MDC-1: Information and Communication Technologies-I

Early History of Computer

Since the evolution of humans, devices have been used for calculations for thousands of
years. One of the earliest and most well-known devices was an abacus. Then in 1822, the father of
computers, Charles Babbage began developing what would be the first mechanical computer. And
then in 1833 he actually designed an Analytical Engine which was a general-purpose computer. It
contained an ALU, some basic flow chart principles and the concept of integrated memory.
Then more than a century later in the history of computers, we got our first electronic
computer for general purpose. It was the ENIAC, which stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer. The inventors of this computer were John W. Mauchly and J.Presper Eckert. And
with times the technology developed and the computers got smaller and the processing got faster.
We got our first laptop in 1981 and it was introduced by Adam Osborne and EPSON.

Evolution of computing system

From the very early days a number of devices were used for processing data. During
2200 B.C., Babylonians used a mechanical calculating device called ABACUS. During 1610, a
Schottish mathematician, John Napier developed a method of arrangement of rod to produce the
products of selected numbers. In 1645, French mathematician Blaise Pascal produced the
Pascaline which was the first mechanical calculator to perform additions and subtractions.
In 1822, an English Mathematician constructed difference engine which can calculate and
print result. Information can be entered by using coded punch card.
During 1940s, the first electronic computers, the ENIAC (Electronic, Numerator,
Integrator, Analyzer and Computer) were developed. In 1949 another electronic computer was
developed at Cambridge called EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer). It can
be operated under the control of stored program. John Von Neumann developed a IAS (Institute
for Advanced Study) computer at Princeton University. It was capable to process a fixed number
of binary digits. It was the model of modern computer.
In 1951, Rand Corporation developed the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer). It
was the first commercially available computer. In 1956, MIT introduced transistorized computer
system (TX-0). After development of IC, computers were becoming smaller, faster and more
powerful.

Generations of Computer

The development of computer systems is normally analysed as the development over

different generations.
First Generation
 The period 1940 to 1956, roughly considered as the First Generation of Computer.
 The first generation computers were developed by using vacuum tube or thermionic valve
machine.
 The input of this system was based on punched cards and paper tape; however, the output
was displayed on printouts.
 The first generation computers worked on binary-coded concept (i.e., language of 0-
1). Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC, etc.

Second Generation
 The period 1956 to 1963 is roughly considered as the period of Second Generation of
Computers.
 The second generation computers were developed by using transistor technology.
 In comparison to the first generation, the size of second generation was smaller.
 In comparison to computers of the first generation, the computing time taken by the
computers of the second generation was lesser.
Third Generation
 The period 1963 to 1971 is roughly considered as the period of Third Generation of
computers.
 The third generation computers were developed by using the Integrated Circuit (IC)
technology.
 In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the size of the computers of the
third generation was smaller.
  In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the computing time taken by
the computers of the third generation was lesser.
 The third generation computer consumed less power and also generated less heat.
 The maintenance cost of the computers in the third generation was also low.
 The computer system of the computers of the third generation was easier for commercial
use.
Fourth Generation
 The period 1972 to 2010 is roughly considered as the fourth generation of computers.
 The fourth generation computers were developed by using microprocessor technology.
 By coming to fourth generation, computer became very small in size, it became portable.
 The machine of fourth generation started generating very low amount of heat.
 It is much faster and accuracy became more reliable.
 The production cost reduced to very low in comparison to the previous generation.
 It became available for the common people as well.
Fifth Generation
 The period 2010 to till date and beyond, roughly considered as the period of fifth
generation of computers.
 By the time, the computer generation was being categorized on the basis of hardware
only, but the fifth generation technology also included software.
 The computers of the fifth generation had high capability and large memory capacity.
 Working with computers of this generation was fast and multiple tasks could be
performed simultaneously.
 Some of the popular advanced technologies of the fifth generation include Artificial
intelligence, Quantum computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel processing, etc

Types of Computer.
The computer systems can be classified on the following basis:
1. On the basis of size.
2. On the basis of functionality.
3. On the basis of data handling.
Classification on the basis of size
Super Computers: The super computers are the highest performing system. A supercomputer
is a computer with a high level of performance compared to a general-purpose computer.
Supercomputers actually play an important role in the field of computation, and are used for
intensive computation tasks in various fields, including quantum mechanics, weather
forecasting, climate research, and oil and gas exploration. e.g.: PARAM, jaguar, roadrunner.
Mainframe computers : These are commonly called as big iron, they are usually used by big
organisations for bulk data processing such as statistics, census data processing, transaction
processing and are widely used as the servers as these systems has a higher processing
capability. Eg: IBM z Series, System z9 and System z10 servers.
Mini computers : These computers came into the market in mid 1960s and were sold at a
much cheaper price than the main frames, they were actually designed for control,
instrumentation, human interaction, and communication switching as distinct from calculation
and record keeping, later they became very popular for personal uses with evolution. Eg:
Personal Laptop, PC etc.
Micro computers : A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer with a
microprocessor as its CPU. It includes a microprocessor, memory, and minimal I/O circuitry
mounted on a single printed circuit board. Eg: Tablets, Smartwatches.

Classification on the basis of functionality

Servers : Servers are nothing but dedicated computers which are set-up to offer some services
to the clients. They are named depending on the type of service they offered. Eg: security
server, database server.
Workstation : Those are the computers designed to primarily to be used by single user at a
time. They run multi-user operating systems. They are the ones which we use for our day to
day personal / commercial work.
Information Appliances : They are the portable devices which are designed to perform a
limited set of tasks like basic calculations, playing multimedia, browsing internet etc.
Embedded computers : They are the computing devices which are used in other machines to
serve limited set of requirements. They follow instructions from the non-volatile memory and
they are not required to execute reboot or reset.

Classification on the basis of data handling

Analog Computer: The computer where movement of data is continuous is called Analog
computer. These type of computers are used for measuring temperature, pressure etc.
Digital Computer: The computer which used digital data for processing is called Digital
computer. Computer using now a days are digital computer.
Hybrid Computer: This type of computer is the combination of both analog and digital
computers. For example the machine used in PCO for telephonic purpose.

Components of Computer System

Definition of computer

A computer is a machine which can process data, perform some arithmetic and logic
operation and can store information for future use. It can take data as input, analyzes and
synthesizes those to produce required information.
Characteristics of Computer
A computer has the following characteristics:
i) Speed: Speed of computer is measured by number of instructions it can perform in
microsecond (10-6) or nanoseconds (10-9) or picoseconds (10-12). Today computers can perform
around 100 million computations in 1 second.
ii) Accuracy: Computer always produces accurate result when valid data and proper instructions
are given. If there will be any error in data or instruction then result will be unexpected.
iii) Reliability: A computer responds to the instruction without any alteration. As a result of
this, there is no chance for doubt over output. Therefore, the user relies on it for effectiveness.
Example include a program computer device to ring alarm to alert workers of any emergency,
iv) Versatility: It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. A computer
may be used to prepare payroll slips, for inventory management or to prepare electric bills etc.
v) Diligence: A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work
for hours continuously.
vi) Storage capacity: Computer can store information for future use. It keeps the information as
it is stored by the user.

Basic components of computer

Basically it has the following components

i) Input device ii) Output device iii) Memory device
iv) Arithmetic and Logic unit v) Control unit

Control Unit

Input Output
Arithmetic &
Device Device
Logic Unit

Memory

Central Processing
Unit

Central Processor Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of a computer where all kinds of
processing are carried out. This unit process the input data according to the set of instructions. It
has two major parts called Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU) and Control Unit.
i) ALU: - It performs arithmetical and logical operations. Arithmetic operation includes
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical operation includes AND, OR, NOT
and Exclusive OR operation. This unit further performs increment, decrement and shift and
clearance operations as well.
 ii) Control Unit: - This unit is mainly used for generating the electronic control signals
for the synchronization of various operations. All operation related to memory, input and output
device are synchronized through the control signal generated by the control unit. It controls all
the operations of the computer.
Memory (primary / secondary)
The device which stores data or instructions on the computer is called memory. A
memory contains a large number of cells. Each cell capable of string one bit of information that
means one cell can store either 0 or 1.
A computer system has two types of memory – primary and secondary. Again the
memory may be volatile or nonvolatile. Volatile memory loses all information as soon as the
computer is turned off. Nonvolatile memory retains its information even after the computer is
turned off.
a) Primary Memory
1. Random Access Memory (RAM): RAM is volatile memory. All running programs
and data are stored in RAM so that they are available and easily accessed by the CPU. There are
different types of RAM
i) Static RAM (SRAM): In SRAM, it not necessary to re-written data periodically.
When the actual write command is executed, the data on the memory is refreshed or changed. It
is very fast but expensive.
ii) Dynamic RAM (DRAM): In DRAM, data must be continually re-written. It re-writes
data several hundred times per second. It is cheap and small.
2. Read Only Memory (ROM): ROM is non-volatile memory. Data stored in this
memory can be read only but cannot modify. Computer’s startup instructions and system BIOS
are stored in ROM because user should not modify those. It is slower than RAM. Different types
of ROM are
i) Progarmmable ROM (PROM): This is a blank ROM. Data can be written into
PROM only one time. It is like a blank CD-R.
ii) Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): Data stored in this type of ROM can be
erased and re-written again. It is like CD-RW.
iii) Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): This ROM can be re-
written by using a special software. It also called flash ROM or flash BIOS.
b) Secondary storage device
All secondary storage devices are non-volatile. Different secondary storage devices are
i) Hard disk: - Hard disk contains a number of smooth metal plates coated on both sides
with a thin film of magnetic material. These plates are fixed to a spindle one below the other.
The disk also contains a set of magnetic heads to read/write data on surface. Each surface is
divided into some circular area called track. Each track is again divided into some sectors. Data
is recorded on the surface of the plates. The storage capacity of a disk depends upon the number
of recording surfaces, the bits per inch of track, the tracks per inch of surface and the block size.
It is fast, reliable and low priced. It comes in many sizes and capacities.
ii) Floppy disk: Floppy disk contains a magnetically coated plat covered by a jacket. The
recording surface of the plat is divided into a number of circular tracks and sectors per track. The
storage capacity is 1.4 MB. Floppy disks are compact, inexpensive and portable mainly used for
micro and mini computer system. But at present time its uses become limited.
iii) Magnetic tape: - Magnetic tape memories used for storing large amounts of data in a
predefined orderly sequence. The tape medium contains data and is sealed in a cartridge. Two
major technologies are used in magnetic tape. One is called Ultrium uses 12.5 mm width tape of
length around 650 metres storing 400 GB in compressed form. The second uses 8 or 4 mm width
tape of length around 150 metres with maximum capacity of around 20 to 100 GB compressed.
Magnetic tape can transfer data at a speed of around 1 million bytes per second.
iv) Compact disk (CD): - It is the most popularly used high capacity secondary storage.
Compact disk also known as laser disk or optical disk is a shiny metal like disk whose diameter
is 5.25 inches. It can store around 650 MB of data. Information in CD is written by creating pits
of around 0.8 micrometre diameter in size, on the disk surface by shining a laser beam. The
presence of pit represents 1 otherwise 0(zero). CD is rotated in the drive at a speed of 360
revolutions per minute. Generally CDs are read only but erasable CDs are also available.
v) Digital Versatile Disk (DVD): It is a high density disk that can store upto 20 GB of
data. Its physical size is similar to CD.
vi) Flash Memory: Flash memory is a non volatile memory. It can be electrically erased
and reprogrammed. It is mainly used in memory cards, USB flash drives, MP3 players. It is a
specific type of EEPROM. Flash memory is very fast, extremely durable, able to withstand in
intense pressure, extremes of temperature, and even immersion in water.
Functionalities of a computer

Basic I/O devices

Point and draw devices

The point and draw device is an input system that helps to point and select an icon to be
shown on the screen quickly. Some of the most common point and draw devices are. Trackball,
Mouse, Joystick,

Data Scanning device

A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints, posters, magazine
pages and similar sources for computer editing and display. Scanners work by converting the
image on the document into digital information that can be stored on a computer through optical
character recognition (OCR).

Voice Recognition Devices

Digitizers
A digitizer is a device that receives, processes and records digitally any analog
information such as light, sound, touch, or pressure. For example, a digital camera can be
considered as a digitizer, as it takes analog light information and converts it to a digital picture.
The process of translating data from the analog version to its digital form is called digitization.
Introduction to number system
Number system is a way to represent a numeric value according to radix or base. It is a
system that uses distinct symbols for radix. Numbers can be represented by a string of digits. To
calculate quantity of the number, multiply each digit by an integer power of radix and then
calculate summation of all weighted digits.
Basically, on the basis of radix or base, number system can be classified into four types.
i) Binary ii) Octal
iii) Decimal iv) Hexadecimal
i) Binary: The radix or base of binary number system is 2. It uses two digits to represent any
number which are 0 and 1. Thus 2 is represented as 10, 3 as 11, 4 as 100, 5 as 101.
ii) Octal: The radix of octal number system is 8. Therefore, this system uses 8 digits from 0 to 7
to represent any number,
iii) Decimal: The radix of decimal number system is 10. It uses 10 digits from 0 to 9 to
represent any number.
iv) Hexadecimal: The radix of hexadecimal number system is 16. It uses 16 digits to represent
any numbers. The digits are from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A (10), B (11). C (12), D (13), E (14)
and F (15).
The following table shows the numbers in different system
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 01 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
Table 2.1: Numbers in different number systems

Conversion of bases
A number can be represented either in binary, octal, decimal or in hexadecimal system. A
number represented in one system can be converted to another system. For example, a binary
number (i.e. represented in binary system) can be converted to octal, decimal or hexadecimal.
The conversion process is summarized fig 2.1.
Decimal Binary Gray code
0 000 000
1 001 001
2 010 011
3 011 010
4 100 110
5 101 111
6 110 101
7 111 100
Table 2.2: Numbers in Decimal, Binary and Gray code

Rule 1

Decimal number Other number system (Binary or

system Octal or Hexadecimal number)

Rule 2

Fig 2.1: Base conversion rules

Rule 1:Divide the decimal number by radix of other number system until the quotient becomes
zero. Arrange the remainder from last division to the first. If fractional part exist than multiply it
by radix until result becomes approximately 0. Arrange the integer part of each multiplication
result from beginning.

Rule 2: N= ∑ digit * radixn

n=0,1,2,…. From right to left for integer part
n= -1, -2,…. From left to right for fractional part
i) Binary to Decimal conversion: A binary number can be converted to decimal by
following Rule 2. Each digit of the integer part of the binary number will be multiplied by 2 n.
The fractional part will be multiplied by 2-n.
Example 2.1: Convert 1010112 to decimal
Solution: 1x 25 + 0 x 24 + 1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20
= 32 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1
= 4310 Ans: 4310
Example 2.2: Convert 1101.1012 to Decimal
Solution:
1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2 + 1 x 2-3
= 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 + ½ + 0 + 1/8
= 13 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125
Ans: 13.62510
= 13.62510

ii) Decimal to Binary conversion: A decimal number can be converted to binary by following
Rule 1. That is the decimal number has to be divided by 2 (radix of binary system) until the
quotient become less than 2. Then arrange the remainder from last division to the first.
Example 2.3: Convert 7510 to binary
Solution:
2 75
2 37 --- 1
2 18 --- 1
2 9 --- 0
2 4 --- 1
2 2 --- 0
2 1 --- 0
 0 --- 1 Ans: 10010112
7510 = 10010112

Example 2.4: Convert 43.2510 to binary

Solution:
2 43
2 21 -- 1
0.25
2 10 -- 1 x 2
2 5 -- 0 0.50
2 2 --- 1 x 2
1.00
2 1 --- 0
0 --- 1
43.2510 = 101011.012
Ans: 101011.012

Decimal to Octal conversion: A decimal number can be converted to octal by using rule1 that is
divide the decimal number by radix of octal until the quotient become less than radix. Arrange
the remainder from last division to the first.

Example 2.5: Convert 16210 to octal.

Solution:
8 162
8 20 --- 2
8 2 --- 4
8 0 --- 2

16210 = 2428 Ans: 2428

Example 2.6: Convert 194.3510 to octal
Solution:
0.35
x 8
8 194 2).80
8 24 -- 2 x 8
8 3 --- 0 6).40
x 8
0 --- 3
3).20
x 8
1).60

194.3510 = 302.26318 Ans: 302.26318

Octal to Decimal conversion: A octal number can be converted to decimal by multiplying

each digit with radixn. Value of n will be 0,1,2,….. from right to left.
Example 2.7: Convert 6728 to decimal
Solution:
6 x 82 + 7 x 81 + 2 x 80
= 384 + 56 + 2
= 44210 Ans: 44210

Example 2.8: Convert 254.358 to decimal

Solution:
2 x 82 + 5 x 81 + 4 x 80 + 3 x 8-1 + 5 x 8-2
= 128 + 40 + 4 + 3/8 + 7/64
= 172 + 0.375 + 0.078
= 172.45310
Ans: 172.45310

Decimal to Hexadecimal conversion: A decimal number can be converted to

hexadecimal by following Rule1. Divide the decimal number by radix of hexadecimal that is 16
until quotient become zero. Arrange the remainder from last division to the first.
Example 2.9: Convert 725110 to hexadecimal
Solution:

16 7251
16 453 ---3
16 28 --- 5
16 1 ---12 (C)

0 --- 1

725110 = 1C5316 Ans: 1C5316

Example 2.10: Convert 5917.3810 to hexadecimal

16 5917 0.38
16 369 ---13 (D) x 16
6).08
16 24 --- 4
x 16
16 1 --- 8 1).28
x 16
0 --- 1
4).48
x 16
7).68

5917.3810 = 184D.614716
Ans: 184D.614716

Hexadecimal to Decimal conversion: A hexadecimal number can be converted to decimal

system by following Rule2.

Example 2.11: Convert 4A716 to decimal

Solution: 4 x 162 + A x 161 + 7 x 160
= 1024 + 160 + 7
= 109110
Ans: 109110

Example 2.12: Convert BC6.A116 to decimal

Solution: B x 162 + C x 161 + 6 x 160 + A x 16-1 + 1 x 16-2
= 2816 + 192 + 6 + 0.625 + 0.0039
= 3014.628910
Ans: 3014.628910

Conversion in between other bases: A number represented in one of the other bases can
be converted to another of other bases. That means a binary number can be converted to either
octal or hexadecimal and vice versa. In the same way a octal number can be converted to either
binary or hexadecimal and vice versa. There are two different method for this conversion
i) First convert the source base number to decimal and then decimal to destination base.
For example conversion between binary to octal system. For this conversion, first convert binary
number to decimal and then convert decimal to octal number.
Example 2.13: Convert 1101012 to octal
Solution:
First convert 110101 to decimal number and then convert that decimal number to octal.
= 1 x 25 + 1 x 24 + 0 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20
= 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 5310
Decimal equivalent of 1101012 is 5310

Now convert 5310 to octal

8 53
8 6 --- 5
0 --- 6

1101012 = 658 Ans: 658

ii) In the second method relationship between base of different number system is
determined. Base of binary system is 2 and that of octal is 8, that is 23 is equivalent to 8. It means
that to represent one digit of octal system a maximum of three digits of binary system are
required. On the other hand relation between the base of binary system and hexadecimal system
is 24. It means to represent one digit of hexadecimal system a maximum of four digits of binary
system are required. By following this rule, a direct conversion is possible between binary to
octal, binary to hexadecimal, octal to hexadecimal and vice versa.
Example 2.14: Convert 10011010112 to octal
Solution: First make group of three digits from right to left. If leftmost group contains less
than three digits then consider 0 for remaining. In this example, leftmost group contains only one
digits which is 1. Assume 0 0 for remaining two digits which will make the group as 001 without
changing the meaning. Next take the octal equivalent for each group (from table 2.1) and that
will be the result.
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 5 3

= 11538 Ans: 11538

Example 2.15: Convert 10111001012 to hexadecimal

Solution: Make groups of four digits from right to left. If leftmost group contains less than four
digits then consider 0 for remaining. In this example leftmost group contain two digits. Assume
0 0 for remaining which make the group 0010. Take the hexadecimal equivalent for each group
(from table 2.1) and that will be the result.

1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 Ans: 2E510
Example 2.16: Convert 47138 to hexadecimal
2 E 5
Solution: Convert each octal digit to binary equivalent (from table 2.1). Make group of four
digits. Convert each group to hexadecimal equivalent and that will be the result.
= 2E516
4 7 1 3

0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

0 7 3 4 2 3

= 0734238

Ans: 0734238
Different computer software and types
Software is the set of computer programs, procedures and associated documents. The
objective of software is to perform some specific task and to enhance the capability of the
hardware machine

Users
Application Software
System Software
Hardware

Types of software: The software used by the computer may be classified into the following
three category.
i) System Software ii) Application Software
i) System Software: System software is designed to control the operation of a computer
system. It performs essential functions necessary to start up the computer, monitor and control
the activities of various resources, and execute the application programs. It acts like as interface
between the hardware, application programs. A computer without system software would be
very ineffective and almost impossible to operate. Different types of system software are:
Operating System, Translator etc
ii) Application Software: Application software is designed to help people accomplish
their specific tasks like payroll, inventory system etc by the computer. This software is required
to make the computer useful for the people. Different types of application software are: Word
processing software, Spreadsheets, Database management system, Communication software etc.

Classification of software
Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute
specific tasks.
 The two main categories of software are application software and system software. An
application is software that fulfills a specific need or performs tasks. System software is designed
to run a computer's hardware and provides a platform for applications to run on top of.
Other types of software include programming software, which provides the programming
tools software developers need; middleware, which sits between system software and
applications; and driver software, which operates computer devices and peripherals.
Among the various categories of software, the most common types include the following:
Application software. The most common type of software, application software is a computer
software package that performs a specific function for a user, or in some cases, for another
application. Examples of modern applications include office suites, graphics software, databases
and database management programs, web browsers, word processors, software development
tools, image editors and communication platforms.
System software. These software programs are designed to run a computer's application
programs and hardware. System software coordinates the activities and functions of the hardware
and software. The OS is the best example of system software;
Driver software. Also known as device drivers, this software is often considered a type of
system software. Device drivers control the devices and peripherals connected to a computer,
enabling them to perform their specific tasks.
Middleware. The term middleware describes software that mediates between application and
system software or between two different kinds of application software. For example,
middleware enables Microsoft Windows to talk to Excel and Word.
Programming software. Computer programmers use programming software to write code.
Programming software and programming tools enable developers to develop, write, test
and debug other software programs. Examples of programming software include assemblers,
compilers, debuggers and interpreters.

classification based on task

source and licence

Quality of a good software.

Functionality: It refers to the degree of performance of the software against its intended
purpose. It basically means are the required functions.

Reliability: A set of attribute that Bear on the capability of software to maintain its level of
performances understated conditions for a stated period of time.

Efficiency: It refers to the ability of the software to use System Resources in the most effective
and Efficient Manner. The software should make effective use of storage space and executive
commands as per desired timing requirement.

Usability: It refers to the extent to which the software can be used with ease. Or the amount of
effort or time required learning how to use the software should be less.

Maintainability: Refers to the ease with which the modifications can be made in a software
system to extend its functionality, improvement, performance or correct errors.

Portability: A set of attributes that bears on the ability of the software to be transferred from one
environment to another, without or minimum changes.

Introduction to IT revolution

The term information revolution describes the "radical changes wrought by computer
technology on the storage of and access to information since the mid-1980s" or current
economic, social and technological trends beyond the Industrial Revolution.

Overview on development in the field of Information Technology

Hardware and software development

Hardware” refers specifically to electrical or electro-mechanical devices, which often
contain firmware or embedded software. For example, networking equipment, phones, and other
communications technology; consumer electronics; computers; medical devices. Similarly,
“hardware development” is taken to mean the development of designs for devices that are
intended to be manufactured.
Similarities between Hardware and Software Development
 They have behavior: Users interact with the products in various ways, products interact
with other products, and products produce outputs given inputs
 They have functional (user-facing) and non-functional (non-user-facing) requirements
 They are complex: Any representation of product specifications invariably leads to a tree
structure, as major features are decomposed into finer-grained features
Differences between Hardware and Software Development


o Software is easier to change than hardware. The cost of change is much higher for
hardware than for software.
o Software products evolve through multiple releases by adding new features and
re-writing existing logic to support the new features. Hardware products consist of
physical components that cannot be “refactored” after manufacturing, and cannot
add new capabilities that require hardware changes.
o Designs for new hardware is often based upon earlier-generation products, but
commonly rely on next-generation components not yet present.
o Hardware designs are constrained by the need to incorporate standard parts.
o Specialized hardware components can have much longer lead times for
acquisition than is true for software.

Recent development in Information Technology

Artificial Intelligence (AI):- Artificial Intelligence continues to rank at the top of emerging tech.
Chatbots and Apple’s Siri are common examples of AI in action, but we will see more complex
versions being used in the near future.
Internet of Things (IoT): -Internet of Things (IoT) uses connected devices, such as wearables and
sensors, to provide more optimal results for businesses.
Machine Learning (ML): -Machine learning has helped technology advance significantly in
recent years, giving us the ability to draw insights from massive amounts of data.
5G Networks: -5G networks have been key for increasing speeds, increasing capacity and
reducing latency. The next wave of networks will involve 5G networks that stand alone.
Edge Computing: -According to Deloitte, U.S. households have an average of 22 connected
devices. Edge computing may well be the answer to managing big data.
Blockchain: -Blockchain is helping to keep data more secure and creating a reliable history of
transactions. The applications extend far beyond that of cryptocurrency.
Spatial Computing: -Spatial computing is making huge strides and improving how we interact
with the digital world. Be prepared for the technology of the future.
Smart Spaces: -Smart spaces will be increasingly used to help optimize different areas.
Homomorphic Encryption: -Security concerns make data encryption a necessary task, but the
encryption/decryption process can be time intensive. Homomorphic encryption changes all that.
Metaverse: -The metaverse is a term that is gaining traction as more interactions take place in
digital spaces. The metaverse is expected to take us beyond simple simulations into a more
advanced digital world.
3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing: -The value provided by 3D printers has already been
proven, with advances being made in many different industries. As we continue to see expanded
applications, 3D printing continues to provide more possibilities for business.
Smart Homes and Cities: -Smart homes and cities have put the benefits of IoT to use to benefit
families and residents.
Robotics and Automation: -Expanded applications for robotics and automation will sooner offer
new and exciting ways to innovate.

Application of ICT in various disciplines

Information and communications technology (ICT) can be defined as: all the
technologies used to handle broadcast media, telecommunications, intelligent building
management systems (IBMS), network-based control systems, audiovisual processing and
transmission systems and others.
ICT is used in most of the fields such as E-Commerce, E-governance, Banking, Agriculture,
Education, Medicine, Defense, Transport, etc.
On the educational side: Boards, chalk, and heavy books were overloaded with a computer
board containing all the educational courses, thus providing greater comfort to the student and
introducing him to the world of development since childhood.
On the industrial side: The entry of ICT after the industrial revolution led to the development
of the machines used and linking them to the web to send orders to them from different sectors.
In the political and military aspects: Information technology has played a major role in the
power and dominance of the state.
ICT in Entertainment: Information and communication technologies (ICT) have impacted
entertainment and leisure activities in different ways in which you spend your time.
ICT in Medical Science: Medical devices and modern equipment have evolved considerably
favoring information and communications technology.
ICT in Finance: - Information and communication technology is used daily by financial
companies, to trade financial instruments, to report a business's earnings, and to keep records of
personal budgets.
ICT in Public Sector Management:
Information and communication technology (ICT) is used to facilitate more convenient
government services, make the government more transparent and accountable to citizens,
promote a more efficient and cost-effective government.
ICT in Home Electronics:
The use of ICT in domestic electronics is developing rapidly. ICT equipment is used to increase
access to home care.

Basic concept on innovation.

Concept of Internet
Uses of Internet
connecting to internet
ISP
Basics of internet connectivity
World Wide Web and Websites
Web Browsing softwares
Search Engines
Searching information in web
Understanding URL
Domain name
IP Address
Basics of electronic mail
Email account
Sending and receiving emails
Accessing sent emails
Email attachment.
Introduction to Storage Systems

Overview of storage hierarchy and storage technologies

Characteristics of primary, secondary, and tertiary storage

Introduction to cloud storage models (e.g., S3, Azure Blob Storage)

Data durability, availability, and scalability in cloud storage.

Emerging Trends in Storage: Flash-based storage technologies (e.g., SSD, NVMe).