IET Nanodielectrics

Review Article

Application of nanoparticles and composite eISSN 2514-3255

Received on 8th April 2019

materials for energy generation and storage

Revised 30th August 2019
Accepted on 21st October 2019
E-First on 6th December 2019
doi: 10.1049/iet-nde.2019.0014
www.ietdl.org

Idowu D. Ibrahim1,2 , Tamba Jamiru1, Emmanuel R. Sadiku3, Yskandar Hamam4,5, Yasser Alayli2,
Azunna A. Eze1
1Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa
2Laboratoire d’ Ingénierie des Systèmes de Versailles, Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, France
3Department of Chemical Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, Institute for NanoEngineering Research (INER), Tshwane University of

Technology, Pretoria, South Africa

4ESIEE – Paris, France
5Department of Electrical Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Transition to renewable and sustainable energy from fossil fuels (natural gas, coal, and oil) has dominated the
research cycle. The shift is as a result of increasing population growth, industrialisation, decreasing oil reserves and hazardous
environmental impact of energy generation from fossil fuels. The new methods of energy generation demand functional
materials that are smart and strong for generation and storage of energy. Polymeric composite materials have been widely
used. With the recent material performance demand, there is a need to improve the properties of the composite. The
improvement can be achieved by reinforcing with fibres and/or nanoparticles as the matrix alone does not possess the required
properties. The influence of incorporating fibres and/or fillers into the polymeric matrix has been largely reported in many
studies. Recent advancement in the development and use of polymeric composites and nanocomposites is discussed for
energy applications. The discussion includes material property improvements, processing methods and improving interface
adhesion that may arise when compounding the materials. Various areas, in the energy sector where these materials, can be
used are equally highlighted.

1 Introduction based on their inherent properties and the desired result. Clay is
one of the most widely used fillers due to low-cost and high
The emergence of clean, renewable and sustainable energy, the surface-to-area [4], having three basic classifications which are
ecological impact of greenhouse gases, global warming, human based on the proportion of silica and alumina (1:1, 2:1 and 2:2) [5].
increasing dependence on energy, increasing energy consumption The hydrophilic nature of mineral clay makes it difficult to disperse
and reduction in fossil fuel resources reserve have led to the in polymeric composites because it forms an agglomerate and in
development of new technology and materials for energy turns, affect the properties of the composites. This phenomenon is
generation and storage. Energy systems that are in use for commonly associated with fillers/nanoparticles. In order to
generation and storage are supercapacitors (SCs), fuel cells, solar effectively dispersed the nanomaterials onto the polymer, the
cells, lithium batteries, wind vain, just to mention a few. The following methods have been reported; grafting, ultra-sonication,
efficiency of these systems depends on the material used. In other mechanical, physical or chemical method. Other nanomaterials in
words, the performance of the systems is directly related to use are presented in Table 1.
material quality. In recent times, composite materials have been
developed from components such as polymer matrix, ceramic
matrix, and metal matrix. These materials have shown great 3 Preparation of nanoparticle-based composites
potentials for energy-related applications [1, 2]. The advancement The method of preparation of composite materials has a direct
in energy generation, conversion and storage have necessitated effect on the overall performance of the materials. Several methods
further research of reinforcing the matrices with nanoparticle and have been explored to compound polymer matrix, which includes
fibres. These materials have proven to possess high strength-to- injection moulding [7, 8], compression moulding [2, 9], extrusion
weight, good operational safety, low-cost and environmentally moulding [10], resin transfer moulding (RTM) [11], hand lay-up
friendly for certain of them. These properties and much more are [12]. A good understanding of the processing parameters
the reasons why nanoparticle-based composites have been widely (temperature, velocity/time and pressure) will contribute to the
used for applications like electronic devices, electrical appliances, properties of the composites. Most times, the materials for
power grids, industrial and military devices [3]. The incorporation developing polymer matrix composites require pre-heating in a
of nanoparticle into polymeric materials can be tailored toward vacuum oven at a certain temperature for a given period of the time
achieving specific properties for energy application. To this end, depending on the nature of the materials. Fig. 1 shows the
the choice of the polymer matrix and the nanoparticle is done processing steps of nanocomposites from start to finish.
carefully with the end-use application in mind.
3.1 Compression moulding
2 Fillers used for nanoparticle-based composites
This is one of the oldest methods for polymer matrix compounding.
Development of smart and novel materials by material scientists It can be used to produce both short and long fibre reinforced
and engineers involves the use of nanomaterials, as they have polymer composites, unlike injection moulding, which is only good
contributed significantly to improving the performance of the for short fibres. Compression moulders comprise of two steel
composite materials. Various nanomaterials exist and are selected plates, one above and the other below. The sample is placed in the
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Table 1 Properties, synthesis and applications of selected inorganic nanoparticles [6]
Nanoparticles Properties Synthesis Application
TiO2 optical, electronic, spectral, hydrothermal, sonochemical, solvothermal, photocatalysis, dye-sensitised solar cells, gas
structural, mechanical, and anti- reverse micelles, sol–gel, flame spray sensor, nanomedicine, skincare products,
corrosion properties pyrolysis, and non-hydrolytic approach wastewater treatment by removal of organic and
inorganic pollutants, and antimicrobial
applications
ZnO optical properties, thermal sol–gel, homogeneous precipitation, electronic and optoelectronic device
conductivity, electrical, sensing, mechanical milling, organometallic applications, gas sensor, photocatalytic
transport, magnetic, and synthesis, microwave method, spray degradation of organic and inorganic pollutants
electronic properties pyrolysis, thermal evaporation, and for wastewater treatment, cosmetics, medical
mechanochemical synthesis filling materials, antimicrobial, and anticancerous
applications
Al2O3 optical, transport, mechanical, flame spray pyrolysis, reverse wastewater and soil treatment by removal of
and fracture properties microemulsion, sol–gel, precipitation and heavy metal ions and antimicrobial applications,
freeze-drying ceramic ultrafilters, and membranes to remove
pathogenic microorganisms, for gas separation,
in catalysis and absorption processes and drug
delivery, etc.
SiO physicochemical, optical, sol–gel, flame synthesis, water-in-oil drug delivery, tissue engineering, carrier for
luminescent, thermal and microemulsion processes antimicrobial applications, biosensing
mechanical properties
Ag optical properties due to surface microwave processing, ultrasonic spray antibacterial and antifungal applications in water
plasmon resonance (SPR), pyrolysis, laser ablation, gamma irradiation, purification systems, paints and household
antiangiogenic, structural, chemical reduction by inorganic and products, antiviral applications against HIV-I, and
thermal, electrical and catalytic organic reducing agents, photochemical monkey pox virus, biosensing
properties method, thermal decomposition of silver
oxalate in water and in ethylene glycol, and
electrochemical synthesis
Au optical and photothermal chemical reduction, physical reduction, antibacterial and antiviral applications,
properties due to SPR, thermal, photochemical reduction, solvent biosensing, MRI, cancer diagnosis, and
electrical, antiangiogenic, evaporation techniques, microwave photothermal cancer therapy
catalytic, magnetic, and thermo irradiation
optical properties
magnetic magnetic, caloric, physical, and co-precipitation, microemulsions, sol–gel biomedicine, cancer treatment, MRI, drug
hydrodynamic properties techniques, solvothermal, electrochemical, delivery, removal of toxic metal ions and
pulsed laser ablation, and sonochemical antimicrobial applications
method

3.2 Extrusion moulding

The extruder could be a twin screw or single screw. The parameter
such as temperature, speed and time are set according to the
properties of various compositions. The samples are poured into
the hopper and through the feeder to the screw. For internal
extruders, the mixing time is completed before the machine is open
to remove the mixed samples, while for the ‘external extruders’,
the mixed samples come out at the outlet by itself based on the
length of the extruder. Similar approaches were used by Ibrahim et
al. [14] and Bouman et al. [10], respectively.

3.3 Injection moulding

Injection moulding is similar to extrusion moulding. The main
difference is that the outlet of the injection moulding machine is
connected to a mould cavity where several material sizes and
shapes can be produced immediately without any additional
machine, e.g. compression moulder. The machine has different
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the processing steps of composites from start
heating zones that are set based on the material properties. The
to finish
machine is pre-heated and the required parameters like injection
time, pressure and cooling time are set, after which the mould
mould cavity (the mould is layered with a releasing agent). Applied
cavity opens and the moulded sample is injected from the mould
pressure prevents the formation of void and trapped air bubbles
cavity.
within the prepared samples. Various sample sizes, shapes and
complex material geometries can be produced using this method.
For further information, read Ibrahim et al. [8]. After compression 3.4 Hand-lay-up
moulding for laboratory work, the specimen can be cut to the test The process begins by layering or spraying the surface of the
sample shapes and sizes [13]. mould with a releasing agent to prevent the resin (composite) from
sticking to the mould cavity. In the case of reinforcing with fibre,
the ply of fibre (woven or non-woven) is placed on the inside of the
mould, followed by pouring the resin onto the layered fibres. The
hand roller is used to distribute the resin uniformly, ensuring the
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resin penetrate completely into the dry layered fibres. Trapped air SC because of their merits like flexibility, good conductivity, ease
bubbles must be removed with the hand roller. Trapped air bubbles of synthesis, relatively cheap, and so on. In a review article by
will lead to a reduction in properties like tensile, flexural and Meng et al. [23], various conducting polymers (polyaniline,
impact strength. This method was used by Zailinda et al. [12], to polypyrrole, and polythiophene) used to develop binary and ternary
determine the effect of hand lay-up and RTM on the tensile composite electrodes for SC were summarised.
properties of epoxy reinforced carbon fibre composites. After the Flexible electronic devices design with supercapacitors require
resin is uniformly distributed, it is allowed to cure either at room mechanically flexible SC engineered to have good mechanical
temperature or elevated temperature in an oven. properties, fast charge/discharge ability, and high stability. Yu et al.
[24] prepared a composite electrode using polyaniline and
3.5 Resin transfer moulding graphene on a stainless steel fabric. The flexible all-solid-state SC
was observed to produce a remarkable result. The maximal specific
The RTM process involves first spraying/laying the surface of the capacitance of 1506.6 mF/cm2 was recorded for the composite
mould with a releasing agent. The size of the mould depends on the electrode, while the capacitance retention after 5000 charge–
desired size and shape of the intended composite materials. The discharge was 92%. In addition, the result of the bending test
design is created with a gating system (i.e. a vacuum inlet) which showed that 95.8% of the original capacitance of the flexible SC
allows the inflow of the liquid resin at one side and the outflow at was maintained after 1000 bending cycles. The flexibility of the SC
the opposite end. The resin is injected in with the help of a pump is attributed to the inherent nature of polyaniline reinforced with
(e.g. Hypaject). The other opening is a confirmation that the resin graphene. The development of electronic devices that are flexible
has circulated throughout and filled the mould cavity. The moment and wearable and integrated with power devices, has just been
the resin start flowing out at the outlet opening, the resin injection made possible.
is discontinued and allowed to cure. Similarly, Kim and Choi [25] reiterated the need to develop
flexible, lightweight and wearable electronic devices with the
4 Properties and applications of nanocomposites ability to store energy. In their report, all-solid-state flexible SC
integrated with two composites electrodes made from graphene/
Composite and nanocomposites materials have been widely used
polymer. The result showed that the composite electrode was able
due to the improved properties like tensile strength, impact
to store energy up to a reversible gravimetric capacitance of 90.6
strength, thermal resistance and moisture uptake [15]. The first
F/g, with 0.5 A/g constant current density, while capacitance
three among several others are the most desired properties. When it
retention after 5000 cycles was 90%.
comes to materials for energy applications, the above-mentioned
Shao et al. [26] equally worked on the polyaniline and metal-
properties and others like optical, antireflection, conductivity and
organic framework (UiO-66) composites for flexible solid-state
so on are very important. Some polymers have an element of
SC. From their report, 1015 F/g capacitance at 1 A/g was obtained
conductive properties, while some other ones require modifications
by the electrochemical test. Considering other factors, the resultant
with other polymers or nanoparticles. Incorporation of
SC was reported to show a satisfactory capacitance of 647 F/g at 1
nanoparticles into polymer matrix has been reported to give the
A/g, having capacitance retention of 91% after 5000 cycles. The
desired properties needed for electrical application [16–18]. The
bending test (bending angle of 180°) showed only a 10% decrease
technological advancement and the growing demand for energy,
after 800 bending cycles, confirming the level of flexibility of the
make the quest for new and novel materials to be a continuous
flexible solid-state supercapacitor.
practice.
The combination of polymer (continuous phase) with
nanoparticle (discontinuous phase) results in a novel material 4.2 Lithium batteries
known as polymer nanocomposites [19]. The uniqueness of the Lithium batteries have attracted significant attention for decades
material due to tremendous improvement in properties has attracted over the conventional batteries due to the improved safety and
large attention globally. Hence, the growing application in areas ability to be recharged after losing its charge. In the market, lithium
like medical, aerospace, automotive, electrical/electronic, just to batteries are one of the best portable devices for energy storage
mention a few. Polymeric nanocomposites being a class of used for electronics. Polymers are often used for polymer-based
materials with tremendous properties has its own challenges which electrolytes but have shown little success because of relatively low
are the complex interfacial regions between the polymer matrix and conductivity, hence the need to incorporate nanoparticles.
the nanoparticle [20]. These challenges are resolved via the According to Sandi-Tapia and Gregar [27], the inclusion of clay
processing methods. Thus, overcoming the drawback will lead to nanoparticle enhanced the conductivity of lithium battery
the development of materials with desired properties (optical, containing clay/polymer nanocomposites. The result was observed
thermal, electrical, and mechanical). The section focused on to be better than the single-ion synthetic polymer conductors. The
various areas of applications of nanocomposites for energy components, such as electrolytes, electrodes, separators, and
generation and storage. binders of lithium-based batteries are made from polymer
nanocomposites and this is due to their properties and structures
4.1 Supercapacitors [28]. Examples of lithium-based batteries are lithium-ion, lithium-
oxygen and lithium-sulphur batteries.
An SC which is also called ultra-capacitor, supercap, or goldcap is
Croce et al. [29] reported that lithium-based batteries
a form of a capacitor having higher capacitance value compared
technology could be improved by conducting polymers, simply by
with the conventional capacitors with lower capacitance values.
replacing the current liquid electrolytes in use. By so doing, new
The gap between rechargeable batteries and electrolytic capacitors
and improved compact, flexible and solid-state structures void of
can be bridged by the emergence of SC. The energy storage
leaks is produced. The authors further conducted an experiment to
capacity in comparison with the electrolytic capacitors is 10–100
validate the argument. Nanosize ceramic powders (TiO2 and
times more per unit volume and they are mostly used where faster
charge/discharge is required [21]. When it comes to charging and Al2O3) were incorporated into polyethylene oxide (PEO)
discharging cycle, SC performs better than rechargeable batteries. electrolyte as PEO alone crystallises at 60°C. Liquid plasticisers
SC is also referred to as an electric double-layered capacitor have been incorporated in the past leading to electrolyte's
(EDLC). SCs’ remarkable energy storage capacity has attracted mechanical properties deterioration and increased the lithium metal
much attention in recent decades, which is a result of long cycle anode reactivity. In the end, the incorporation of nanoparticles
life, higher power density and higher rate capability [22]. On the ensured electrical conductivities of 10−4 and 10−5 S/cm at 50 and
other hand, SC has lower power density (SC ≤ 10 W h kg−1, 30°C, respectively. The average particle size varied between 5.8
whereas Li-ion batteries ≥180 W h kg−1) compared to lithium and 13 nm.
batteries and that is the reason for new electrodes and electrolytes
[22]. Various conductive polymeric materials have been used for

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triple-phase boundary of the pores, leading to the enhanced
performance of the fuel cell.
Similarly, Vijayakumar and Khastgir [34] prepared hybrid
nanocomposites of chitosan with polyaniline/nano-silica (PAni/
SiO2) as an inorganic nanofiller. The ionic cross-linking agent used
was sulphuric acid. At the end of the experiment, 3 wt% PAni/SiO2
loading exhibited high proton conductivity of 8.39 × 10−3 S/cm at
80°C. Various other nanoparticles have been used as filler in
polymer for fuel cells [35–37].

4.4 Solar cells

The increasing demand for energy and global warming challenges
has prompted the search for new sources of energy. Alternative
sources of energy are solar, wind, biomass, and geothermal. Of all
the renewable energy resources, solar energy is one of the largest
considered and has attracted so much attention. Various solar
technologies have been explored, dye-sensitised solar cell (DSC)
technology stands out due to the environmental friendliness and
inexpensive solution to meet the global increasing energy demand
[38]. Conductive polymers with high transport properties of
composite materials of carbon and its derivatives are the suitable
materials for DSCs. Polymer-based all-solid-state electrolytes help
avoid the possibilities of solvent leakages and chemical instability
of volatile liquid electrolytes [38].
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram illustrating a fuel cell [30] Huang et al. [39] prepared graphene-based polyvinyl butyral
(PVB) composites to encapsulate solar cell in order to enhance the
4.3 Fuel cells performance by increasing the conversion efficiency of the cells.
The number of graphene nanoparticles in the composites was
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell or device that converts the varied; the effect of graphene content on the encapsulating material
chemical energy of hydrogen or other fuels into clean electricity for solar cells was studied by the same authors. The thermal
through a process known as an electrochemical reaction of stability and thermal conductivity, respectively, were examined by
hydrogen fuel with oxygen or other oxidising agents. It is similar to thermogravimetric analyser and thermal conductivity meter. At 30
batteries but different in the sense that it requires a constant supply wt% graphene content, the thermal conductivity of 4.521 W/(m K)
of fuel and oxygen, unlike the batteries that the chemical is was observed, which is ∼20.55 times more than the pure PVB. In
contained in the battery. The cell is divided into three important addition, heating and cooling rates of the sample with 30 wt%
segments (anode, electrolyte, and cathode), as shown in Fig. 2. The graphene was improved by 28 and 37%, respectively. The
entire process involves fuel and air consumption, leading to the composite material is foreseen to be a prospective encapsulation
creation of water or carbon dioxide and ultimately creating an for solar cells and for the cooling of electronic devices.
electric current that can be used in electric devices. Membrane for The performance of solar cells can be improved simply by
this unique device can be made from polymeric materials. The coating the surface with nanocomposite materials. These materials
performance of the electrochemical cell depends on the properties have tremendous potentials due to the following reasons:
of the material used. Hence, careful material selection is required antireflection, passivity and the needed bandgap. Sivasankar et al.
for better performance of the system. [40] investigated various antireflection nanocomposites
Recently, fuel cells have been developed by using different (aluminium iso-propoxide, zinc sulphide, carbon nanotube (CNT),
composite materials made up of carbon–carbon, metal–carbon, tetra-ethoxy silane and combination of aluminium iso-propoxide
polymer–carbon, metal–polymer and polymer–polymer [31]. and silver nitrate). The result of the investigation showed that the
Cathode catalysts, anode catalysts and membranes of microbial conversion efficiency of the solar cell coated with CNT–TiO2–
fuel cells have been fabricated and tested with the above- SiO2 composite increased by 31.25% over the uncoated solar cells.
mentioned materials. The materials have shown enhanced
Graphene-based nanocomposites for more than two decades
characteristics with regards to the operational performance of the
have attracted significant attention for conductive transparent
system when compared with conventional materials [31]. The
devices required for solar cells. Graphene-based perovskite solar
properties can further be enhanced by introducing a nanoparticle
cells, when compared with other graphene-based solar cells,
into the composite.
presented better power conversion efficiency of 20.3% over others
Muthuraja et al. [32] reported the importance of incorporating
[41].
nanocalcium titanate (nanoCTO) in poly(2,2′-(m-phenylene)-5′-
bibenzimidazole) {PBI}. From the result obtained, the
conductivities of 5 and 15% nanoCTO-PBI were 20.2 and 32.7 4.5 Wind turbine
mS/cm, respectively. 419 and 251.4 mW/cm, respectively, were The energy demand of Nations’ of the world has the potentials of
recorded for the current density and power density when 10% been met via diversification into wind energy. The increase of
nanoCTO-PBI composite membrane was prepared at 0.6 V and between 20 and 30% electricity generations per year from wind
160°C. The report is evidence that high-temperature polymer energy in the rated capacity was reported by Rahman [42], which
electrolyte membrane fuel cell with improved proton conductivity will make the energy balance of the world by 2020 to be 12% [43].
can be produced. Going by the feasibility study for the US, wind energy will
Effect of heat treatment and various content of polyvinylidene contribute a total of 20% of the overall electricity generation by
fluoride (PVDF) in nanocomposites of LaCePr-oxide and 2030. Fig. 3 shows the annual wind power growth of the US from
Ni0.8Co0.15Al0.05LiO2−δ were studied by Zhu et al. [33]. From their the year 2001 to 2017. The efficiency of the wind turbine is
result, 57% performance enhancement was observed for the fuel dependent on the type of material used, the lighter the weight of the
cell due to heat treatment at 210°C and 3 wt% of PVDF, which led blades, the better the performance. Polymeric-based composites
to the highest power density (982 mW cm−2) at 520°C. Heat and nanocomposites seem to be a choice material and have
treatment and the addition of PVDF to composite led to 66% continued to attract significant interest. Many research studied have
improvement over the composites without the two conditions. The been reported to this effect [44, 45].
authors concluded that the heat treatment of PVDF enlarged the

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Fig. 3 US annual wind power growth from the year 2001 to 2017 [42]

A wind turbine converts the wind kinetic energy into electrical In a different research, Mamanpush et al. [48] explained the
power. Components, such as turbine blades, gearbox, hub, nacelle implication of increasing generation of electrical power from wind
and tower are usually made from carbon and glass fibres for energy. The foreseen problem has to do with the disposal of the
improved strength, lightweight and corrosion resistance. The turbine blades, which is basically glass fibre-reinforced
limitation with synthetic-based composites is non-biodegradability, composites. Mamanpush et al. investigated the re-utilisation of
environmental health hazard and the high cost of fabrication. used wind turbine blade for a second-generation turbine blade. The
Kalagi et al. [46] worked on utilising natural fibres as a potential recycled composite material was firstly pulverised with a hammer
replacement for synthetic. They concluded that natural fibre-based mill, followed by impregnation with resin and finally compressed
composites possess superior properties in terms of environmental to the desired thickness. From their result, it was observed that the
impact, making it a potential material for various components of a mechanical properties improved with increased resin content and
wind turbine. The properties of the material can further be particle size. The research showed that recycled wind turbine
improved by incorporating nanoparticles. The nanoparticles will blades are feasible and reusable for second-generation wind turbine
reduce the possibilities of void(s) formation, which may lead to blades.
cracks and outright failure of the composite material.
Enhancement of polymeric material properties has been 4.6 Dielectric materials
achieved in so many ways. One of the most promising approaches
is the incorporation of nanoparticles. The inclusion of the right A dielectric material is simply an electrical insulator, which is
proportion of nanoparticles will result in remarkable novel polarised by the applied electric field. When such a material is
materials. Thomas and Ramachandra [47] explained the essence of positioned in an electric field, the flow of electric charges is
developing certain materials with unique and desired properties, prevented or hampered through the dielectric material, unlike
most especially for wind turbine and they include electrical conductors. When it comes to dielectric materials, the
entire electrons bound firmly to the parent molecules, having no
(i) High strength to withstand the gravitational force and wind free charges. For this reason, dielectrics are regarded as non-
force acting on the blade. metallic materials having high specific resistance and negative
(ii) High fatigue resistance of the blade to withstand the cyclic temperature coefficient of resistance [49]. Dielectric materials can
load. be in the three states of matter (solid, liquid and gas); a vacuum is
(iii) High blade stiffness to ensure the stability of the optimal also an example of dielectric material. The following are examples
shape. of dielectric materials:
(iv) Lightweight to reduce the gravitational forces acting on the
blade. 4.6.1 Solid dielectrics:

Achieving this uniqueness is made possible by reinforcing resin (i) Rubber: natural or artificial organic polymer.
with CNTs. They are carbon allotropes with a nanostructure that (ii) Ceramic: non-metallic organic compound like silicates.
can exhibit an aspect ratio, which is greater than 106. CNT can be (iii) Glass: inorganic materials made by oxide fusion.
used to reinforce various resins for different property requirement (iv) Mica: inorganic and crystalline in nature.
because of their nature or type of resin, which contributes to the
final properties of the composites. Based on structural uniqueness 4.6.2 Liquid dielectrics:
and transport properties among other factors, CNT-based polymer
nanocomposites were suggested by Ma and Zhang [44] due to the (i) Mineral insulating oil: gotten from crude petroleum and possess
requirement for selecting materials suitable for wind turbine high-oxidation resistance.
blades, which are mechanical, electrical, thermal, fatigue and (ii) Synthetic insulating oil: have high resistance to fire hazard and
barrier properties. oxidation.

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(iii) Miscellaneous insulating oil: they include vegetable oils,
vaseline, silicon oils, etc.

4.6.3 Gaseous dielectrics: They include air, inert gases,

nitrogen, sulphur hexafluoride, etc.
In order for a material to be seen as good dielectric material, it
should possess but not limited to the following properties [50–54]:

(i) High dielectric strength.

(ii) High resistivity to leakage current.
(iii) High mechanical strength.
(iv) High fire resistance.
(v) High chemical inertness.
(vi) Low thermal expansion.
(vii) Low dielectric loss.
(viii) Low density.
(ix) Low water absorption quality.

According to a report by Rahman et al. [55], the dielectric property

of chitosan nano-metallic oxide composite films is one of the least Fig. 4 Single dielectric polarisation inside a capacitor under electric field
exploited materials for this application. From their report, it was [61]
clear that this nanocomposite will find useful applications in areas
like actuators, sensors, capacitors fuel cells, and self-regulating
heaters. Flexible biocompatible materials having tunable dielectric
properties in future can act as artificial muscles in medical
treatment. These unique properties are expected to play a major
role in the medical field in the actualisation of what is called ‘smart
skins’ [56–59].
The properties of polymer-based dielectric composites are best
explained using percolation theory. The theory specifies that
gradual increase of metal oxides in the polymer matrix will lead to
an increase in the dielectric value of the composites. The point
where there is a swift change in the dielectric value is known as the
percolation threshold [55]. The amount of substance responsible
for the quick alteration in the dielectric value is considered as the
percolation value [60]. The improvement of dielectric properties of
nanocomposites is a function of various types of polarisations in
the composites. Dielectric polarisation is initiated due to a slight
shift from the average equilibrium position. Due to dielectric
polarisation, there is a displacement of negative charges in the
opposite direction of the field, while the positive charges are in the
direction of the field (see Fig. 4). Fig. 5 Change in the dielectric constant of chitosan/ZnO nanocomposite
Quan et al. [54] explained that dielectric materials are in two films with frequency [55]
main categories, namely capacitor and microwave. Dielectric
materials with high dielectric coefficient are frequently utilised as (i) Method of preparation contributes to the overall performance of
capacitor dielectric materials in a ceramic field [62–64]; while the composite and nanocomposite materials, and that certain
dielectric materials having relatively low permittivity are utilised materials can only be prepared using a specialised method(s).
as microwave dielectric materials [65–67]. The continuous (ii) Incorporation of nanoparticle alters the properties of the
reduction of dielectric constant against the increase in frequency is nanocomposites, therefore, extending the area of application of
relatively common for all-dielectric substances [55, 68–70]. Fig. 5 such materials.
shows the influence of increasing frequency on the dielectric (iii) Advancement in material development has contributed to the
constant of chitosan/ZnO nanocomposite films (see [55] for detail). development of alternative sources of energy generation from
renewable and sustainable resources.
Dielectric materials are widely used in areas like capacitor and
(iv) A gradual increase in filler materials in the matrix will increase
transformer [49]. Samanta et al. [69] reported the application of
the dielectric properties until it reaches a point of quick alteration
epoxy-Al composite for an embedded capacitor. From their study,
in the dielectric value; this is known as percolation threshold.
it was observed that dielectric constant increased with increase in
filler content, which is due to interfacial polarisation increase and (v) The dielectric constant of materials decreases with an increase
filler cluster formation. in the frequency.

5 Conclusion 6 Acknowledgments
Recently, significant advancements have been made in the The financial support from the Council for Scientific and Industrial
development and applications of various polymer-based Research (CSIR) and Department of Science and Technology
nanocomposites, especially in the field such as automotive, (DST), South Africa is greatly appreciated.
aerospace, medical and electrical/electronic, etc. The study
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