly appropri- ate in heritage and conservation areas. ‘A wide range of steels are commercially available re- flecting the differing properties associated with carbon content, the various heat treatments and the addition of alloying components Carbon contents of steels range typically between 0.079% and 1.7% and this alone is reflected in a wide spectrum of physical properties. ‘The low-carbon (0.17-0.15%) and mild steels (0.15-0.25%) are156 MATERIALS FOR ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS relatively soft and can be subjected to extensive cold working, Medium-carbon steels (0.25-0.5%), which are often heat treated, are hard wearing. High-carbon steels (0,5-0.998) and carbon tool steels (0.9-1.796) exhibit increasing steen increasing carbon content. and wear resistance with HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS ‘The physical properties of steels can be modified by various heat treatments which involve heating to a particular temperature followed by cooling under controlled conditions, Hordenng Rapidly quenched steel, cooled quickly from a high temperature in oil or water, thus retaining the high temperature crystalline form, is hard and brittle. This effect becomes more pronounced for the higher car- bon content steels, which are mostly unsuitable for engineering purposes in this state Annealing ond normalising These processes involve the softening ofthe hard steel by recrystallisation, which relieves internal stresses within the material and produces a more uniform grain structure, For annealing, the sted is rcheated and soaked at a temperature of over 700°C, then cooled slowly at a controlled rate within a furnace or cooling pit. This produces the softest stel for a given compo: sition, With normalising, the stel is reheated toa sim- ilar temperature fora shorter period and then allowed to cool more rapidly in air. This facilitates subsequent cold working and machining pracesses. Tempering Reheating the steel to a moderate temperature (400-600°C}, followed by cooling in air, reduces the brittleness by allowing some recrystallsation of the metal. The magnitude of the effect is directly related to the tempering temperature, with ductility increas- ing and tensile strength reducing for the higher process temperatures. orburising Components may be case hardened to produce a higher carbon content on the outer surface, whilst leaving the core relatively soft; thus giving a hard wearing surlace without embrittlement and loss of impact resistance to the centre, Usually this process involves heating the components surrounded by char~ coal or other carbon-based material to approximately 900°C for several hours. The components are then hheat treated to fully develop the surface hardness. SPECIFICATION OF STEELS ‘Steels within the Buropean Union are designated by a series of European Standards, BS EN 10025: 2004. Hot-rolled structural stels: BS EN 10025-1: 2008 BS EN 10025-2: 2004 BS EN 10025-3: 2004 General technical data Non-alloy structural stels Weldable fine-grained structural stels, Rolled weldable fine: grained structural steels Steels with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance High yield strength, scructural stels BS EN 1025-4: 2004 BS EN 10025-6: 2008 In addition, BS EN 10210-1: 2006 and BS EN 10219-1: 2006 relate to hot- and cold-formed struc tural hollow sections respectively. The standard grades and their associated characteristic strengths are illus ‘uated in Tables 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 54 and 5.5, In the stan dards, § refers to structural steel and the subsequent coding numbers relate to the minimum yield strength. The sub-grade letters refer to impact resistance and other production conditions and compositions, such as W for weather-resistant steel. Steel numbers for each, ‘grade of stel are defined by BS EN 10027-2: 1992. The following example illustrates the two coding systems for one standard grade of steel: 'S275)R (BS EN 10027~1: 2005) 1.0044 (BS EN 1027-2: 1992) S275]R__S refers to structural stel ‘The yield strength is 275 MPa. Jis the lower impact strength at room temperature R. 1.0044 The frst digit is the material group ‘number with steel L ‘The second pair of digits isthe steel {group number with 00 referring to a non-alloy base steel. ‘The final digits refer to the particular grade of non-alloy stel,FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS Tobe 5.1 _ Steel designtons fr standard grades o BS EN 100252: 2004 (Hol-olled products of non-alloystuc- tural tes) Dasinaton Properties SEN 10077—1, 7005 & BS EN 1O0N7—2. 1992 BS EN 100752, 2004 lms Grde Nua bina ere Minimum eld stent Pa) stent Pa) S185 1.0035 0-510 185 S7a5hk 10038 360-510 Fy 13510 ong 360-510 Fy 135i Lon 360-510 ES STIR 0044 10-50 mS su75i0 10183 0-50 m5 sms Lous 0-50 m5 Sa55Rk 1.045 70-630 w 538810 1.053 70-430 BS s385i2 1st? 70-430 BS sassee 1.0596 70-430 BS Ns: Sub-grades JR, 10, 12 ond K2 indicate inceosng inp resistance os meosred bythe Charpy V-notch est Khas 0 Higher impact energy than J, the symbols 8,0 ond 2 tr fo she impac tet ot oom temperature, O'C nd —20°C respec Dei fr tienes of 16 mares Table 5.2 Sto! dsignatios for higher grade sutra steals o BS EN 100253: 2004 (Hotrod products in weldabl fine grin sucural steels) Dasinaton Properties BS EN 10075-7004 Tins timate ee Minimum ld reg (Pa) sgh (Pa) STN 1.0490 70-510, mS SUISNL Loa 70-si0 us S255 10505 70-80 355 S2S5NL 10546 70-40 355 saz0N 102 10-480 00 Saz0Nt levi2 520-680 m0 sto 1.8901 590-720 460 SHON 18908, 550-720 460 Woes Saba N (nomad or nomad role) lates tothe physical te of he el ad (ow tempat mpac o high inp resise, Dates for ike of 16 mm ors158 MATERIALS FOR ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS Table 5.3 Sto designations for higher grades to BS EN 100254: 2004 (Hot-oled produ in thermomechon- called weldoble fine-grain srl ste) Dasignaon Properties {SEN 10027-17005 & BS EN Jo0TF—2. 1992 SEN 100254 7004s Grade Hunter Ubinas Him eld sng Pa) stg Pa) STN oo 70-530 ms SUIS Leg 370-530 mS sass 1.8023 70-630 #5 Sas5ML 1.34 70-430 5 sano 1.025 10-080 40 sazon 1.836 10-680 0 sagan \027 so-700 460 Svea 138 540-720 460 Nts: Sat-gne Mi (bmrechriel la) wash phys se lt so od L fo mpeg) igh nga reine Dati fr thins of 16mm ars Tobe 5.4 Stee! designations for weuteressontgrodeso BS EN 100255: 2004 Designation 5 10027-12005 &BSEN 100072. 1992 Propet BS EN 10025-52004 mis Grate Numer timate ese Minimum eld steht) sheng ta) s73siow 18958 360-510 BS s13siaw 1.8961 360-510 BS sassiouP 1.8945 70-430 38 Sassi0n 18946 70-430 BS sassiow 18959 70-480 35 sassiaw 3965 70-430 BS sasseaw 1.8966 70-430 BS Nos Saas 0,12 on K2 especie nde incesing imp resitons Sara W ets weather eso tel Pind high phospho ge Dots for theses of 16m as STRUCTURAL STEELS Weldable structural steels, as used in the Wembley Stadium, London (Fig. 5.9), have a carbon content within the range 0.16-0.25%. Structural steels are ‘usually normalised by natural cooling in air after hot rolling, The considerable size effect which causes the larger sections to cool more slowly than the thinner sections gives rise to significant differences in physi- cal properties, thus an 80 mm section can typically. have a 10% lower yield strength than a 16 mm section of the same steel. Whilst grade $275 hadFERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS 159 Table 5.5 Sie designations for high-yield strength quenched ond tempered sels fo 8S EN 100256: 2004 Dasinaton Properties SEN 100771, 7005 & BS EN 100772. 1992 BS EN 10075-7004 Tns| Grde Nua bina ere Minimum eld stent Pa) stent Pa) sang 1.0708 550720 wo ss000 as 590-770 00 sss00 1.8904 640-000 50 x20 Lang 700-890 10 9900 1.8931 0-340 690 2300 18940 940-1100 890 9400 18941 980-1150 960 Nes: (indies quenched ste Daas fr tienes betes 3 mm ond 50 9 Stuctralsteeork — Wembley Stadium, London. cht: Foster ond Parnes. Phoagroph: Arthur Lyons previously been considered to be the standard grade Hollew sections structural steel and is still used for most small beams, flats and angles, the higher grade $355 is increasingly being used for larger beams, columns and hollow sections. Circular, oval, quate and rectangular hollow sections are usually made from flat sections which are progres sively bent until almost round, They are then passed160 through a high-frequency induction coil to raise the edges to fusion temperature, when they are forced together to complete the tube. Excess metal is removed from the surface. reheated to normalising temperature (850-950°C), and hot-rolled into circular, oval, rectangular or square sections. For smaller sizes, the tube is heated to 950-1050°C and stretch reduced to appropriate dimensions. The standard steel grades to BS EN 10210-1: 1994 are $275]2H and $355)2H (Table 5.6). Cold-formed hollow sections differ in material characteristics from the hot-finished sections and con- form to BS EN 10219: 1997. The lowest grade $235, with a minimum yield strength of 235 MPa is imported, but the standard non-alloy grades are S275, The whole tube may then be MATERIALS FOR ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS and $355, Grades $420 and $460 are designated as alloy special stels (Table 5.7) Bending of structural sections Castellated beams, rolled, hollow and other sections can bbe bent into curved forms by specialist metal bending ‘companies. The minimum radius achievable depends upon the metallurgical properties, thickness and the «cross-section. Generally, smaller sections can be curved. to smaller radii than the larger sections, although for a given cross-section size the heavier-gauge sections can bebent to smaller radii than the thinner-gauge sections. ‘Normally universal sections can be bent to tighter radii than hollow sections of the same dimensions. Elegant Table 5.6 Seo designation for ho finshed structural hollow secon o BS EN 10210: 2006 (Hotrshed su url secions of non-ly and fn cin sacra see) Designation Proetis SEH 10027-17005 8 BS EN 100N7-2. 1992 BSEN TOMO, 7006 ins Gade Hunk timate Mii eld sng (Pa) stength Pa) S7a5RR8 1.0089 360-510 BS sz7sion 10149 0-560 as sus. 10138 10-560 ms sassion 1.0547 70-430 BS sassigh 1.0576 70-430 BS Sas5eaH 1.0512 70-430 BS sz75Nit 10898, 70-510 us Sz75NUA 10897 70-510 mS Sassn 1.0589 70-430 38 SaS5Nta 1.0549 70-430 8 sazoxtt 14750 10-480 0 sazoNut 15 520-480 0 s44ovt 1.8958 40-700 460 Huon 1.8956 540-720 460 Nos els elo sections. Saad J, 0 ad J2 nda imgc esistace oro temperate, OC and —20 12 ert highe rgd energy than 2 respect Saba N (nemalsed or nomad role) lates othe physic oe fhe tel ord L ow tent impact) thigh ing rise. The sand UKpoduton grades are the S2752H and S252 desgatins. Dates fr thks betes 3 rm nd 16 mn.FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS 161 Table 5.7 Stal designations for cold formed structural hollow sections o BS EN 102191: 2006 (Col-formed welded structural hollow scons of non-allay and fine grain teas) Dasinaton Properties SEN 100771, 7005 & BS EN 100772. 1992 BSEN 107191; 2006 ns Grde Nua bina ere Minimum eld stent Pa) stent Pa) STRSR 1.0039 360-510 Fy sz7sion 1048 0-560 mS ssi 10138 0-50 m5 assign 147 70-430 38 assign 1.0576 70-430 BS sasseat 1osi2 70-630 BS su75K 1.0483, 70-510 ms STINK 1.0487 70-510 mS Sas5N 1.0539 70-630 5 SaS8MlH 1st 70-430 BS s4goNt 1.8883, s40-700 460 SH4ONtH 1.8856 540-700 460 Susi 103 360-10 us Susie 1.044 340-510 us Sassi 1.8845 450-610 35 SaSsml 1.8846 450-410 35 azo 1.047 00-440 10 sana 18 00-460 10 stoi 1.8849 530-700 460 SHON 1.8880, 530-720 460 Nos Hes ol ets, Saba J, 10 ad Zina impa since ora tpeaue, 0° nd ~20" especialy (2 lest highr ined engy than 2. Saba M (hermomettoical led) ond Nromalied normalised wilt othe physicals ofthe sel ond L (how emperor imped) thigh imped sian The stardrdUEpoduon gas veh S275 on S3552H desgatis. Data is for hikes betesn 3 mm ond 16 structures, such as Merchants Bridge, Manchester (Hig, Increasingly cold bending i eplacing induction or hot 5.10) can be produced with curved standard sections bending which require subsequent heat weatment to and alko curved tapered beams. The cold bending regain the inital sel properties. process work hardens the ste, but without sigaiiant los of performance within the cast range appropriate to structural steelwork. Tolerances on units can be as STEEL low as =2 mm with muliple bends reverse curvatures Bist panels consist of two stel plats held apart by and bends into three dimensions all possible. an array of welded stel bar connectors (Fig. 5.11)