Manufacturing Engineering I

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF

MANUFACTURING
Manufactured Products
 Final products made by the manufacturing industries can
be divided into two major classes: consumer goods and
capital goods.
 Consumer goods are products purchased directly by
consumers, such as cars, personal computers, TVs, tires,
and tennis rackets.
 Capital goods are those purchased by companies to
produce goods and/or provide services.
 Examples of capital goods include aircraft, computers,
communication equipment, medical apparatus, trucks and
buses, railroad locomotives, machine tools, and
construction equipment.
 1.2 MATERIALS IN MANUFACTURING
Ferrous Metals
metals
Nonferrous Metals

Crystalline Ceramic
Ceramics
Glasses
Engineering
Materials Polymers Thermoplastics
Thermo sets
Elastomers
Metal Matrix Composites
Composite Ceramic Matrix Composites

Polymer Matrix Composites

Classification of the four
engineering materials.
 Metal is an element, compound or alloy that is a good conductor
of both electricity and heat
 Metal crystal structure and specific metal properties are
determined by metallic bonding – force, holding together the
atoms of a metal
 Ability of the valence free electrons to travel throughout the solid
explains both the high electrical conductivity and thermal
conductivity of metals.
Other specific metal features are: luster or shine of their
surface (when polished), their malleability (ability to be
hammered) and ductility (ability to be drawn).
These properties are also associated with the metallic
bonding and presence of free electrons in the crystal
lattice.
Ferrous Metals
 Ferrous metals are based on iron; the group includes steel and
cast iron.
 These metals constitute the most important group commercially,
more than three fourths of the metal tonnage throughout the
world.
 Pure iron has limited commercial use, but when alloyed with
carbon, iron has more uses and greater commercial value than any
other metal. Alloys of iron and carbon form steel and cast iron.
 Iron Ores and Other Raw Materials

 The principal ore used in the production of iron and steel is

hematite (Fe2O3). Other iron ores include:
 magnetite(Fe3O4),
 siderite (FeCO3),and
 limonite(Fe 2O3-xH2O, in which x is typically around 1.5).
 Iron ores contain 50%to around 70% iron, depending on grade
(hematite is almost 70% iron).
 In addition, scrap iron and steel are widely used today as raw
materials in iron- and steel making
 Other raw materials needed to reduce iron from the ores are
coke and lime stone.
 Coke is a high carbon fuel produced by heating bituminous
coal in a limited oxygen atmosphere for several hours,
followed by water spraying in special quenching towers. Coke
serves two functions in the reduction process:
(1) it is a fuel that supplies heat for the chemical reactions; and
(2) It produces carbon monoxide (CO) to reduce the iron ore.
 Limestone is a rock containing high proportions of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). The limestone is used in the process as a
flux to react with and Remove impurities in the molten iron as
slag.
 Iron Ore

 Limestone ----------

 Coke
Iron Ore
 Abundant, makes up 5% of earth’s crust
 Is not found in ‘free state’, must be found in rocks and
oxides.
 After mining, the ore is crushed and the iron is
separated, then made into pellets, balls or briquettes
using binders, such as water.
 The pellets are typically 65% iron, and about 1” in
diameter.
Coke – (…The black, legal kind)
 Coke is formed by heating coal to 1150 C, then cooling it in
quenching towers.

You need more than Iron? Why coke is used…

1. Generates high heat, needed in order for chemical
reactions in iron making to take place.
2. Produces CO (carbon monoxide) which reduces
iron-oxide to Iron.
Raw Materials  Pig Iron
 The three raw materials are dumped into a blast furnace.
 Hot air (2000*F) is blasted into the furnace, which helps drive
the chemical reaction. The coke forms CO and the CO reduces
the iron oxide to iron.
 The slag floats to the top and the metal is transferred to molds
and cools. IT IS NOW PIG IRON, ready for more iron work or
steelmaking.
Blast Furnace
 THE IRON–CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM
 The iron–carbon phase diagram is shown in Figure 6.4. Pure iron melts at
1539C (2802F).
 During the rise in temperature from ambient, it under goes several solid phase
transformations, as indicated in the diagram. Starting at room temperature the
phase is alpha (a), also called ferrite.
 At 912C (1674F), ferrite transforms to gamma (g), called austenite. This, in
turn, transforms at 1394C (2541F) to delta (d), which remains until melting
occurs.
 The three phases are distinct; alpha and delta have BCC lattice structures and
between them, gamma is FCC.
Ferrous Metals
 Iron
 Pig iron
 Cast iron
 white cast iron

 grey cast iron

 Wrought iron
 Iron (Fe) – atomic number 26
most widely used of all metals as base metal in
steel and cast iron
 Pig iron - the intermediate product of smelting iron ore with a
high-carbon fuel such as coke, usually with limestone as a flux
 Cast iron – is derived from pig iron
◦ White cast iron is named after its white surface when fractured,
due to its carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight
through.
◦ Grey cast iron is named after its grey fractured surface, which
occurs because the graphitic flakes deflect a passing crack and
initiate countless new cracks as the material breaks.
 ◦Wrought iron - iron alloy with a very low carbon
content, in comparison to steel, and has fibrous
inclusions (slag)
◦tough, malleable, ductile and easily welded
 Steel
Cast steel
Stainless steel
High-speed steel

 Stainless steel (inox steel) is a steel alloy with a

minimum of 10.5 or 11% chromium content by mass.
 It does not corrode, rust, or stain with water as
ordinary steel does.
 Steel can be defined as an iron carbon alloy containing
0.02% to 2.11% carbon. It is the most important category
within the ferrous metal group. Its composition often
includes other alloying elements as well, such a
manganese, chromium, nickel, and molybdenum, to
enhance the properties of the metal. Applications of steel
include construction.
 Steel
 Cast steel
 Stainless steel
 High-speed steel
 Stainless steel (inox steel) is a steel alloy with a
minimum of 10.5 or 11% chromium content by
mass.
 It does not corrode, rust, or stain with water as
ordinary steel does.
 Plain Carbon Steels
 These steels contain carbon as the principal alloying
element, with only small amounts of other elements (about
0.4% manganese plus lesser amounts of silicon, phosphorus,
and sulfur)
 The strength of plain carbon steels increases with carbon
content.
 The plain carbon steels are typically classified into three
groups according to their carbon content:
 1. Low carbon steels contain less than 0.20% C and are by far
the most widely used steels. High strength is not required.
 2.Medium carbon steels range in carbon between 0.20% and
0.50% and are specified for applications requiring higher
strength than the low-C steels.
 3. High carbon steels contain carbon in amounts greater than
0.50%. They are specified for still higher strength applications
and where stiffness and hardness Are needed.
 Springs, cutting tools and blades,and wear-resistant parts are
examples.
 Increasing carbon content strengthens and hardens the steel, but its
ductility is reduced. Also, high carbon steels can be heat treated to form
martensite, making the steel very hard and strong
 High Speed Steel

is commonly used in tool bits and cutting

tools.
 It can withstand higher temperatures
without losing its hardness. This property
allows HSS to cut faster than high carbon
steel, hence the name high speed steel
 Tool Steels
 Tool steels area class of (usually) highly alloyed steels designed for use as
industrial cutting tools, dies, and molds.
 To perform in these applications, they must possess high strength, hardness, hot
hardness, wear resistance, and toughness under impact.
 To obtain these properties, tool steels are heat treated.
 Principal reasons for the high levels of alloying elements are (1) improved
harden ability, (2) reduced distortion during heat reatment, (3) hot hardness, (4)
formation of hard metallic carbides for abrasion resistance, and (5) enhanced
toughness.
 Chromium(Cr) improves strength, hardness, wear resistance , and
hot hardness.
 It is one of the most effective alloying ingredients for increasing
harden ability
 In significant proportions, Cr improves corrosion resistance.

 Manganese (Mn) improves the strength and hardness of steel.

 When the steel is heat treated, harden ability is improved with
increased manganese. Because of these benefits, manganese is a
widely used alloying ingredient in steel.
 Molybdenum (Mo) increases toughness and hot hardness. It also
improves Harden ability and forms carbides for wear resistance.

 Nickel (Ni) improves strength and toughness. It increases harden

ability but not As much as some of the other alloying elements in
steel.
 In significant amounts it improves corrosion resistance and is the
other major ingredient (besides chromium) in certain types of
stainless steel.
 Vanadium (V) inhibits grain growth during elevated
temperature processing
 and heat treatment, which enhances strength and
toughness of steel.

 It also forms carbides that increase wear resistance .

CAST IRON
 Cast iron is an alloy of iron and carbon (2% to 4%) used
in casting (primarily sand casting).
 Silicon is also present in the alloy (in amounts from 0.5%
to 3%), and other elements are often added also, to obtain
desirable properties in the cast part.
 Cast iron is available in several different forms, of which
gray cast iron is the most common; its applications
include blocks and heads for internal combustion engines.
 Gray Cast Iron
 Gray cast iron accounts for the largest tonnage among the
cast irons.
 It has a composition in the range 2.5%to 4%carbon and1%to
3%silicon.This chemistry results in the formation of graphite
(carbon) flakes distributed throughout the cast product upon
solidification.
 The structure causes the surface of the metal to have a gray
color when fractured; hence the name gray cast iron. The
dispersion of graphite flakes accounts for two attractive
properties:(1) good vibration damping, which is desirable in
engines and other machinery; and (2) internal lubricating
qualities, which makes the cast metal machine able.
Nonferrous Metals

 Nonferrous metals include the other metallic elements

and their alloys.
 In almost all cases, the alloys are more important
commercially than the pure metals.
 The nonferrous metals include the pure metals and alloys
of aluminum, copper, gold, magnesium, nickel, silver, tin,
titanium, zinc, and other metals.
 Copper – Latin cuprum (Cu) – ranks next to iron in
importance and wide range of application
 good heat and electrical conductivity
 resistance to corrosion
 Alloys: brass, bronze, cupro- nickel (copper nickel) alloys
Aluminium
 Al, atomic number 13
 the third most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon),
and the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust
 low density and ability to resist corrosion; good conductivity
 structural components made from aluminium and its alloys
are vital to the aerospace industry and are important in other
areas of transportation and structural materials
 Aluminum Production
 The principal aluminum ore is bauxite, which consists largely of
hydrated aluminum oxide (Al2O3-H2O) and other oxides.
 Extraction of the aluminum From bauxite can be summarized in
three steps:

(1) washing and crushing the ore into fine powders;

(2) the Bayer process, in which the bauxite is converted to pure

alumina (Al2O3); and

(3) electrolysis, in which the alumina is separated into aluminum an

oxygen gas (O2).
 The Bayer process, named after the German chemist who
developed it, involves solution of bauxite powders in aqueous
caustic soda (NaOH) under pressure, followed by precipitation of
pure Al2O3 from solution.
 Electrolysis to separate Al2O3into its constituent elements
requires dissolving the precipitate in a molten bath of cryolite
(Na3AlF6) and subjecting the solution to direct current between
the plates of an electrolytic furnace. The electrolyte dissociates to
form aluminum at the cathode and oxygen gas at the anode.
CERAMICS
 A ceramic is defined as a compound containing metallic (or semi
metallic) and nonmetallic elements.
 Typical nonmetallic elements are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon.
Ceramics include a variety of traditional and modern materials.
 Traditional ceramics, some of which have been used for thousands of

years, include: clay (abundantly available, consisting of fine particles of

hydrous aluminum silicate sand other minerals used in making brick,
tile, and pottery); silica (the basis for nearly all glass products); and
alumina and silicon carbide (two abrasive materials used in grinding).
 Modern ceramics include some of the preceding materials, such as
alumina, whose properties are enhanced in various ways through
modern processing methods.
 Newer ceramics include: carbides—metal carbides such as tungsten
carbide and titanium carbide, which are widely used as cutting tool
materials; and nitrides—metal and semimetal nitrides such as
titanium nitride and boron nitride, used as cutting tools and grinding
abrasives
1.2.3 POLYMERS
 Thermo plastic polymers can be subjected to multiple heating and
cooling cycles without substantially altering the molecular structure
of the polymer. Common thermoplastics include polyethylene,
polystyrene, polyvinylchloride, and nylon. Thermosetting polymers
chemically transform (cure) into a rigid structure on cooling from a
heated plastic condition; hence the name thermosetting. Members of
this type include phenolics, amino resins, and epoxies.
 1.3 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
 A manufacturing process is a designed procedure that results in physical
and/or chemical changes to a starting work material with the intention of
increasing the value of that material.
 A manufacturing process is usually carried out as a unit operation, which
means that it is a single step in the sequence of steps required to transform
the starting material into a final product.
 Manufacturing operations can be divided into two basic types:

(1) processing operations and

(2) assembly operations.

 A processing operation transforms a work material from one state
of completion to a more advanced state that is closer to the final
desired product. It adds value by changing the geometry,
properties, or appearance of the starting material.
 In general, processing operations are performed on discrete work
parts, but certain processing operations are also applicable to
assembled items (e.g., painting a spot-welded car body).
 An assembly operation joins two or more components to create a
new entity, called an assembly, subassembly, or some other term
that refers to the joining process (e.g., a welded assembly is called
a weldment).
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 Three categories of processing operations are distinguished:

(1)shaping operations,

(2) property-enhancing operations, and

(3)surface processing operations.

 Shaping operations alter the geometry of the starting work material by
various methods. Common shaping processes include casting, forging, and
machining.
 Property-enhancing operations add value to the material by improving its
physical properties with out changing its shape.
 Heat treatments the most common example.
 Surface processing operations are performed to clean, treat, coat, or deposit
material onto the exterior surface of the work.
 Shaping Processes
 Most shape processing operations apply heat, mechanical force, or a combination of these to
effect a change in geometry of the work material.
 There are various ways to classify the shaping processes.

(1)solidification processes, in which the starting material is a heated liquid or semi-fluid that cools
and solidifies to form the part geometry

(2) particulate processing, in which the starting material is a powder, and the powders are formed
and heated into the desired geometry;

(3) deformation processes, in which the starting material is a ductile solid (commonly metal) that
is deformed to shape the part; and

(4) material removal processes, in which the starting material is a solid (ductile or brittle),from
which material is removed so that the resulting part has the desired geometry.
 Property-Enhancing Processes

 The second major type of part processing is performed to

improve mechanical or physical properties of the work
material.
 These processes do not alter the shape of the part, except
unintentionally in some cases.
 The most important property-enhancing processes involve heat
treatments, which include various annealing and strengthening
processes for metals and glasses.
 Sintering of powdered metals and ceramics is also a heat
treatment that strengthens a pressed powder metal work part.
 Surface Processing

 Surface processing operations include (1)cleaning, (2)surface

treatments, and (3)coating and thin film deposition processes.
 Cleaning includes both chemical and mechanical processes to
remove dirt, oil, and other contaminants from the surface.
 Surface treatments include mechanical working such as shot
penning and sand blasting, and physical processes such as
diffusion and ion implantation.
 Shot peening is a cold work process used to impart
compressive residual stresses on to the surface of a
component, which results in modified mechanical
properties.
 it is used to add strength and reduce the stress profile of
components.
 Sandblasting is the process of smoothing and cleaning a
hard surface by forcing solid particles across that surface at
high speeds using compressed air.
 Ion implantation is a low-temperature process by which
ions of one element are accelerated into a solid target,
thereby changing the physical, chemical, or electrical
properties of the target
 Coating and thin film deposition processes apply a coating of
material to the exterior surface of the work part.
 Common coating processes include electroplating, anodizing
of aluminum, organic coating (call it painting), and porcelain
enameling.
 Thin film deposition processes include physical vapor
deposition and chemical vapor deposition to form extremely
thin coatings of various substances.
 Several surface-processing operations have been adapted to
fabricate semiconductor materials into integrated circuits for
microelectronics.
 These processes include chemical vapor deposition, physical
vapor deposition, and oxidation.
 They are applied to very localized areas on the surface of a
thin wafer of silicon (or other semiconductor material) to
create the microscopic circuit.
 Assembly Operations
 The second basic type of manufacturing operation is assembly,
in which two or more separate parts are joined to form a new
entity. Components of the new entity are connected either
permanently or semi permanently.
 Permanent joining processes include welding,
brazing, soldering, and adhesive bonding.
 They form a joint between components that can not be easily
disconnected.
 Certain mechanical assembly methods are available to fasten
two (or more) parts together in a joint that can be conveniently
disassembled.
 The use of screws, bolts, and other threaded fasteners are
important traditional methods in this category.
 Manufacturing, in the broad sense, begins during the design phase when judgments
are made concerning part geometry, tolerances, material choices, and so on.
 Manufacturing operations start with manufacturing planning activities and with the
acquisition of required resources, such as process equipment and raw materials.
 The manufacturing function extends through out a number of activities of design and
production to the distribution of the end product and, as necessary, life cycle
support.
 Modern manufacturing operations can be viewed as having six principal
components: materials being processed, process equipment (machines),
manufacturing methods, equipment calibration and maintenance, skilled workers and
technicians, and enabling resources.
 Unit Manufacturing and Assembly Processes
 Considering the effect that a manufacturing process has on work piece
Configuration and structure, the following five general types of unit manufacturing
process can be identified.

1.Material removal processes: Geometry is generated by changing the mass of the

incoming material in a controlled and well-defined manner, e.g., milling, turning,
electro discharge machining, and polishing.

2. Deformation processes: The shape of a solid work piece is altered by plastic

deformation without changing its mass or composition, e.g., rolling,

3. Primary shaping processes: A well-defined geometry is established by bulk forming

material that initially had no shape, e.g., casting, injection molding, die casting, and
consolidation of powders.
4. Structure-change processes: The microstructure, properties, or
appearance of the work piece are altered without changing the
original shape of the work piece, e.g., heat treatment and surface

5.Joining and assembly processes: Smaller objects are put together

to achieve a desired geometry, structure, and/or property. There
are two general types: (1) consolidation processes which use
mechanical, chemical, or thermal energy to bond the objects
(e.g., welding and diffusion bonding) and (2) strictly mechanical
joining (e.g., riveting, shrink fitting, and conventional assembly).
 Unit Process Selection

 Each component being manufactured has a well-defined

geometry and a set of requirements that it must meet.
These typically include
• Shape and size
• Bill-of-material
• Accuracy and tolerances
• Appearance and surface finish
• Physical (including mechanical) properties
• Production quantity
• Cost of manufacture
 Thank You
The End of Chapter One