Earth Science

or
Geology
February-2015

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
1
2
 Geology
In its Most Simple Meaning :
Geology is the Study of Earth
Geology is the History of Earth
 How earth was formed ?
Interdisciplinary
 How old is earth ?
 What is earth made up of ?
Science
 Why earth is called a unique planet ?
 What are the biotic and a-biotic components of earth ?
 What are Natural Resources ?
 What is its Environment ?
 How to manage Natural Resources ?
3
 Main Branches of Geology
1.Physical Geology
2.Geomorphology & Environmental Geology
3.Petrology
4.Stratigraphy
5.Paleontology
6.Structural Geology
7.Geochronology
8.Economic Geology – Minerals – Oil & Gas etc.
9.Seismo-Tectonics
10.Engineering Geology
11.Geochemistry
12.Geophysics etc. 4
 The Big Bang
~15 billion years ago

ENERGY and MASS TRANSFORMATION

Ma= Million Anum = 10x6 Ga= Giga Anum = 10x9

5
V

6
The Origin of the Earth
Making of Solar System

~15 billion years ago :

The Earth and the other 8 planets and the
Sun accreted at about the same time from a
vast cloud of dust and gas (nebula).

~5 billion years ago :

The nebula began to gravitationally contract,
began to rotate and flattened. Eventually, the
Sun ignited (fusion) and the newly formed
planets began to differentiate - heavier
elements and chemical components sank to
the center and rocky material formed the
crust. The newly formed planets and moons
released gas forming early atmospheres. 7
Making of Solar System

8
 Solar System

Inner Planets Asteroids Outer Planets 9

Earth From Outer Space

10
Indian Sub-Continent from Outer Space

11
Uttarakhand from Outer Space

12
University of Petroleum and Energy Studies

13
14
What's the first Unique Planet - Earth
thing that you
notice about
our planet
when you see
this image?

The Earth is composed

of several integrated
parts (spheres) that
interact with one
another:

• Atmosphere
• Hydrosphere
• Solid earth (lithosphere)
• Biosphere 15
 Unique Planet - Earth
Atmosphere:
The swirling clouds of the
atmosphere represent the
very thin blanket of air that
covers our planet. It is not
only the air we breathe, but
protects us from harmful
radiation from the sun.

Hydrosphere:
The global ocean is the
most prominent feature of
our (blue) planet. The
oceans cover ~71% of our
planet and represent 97% of
all the water on our planet.
16
The Earth
Unique Planet - Earth
System
Solid Earth:
Represents the majority of
the Earth system. Most of
the Earth lies at inaccessible
depths.

Biosphere:
Includes all life forms on
Earth - concentrated on land,
water and air- Plants and
Animals. 17
 Inside the Earth
Crust thickness varies
From 5-70 km 6357 km at Poles

Crust
3486 km

1216 km
Mantle
0

Liquid
Core

Solid
Core

Density (gm/cm3)
Earth 5.517
Continental Crust 2.80
Oceanic Crust 2.90
Mantle 4.53
Outer Core 9.71
Inner Core 16.0 18
 Earth's Internal Structure
The Earth's interior is
characterized by a gradual
increase in temperature,
pressure and density with
depth.

At only 100 km depth, the

temp is ~1300°C.

At the Earth's center, the

temperature is >6700°C.

The pressure in the crust

increases ~280 bars for
every kilometer depth.

Polar Radius ~6357 km

Equatorial Radius ~6378 km

19
 Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)
Depth wise the Earth
consists of 3 major
divisions marked by
differences in chemical
composition – Crust,
Mantle and Core
Crust: Outermost rigid
layer - 2 types:
1. oceanic - 3-15 km
thick and is composed
of basalt (igneous).
Young (<180 million
years old).

2. continental - up to
70 km thick comprising
of a wide variety of rock
types Ranges from
young to old (>3.8
billion years old).
20
 Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)
Mantle: comprises
~82% of the Earth by
volume (~2900 km).
• The mantle is
characterized denser
rocks and is able to flow
(plastically) at very slow
rates.

Core: composed of
iron, nickel and other
minor elements.
• The outer core is liquid
capable of flow and
source of the Earth's
magnetic field (~2270km).
• The inner core is solid
Fe-Ni (~1216km).
21
 EARTH – A UNIQUE PLANET
Only Planet known to have Life Supporting
Conditions ATMOSPHERE

BIOSPHERE

HYDROSPHERE SOLID EARTH

22
 Biotic and A-Biotic Constituents
All Life Forms • Terrestrial
• Plants Land
• Animals Fresh Water
• Marine

• Rocks and Minerals Most of Solid Biotic

• Soil Constituents are
Made up of Minerals
• Water and Rocks
• Gases
23
 What is Mineral ?
It is a Natural Inorganic Solid Substance with a
Definite Range of Chemical Composition,
Atomic Structure and Measurable Properties.

Loose Definition of Mineral !

What about Coal, Oil, Water
Coral etc. ?
24
 How Many Minerals are known ?
Abundance of elements
> 3500 are Identified in earth’s crust (% Wt.)
 About 100 are Commonly found 1 Oxygen 46.71
2 Silicon 27.69
 About 30 are important 3 Aluminum 8.07
rock forming minerals. 4 Iron 5.05
5 Calcium 3.65
 Rock forming minerals 6 Sodium 2.75
are composed of the most 7 Potassium 2.58
abundant elements found 8 Magnesium 2.08

in the earths crust 9 Titanium 0.62

10 Hydrogen 0.14
11 Phosphorus 0.13
12 Carbon 0.094
13 Manganese 0.09
14 Sulphur 0.002

15 elements constitute 99.75 % 15 Barium 0.050

of Earth’s crust Rest 0.244

25
Total 100.0
 Rocks and Minerals – Raw Material
Life Revolves around Rocks & Minerals
 Needle Soil
 Tooth paste Forest
 Talcum Powder
 Utensils
 Direct Useable
 Electronics Minerals & Rocks
 Appliances  Indirect Useable
 Fertilizers Minerals & Rocks
 Agriculture - Soil

 Gold, Silver
 Energy – Fuels (Coal, Oil & Gas)
 Clay
 Sand
 Energy – Nuclear  Gravel, boulder
 Ornaments and Gem Stones  Lime
 Gem Stones
 Glass
 Copper, Zinc, Lead, Steel
 Borax, Sulphur 26
Important Mineral Compositions
S.No. Composition
1 Oxides
2 Silicates
3 Carbonates
4 Phosphates
5 Sulphides
6 Nitrates
7 Borates
8 Hydrocarbon Compounds
9 Mixed
10 Native
27
 Common Rock Forming Minerals (simplified)
S.N. Name S.N. Name
1 Quartz* 9 Montmorinillonite*
2 Orthoclase 10 Chromite
Microcline Hematite*
Albite etc. Magnetite*
Pyrolusite*
Psilomelane*
3 Muscovite, Biotite, Chlorite 11 Garnet
4 Calcite* 12 Epidote
Dolomite* Sillimanite*
Magnesite* Kyanite*
5 Amphiboles 13 Pyrite*
Chalcopyrite*
Pyrrhotite*
6 Pyroxenes 14 Peat, Lignite, Coal,
7 Olivine 15 Apatite*
8 Kaolin* 16 Gold**, Silver** etc.
28
* - Also forms mineral deposits ; ** - Occurs in small quantities in some rocks.
 Soils
Weathering and Erosion of Rocks

• Transported
Generates Soils
• Residual

Alluvium – Indo Gangetic Brahmaputra Plains

– Terraces along valleys
– Coastal Plains
Lateritic – Laterite, Bauxite, Clays etc.
– Sand Rock, Silica Sand
29
 Natural Resources
Mineral Resources Rocks & Minerals
Soil

Water Resources Water Bodies

Ground Water

Plant & Animal Resources Forest & Wild Life etc.

Renewable & Non-Renewable Resources

Finite Resources
30
 Environment

Total biotic & a-biotic components surrounding us

• Mutual relation and interrelation

• Sustainability

• Man is Unique – pest, parasite and predator

31
 Natural Resource Management

 Quality of Life
 Resilience
 Over Exploitation
 Conservation
 New Resources & Replacement
 Global Climate Change
 Environment Protection
 Sustainable Development
32
 Our Main Concern
To Understand Use of Geology in Oil &
Gas Exploration
or

 To Understand What is Oil & Gas Exploration

All Oil & Gas Exploration and Exploitation

revolves around Geology

Understanding of Geology tells us where to

search for Oil & Gas and How to Exploit it 33
What is Applied Geology
?
In most simple meaning : It is the
application of the knowledge of Geology
for the benefit of mankind – “Improving the
Quality of Life” 34
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1) What is Geology & Applied Geology?
2) How Mineral Resources including Oil & Gas
related to the knowledge of Geology?
3) Relation between Knowledge of Geology and
Sustainable Development

35
36
Origin Of Earth
February-2015

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Earth, Planets, Sun has a common heritage or origin

 Earth is part of Solar System and the Solar

System is part of The Milky Way Galaxy, which
is one of the Galaxies in the Universe.
 Scientists have been studying the creation of
universe for last many centuries.
 It is now thought that the Universe was
created through a “Big Bang” some 15 billion
years ago.
Earth, Planets, Sun has a common heritage or origin

 The universe holds everything from the tiniest

particle to the clusters of galaxies (consisting
of stars, planets etc. in a medium of gas and
dust all held together by gravity.
 Our galaxy, the Milky Way, part of the universe
has hundreds of billions of stars, gas and
dust held together by gravity).
 The Big Bang
~15 billion years ago

ENERGY and MASS TRANSFORMATION

Ma= Million Anum = 10x6 Ga= Giga Anum = 10x9

4
 The Big Bang

 The “Big Bang” theory states that the

universe was formed about 15 billion years
ago from a giant explosion when suddenly
energy transformed into matter. At present
there is no answer from where this energy
came .
 This matter expanded and started to cool
down, going through different transitional
phases.
 The universe has been expanding ever since.
V

6
Big Bang to Formation of
Solar System
• Solar Nebula – Rotating cloud of
dust and gases (Hydrogen and
Helium) begins to contract
(~5bya).
• Material assumes a flat, disk
shape.
• Most of the material gravitationally
swept to the center forming the
protosun (Pre-Sun).
• Planets begin to accrete from the
material in the flattened disk which
is orbiting the sun, due to
gravitational effects.
• In time, most of the material is
swept into planets/moons or lost
into space.
Big Bang to Formation of
Solar System
• Planetary segregation due to
pressure, gravitational, and
temperature gradients
(chemical differentiation).
• The most refractory particles
survived the hottest part of
the contracting nebula.
• Inner rocky planets are:
– High density
– Small in size
– Composed of metallic and
rocky substances (Fe, Ni,
Si, Ca, Na)
Big Bang to Formation of
Solar System
• The gases were vaporized or
swept away by the solar
wind.
• These materials could only
exist in the cooler outer
regions of the nebula.
• Outer gaseous planets are:
– Low density
– Large in size
– Formed primarily from
ices (H2O, CO2, CH4, and
NH3-Ammonia) and gases
(H2 and He)
 Making of Solar System

 According to the Big Bang theory, the solar

system was formed from a cloud containing
dust and gas i.e. Hydrogen, helium etc. known
as “Nebula”.
 As the nebula contracted, it spun rapidly,
leading to frequent collisions between dust
grains.
 This nebula grew hotter and denser, forming a
disk of gas and dust at its centre.
 Eventually the hot centre of the nebula formed
a star - the sun.
 Making of Solar System

 The particles of nebula dust started sticking

together, eventually forming planets and their
satellites.
 Different planetary particles left over from this
initial explosion can still be found flying
around in space. These particles are called
meteorites.
 By studying these meteorites, scientists have
found that our solar system is about 4600 m.y.
old.
The Origin of the Earth
Making of Solar System

~15 billion years ago :

The Earth and the other 8 planets and the
Sun accreted at about the same time from a
vast cloud of dust and gas (nebula).

~5 billion years ago :

The nebula began to gravitationally contract,
began to rotate and flattened. Eventually, the
Sun ignited (fusion) and the newly formed
planets began to differentiate - heavier
elements and chemical components sank to
the center and rocky material formed the
crust. The newly formed planets and moons
released gas forming early atmospheres. 12
Making of Solar System

13
 Solar System

Inner Planets Asteroids Outer Planets 14

Earth From Outer Space

15
 Early Evolution of Earth

• Origin of Planet Earth

– Most researchers
believe that Earth and
the other planets formed
at essentially the same
time from the same
primordial material as
the Sun.

• Layered structure developed by chemical

segregation early in the formation of the Solar
System and the Earth.
 The basic statistics of the earth

The earth on which we are live is a Unique

planet of the solar system.

1. Polar diam. : ~ 12,714 km

2. Equatorial diam. : ~ 12,756 km
3. Circumference : 40, 000km
4. Surface Area : ~ 510 m.sq.km.
5. Volume : 1042 billion cu.km
6. Mass : 5.97 ×10 21 tonnes
7. Dist. From the sun : 150 million km
8. Average surface temperature : 14C
 Hypothesis for the Origin of Earth

The cosmologists have developed 2 basic

hypothesis for the origin of the earth or strictly
speaking the origin of the Solar system……

1. Single body hypothesis - the planets were

formed without intervention from forces
outside the solar system (No object other
than the Sun was involved)- Single Star
Hypothesis.
 Hypothesis for the Origin of Earth

2. Second body hypothesis - Assumes that the

solar system originated as a result of forces
created by the accidental interference of
another celestial object. It presumes that
another star passed close to the sun (2 – star
hypothesis)

………………From these basic two

Hypotheses a number of Hypotheses have
been generated.
 (1) The Nebular Hypothesis
(Single Star Hypothesis)

 Perhaps the oldest scientific explanation.

 By Kant in 1775 & Laplace in 1796.
 This hypothesis assumes the existence of a
large globular mass of gas called “nebula”,
slowly rotating through the space.
 This nebula gradually became smaller due to
its inherent gravitational pull.
 (1) The Nebular Hypothesis
Single Star Hypothesis (contd.)

• During the rotation, the nebular mass started

cooling and contracting simultaneously.
• As it contracted, its speed of rotation
increased.
• Eventually the outermost part of the nebula
rotated so rapidly that rings of gas got
separated from the shrinking nebular body.
• These rings slowly got condensed to form the
planets and the central mass became the sun.
Globular Nebula

Separation of
Gaseous Rings

Separation of
Gaseous Rings

Origin of Solar System from Nebula

(Single Star Hypothesis)
 Drawbacks of Nebula Hypothesis

1. If this hypothesis worked and the origin of the

solar system actually did take place, the sun
should have been having the greatest angular
momentum, because it is the most massive
part of the solar system and it (sun) lies at the
centre of the system. But actually, the sun is
having only 2% of the total angular momentum.
2. Such detached rings of gas should have been
dissipated in space rather than getting
condensed into solid particles.
 (2) The Planetesimal Hypothesis
2- Star Hypothesis

1. Proposed by Chamberlin & Moulton in 1904.

2. Assumes the existence of two stars in space
in the very beginning.
3. The sun was considered to be one of these
two stars existing before the formation of the
planets.
4. When the “intruder star” passed by the sun,
it exerted a gravitational force on the sun &
pulled masses of solar material.
 (2) The Planetesimal Hypothesis
2- Star Hypothesis (contd.)
5. This detached material was dragged along in
the direction of movement of the passing star,
and later got cooled & condensed into solid
particles called “planetesimals”. each moving
in its own orbit around the sun.
6. These planetesimals acted as nuclei that
attracted other planetesimals, and by
accretion, the planets eventually grew to their
present sizes.
7. Other smaller clusters of planetesimals, formed
the satellites.
8. As per this hypothesis, the angular momentum
of the planets was derived from the pull of the
passing star.
 Drawbacks of The Planetesimal Hypothesis

1. The motion of the planetesimals could not

possibly be produced by the passing star .
2. It is highly unlikely that another star could
have passed so close to the sun and the
intruder star could have generated sufficient
thrust to set the detached solar masses in
motion in orbits. Instead, it is more likely that
such masses would simply diffuse into the
space.
Important Alternative to The Planetesimal
Hypothesis

(2)(i) The Tidal Hypothesis

(2- Star Hypothesis)

(3) The Turbulent Hypothesis

 (2)(i) The Tidal Hypothesis
2-Star Hypothesis

 Hypothesis given by Jeans & Jeffrey, two

British Astronomer.

 Assumed that tides were created on the sun,

due to the force of attraction between the sun
and a “passing star”.
 (2)(i) The Tidal Hypothesis
2-Star Hypothesis

 Due to this tidal action, a gaseous filament

got separated from the sun, as soon as the
passing star went away.
 This separated filament was in the form of a
spindle & was unstable.
 It further broken down into a number of small
fragments, each of which condensed to form
planets.
 Some of these planets further broken down
into pieces and formed satellites.
(2)(i) The Tidal Hypothesis
2-Star Hypothesis
Drawbacks of The Tidal Hypothesis
2-Star Hypothesis

1. The passing star cannot possibly

impart the proper angular momentum to
the gaseous filament
2. A hot filament pulled from the sun would
not form solid planets but simply diffuse
into the space.
 (3) The Turbulent Hypothesis or The
Protoplanet Hypothesis

1. Latest & widely accepted.

2. First proposed by a German physicist in
1944.
3. In the same year, his views were supported
(with some modification) by Schmit, a Soviet
mathematician.
4. In 1951, Kuiper, an American scientist
modified this hypothesis and proposed the
same.
 (3) The Turbulent Hypothesis or The
Protoplanet Hypothesis

5. The hypothesis says that in the very

beginning, there was a hot gaseous nebular
mass, rapidly rotating in space.
6. This nebula, due to gravitational attraction,
formed a disc of cloud & dust.
7. Because of its rotating nature, this nebular
disc developed large whirlpool (eddies) at
various places.
 (3) The Turbulent Hypothesis or The
Protoplanet Hypothesis

8. Ultimately these eddies got separated from

the nebular masses.
9. These independent eddies also contained a
whole system of smaller eddies.
10. These eddies might then have collected the
surrounding dusty material by gravitational
attraction, thus forming swirls of dust and
gas, called “protoplanets”.
 (3) The Turbulent Hypothesis or The
Protoplanet Hypothesis

11. It is believed that such protoplanets

represent the present day planets.
12. These original protoplanets were much
larger than the finished planets.
13. Smaller eddies got developed inside some
of the larger eddies, giving rise to spinning
discs that became the satellites or moons of
the planets.
 Present Understanding

 Many of the astronomers today support

this hypothesis of the Protoplanet
hypothesis.

 The observations (through telescopes)

have revealed numerous nebulas
between the stars.

 It is significant that some of these

massive eddies of gas & dust are
actually condensing to form new stars.
The origin of the earth still remains a
subject of Study

Still a BIG QUESTION -?

 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1. What is the relation between Earth, Solar System
and Universe?
2. How Solar System was formed?
3. How earth was formed and what is the current
hypothesis about the origin of Earth?

38
39
 THE EXTERIOR AND THE
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
Earth From Outer Space

2
 The Exterior to Interior of Earth

• The earth is a solid spherical body

having about 6371 km radius.
• It is surrounded on its exterior by
different layers of gases called
“Atmosphere”.
• The entire amount of water occurring
on or below the surface of the earth is
called “Hydrosphere”.
• The solid earth is called the
“Lithosphere”.
 Atmosphere

• The envelope of air that completely

surrounds the earth is known as the
atmosphere.
• It is the presence of the atmosphere
with its abundant supply of oxygen
that makes the earth a unique planet in
the universe.
• The oxygen is responsible for the
origin & growth of life on earth.
 Atmosphere (contd.)
• The atmosphere extends to about 1000km
from the surface of the earth.
• 99% of the total mass of the atmosphere
is found within 32km.
• The atmosphere is made up of 78% of
Nitrogen, 21% of oxygen. The remaining
1% is made up of carbon dioxide, argon,
neon, helium, ozone, water vapor, dust
particles etc.
 Atmosphere (contd.)

• The atmosphere has a layered structure.

• There are 5 distinct layers:

1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere
5. Exosphere
 1.Troposphere:

• This is the first layer of the atmosphere.

• It extends to a height of 18km at the
equator( as the air is hot and lighter) and
8km at the poles (as the air is cold and
dense).
• In this layer, temp. decreases with height.
This is due to the fact that the density of
air decreases with height and so the heat
absorbed is less.
 Troposphere (contd.):

• Since the troposphere contains most of

the water vapor & clouds, So, all weather
changes occur in the troposphere
(“tropo” means change).
• Temperature decreases with height in the
troposphere, since the main heat source
is the solar radiation which is absorbed at
the ground level.
 Troposphere (contd.):

• The rate of decrease of temperature,

called the “lapse of temperature” which is
about 5C/km.
• The height at which the temperature stops
decreasing is called “tropopause”.
• ( temp may be as low as – 58C).
 2. Stratosphere:

• This is the 2nd layer of the atmosphere

• It extends from the tropopause to about
50 km above the surface of the earth.
• Temperature increases due to the
absorption of the ultraviolet radiation of
the sun by ozone present in this layer. The
temp. slowly increases to 4C.
 Stratosphere (contd.):

• This layer is free from clouds and

associated weather phenomena. Free
from weather changes, it provides ideal
flying conditions for large jet planes.
• At about 50 km, the temp begins to fall
again. This marks the end of the
stratosphere which is called “stratopause”
, where the temp. is about as high as at
the ground level.
 Stratosphere (contd.):

• The stratosphere is crucial to life on

earth. It contains ozone. The ozone layer is
located about 24km above the earth.
• Ozone gas absorbs some of the
“ultraviolet radiation” of the sun.
• Most of the world’s ozone is found in the
stratosphere, where it may exceed 5 ppmv
(parts per million by volume).
• There is very little water vapor at these
heights .
 Stratosphere (contd.):

• At about 50km, the temp begins to fall

again. This marks the end of the
stratosphere which is called
“stratopause”.
• Since ozone is formed in the
stratosphere, this zone is also called the
“ozonosphere”. The ozonosphere is of
utmost importance to the life on earth, as
it absorbs most of the U.V. radiations from
the sun , which would otherwise severely
harm all living things.
 Stratosphere (contd.):
• The ozone layer is a natural shield
against the ultraviolet rays reaching the
earth from solar radiations.
• It has been discovered that certain gases
(like CO2 originating from industrialized
world are producing destructive effects
on the size & volume of the ozone envelop.
• Ozone holes or gaps are being
developed in this layer that are becoming
increasingly dangerous for the life system
of the planet.
 Stratosphere (contd.):

• One ozone hole was detected by NASA in

Sept.,2000 over Arctic that was of a size of
28 million sq.km.

• Since then, a global scale effort has been

accelerated binding all the nations to
curtail generation of “ozone destroying”
gases by introducing alternate
technologies.
 3.Mesosphere

• Above the stratosphere, lies the

Mesosphere.
• The mesosphere extends to a height of 80
km.
• Here the temp. decreases again falling as
low as – 90C .
• The mesosphere has the coldest
temperatures in the atmosphere.
• The end of this layer is known as the
mesopause.
 4.Thermosphere
• The thermosphere lies above the
mesosphere.
• This layer extend upto a height of about
90 km.
• In this layer, temp. rises dramatically,
reaching upto 1480C. This increase in
temp. is due to the fact that the gas
molecules in this layer absorb the cosmic
rays and the ultraviolet radiation of the
sun.
 Thermosphere (contd.)

• This results in the break up of the gas

molecules into +ively & -ively charged
particles known as ions. Thus, this layer
is also called ionosphere.
• The electrically charged gas molecules of
the thermosphere reflect radio waves
(longer wave length) to the earth back
into space .
• In this way, radio messages can be
transmitted.
 Thermosphere (contd.)

• The ionosphere protects us from meteors

and obsolete satellites, because the high
temp. burn nearly all the debris coming
towards the earth.
 5.Exosphere

• This layer lies above the thermosphere.

• The exosphere extends beyond the
thermosphere upto 960km.
• Till today, very little is known about it.
• It is perhaps a low density, high temp
region.
 R & D Efforts
• The subject of “structure of the
atmosphere” is being constantly enriched
with findings from artificial satellites.

• Many new information is being gathered

about the physical, chemical, electrical,
thermal and other properties of the
atmosphere through new tools of
investigations and the information are
under constant revision.
 Hydrosphere
 It is a collective name for all the natural water
bodies occurring on or below the surface of the
earth.
 Although hydrosphere makes only 0.03% of
mass of the earth (5.97 ×1021 tonnes), its
relevance to the existence of life on this planet
can be well understood.
 The hydrosphere occupies as much as 70% area
of our globe.
 More than 98% of the hydrosphere is made up of
huge surface bodies of saline water called sea &
ocean.
 Hydrosphere (contd.)
The 4 important constituents of the hydrosphere :

1. Water contained in oceans & their associated

extensions, called seas and bays. The 5 major
oceans (the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian, the
Arctic & the Antarctica) and their associated
smaller extensions called seas & bays together
2. Water contained in rivers & lakes.
3. Frozen water in the form of glaciers and Ice
sheets.
4. Ground water stored in the rocks below the
earth’s surface.
Importance of Hydrosphere and Atmosphere
• The presence hydrosphere and atmosphere
are the unique features of our planet which
are largely responsible for making life
possible in the earth.
• Creating Geological Agencies like Rivers,
Glaciers, Wind, Oceans etc. that
continuously change the surface of the earth
by erosion and depositional processes.
• Weathering of rocks take place due to the
presence of the atmosphere and
hydrosphere.
 Lithosphere)

While the atmosphere & the

hydrosphere constitutes the gaseous
and liquid realms of the earth, the
lithosphere represents the solid earth.
 Salient Features of Earth

• The earth is a solid nearly spherical body

• Slightly Flattened at the Two Poles
• Slightly Bulging at The Equator
• The Polar Radius is 6357km
• The Equatorial Radius is 6378km
• The Mean Radius is 6371km
• The Temperature Increases With Depth- The
Average Geothermal Gradient is ~30oC/km
 Interior of the Earth

 The interior of the earth is nowhere

exposed to our direct observation.

 With our present scientific skills, we can

hardly penetrate up to a few km. below
the surface of the earth whereas the
average radius of the earth is about
6371 km.
 Interior of the Earth

We have Limited Direct Knowledge of the

Interior of the Earth through :
 Deep Mines which are only a few km deep
 Deep Oil Well Drilling only a few km deep
 Deep Ocean Drilling up to 12km

Our Knowledge About the Interior of Earth is Based on

Indirect Evidences (Seismology – Study of Earthquakes)
 Earth's Internal Structure

Our knowledge on the internal

structure of the earth is based on the
evidence obtained with the help of
seismic waves (earthquake waves)
That originate at the Focus and Travel
Through the Interior of the Earth in All
Directions.

The point on the surface vertically above the

Focus is Known as Epicenter
 Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)

During an earthquake, 3 types of waves are

generated at the Focus (point of origin of
earthquake below the surface):

1. Primary or P waves (Push & Pull Motion)

2. Secondary or S waves (Transverse or Shear Motion)
3. Long or L waves (Elliptical and Perpendicular
Motion)

The waves can also be produced artificially by an

explosion.
 Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)

 The seismic waves radiate in all directions

from the focus passing through the earth’s
body.
 Moving faster in the higher density
medium.
 Showing Abrupt Variation in Velocities
Across Boundary of Two Different Mediums
(Discontinuities & Densities)
 Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)
 The P & S waves travel through the body of the
earth and hence are distinguished as “Body
waves”.
 The L waves are confined mostly to near the
surface of the earth and are thus known as
“Surface waves”.

The P & S waves are recorded on the surface after

having passed through materials deep within the
earth and thus, are considered important in the
study of internal structure of the earth.
 Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)

These waves travel with characteristic

velocities through different media, so that
from their arrival times at Recording
Stations, many important conclusions are
drawn regarding the nature of the materials
lying in their path.
 Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)

The P & S waves reach the surface after

being reflected & refracted at various
depths below.

If the earth were of a uniform nature from

the surface to the centre, seismic waves
travelling through it would be recorded
on the surface without any change in
their velocity.
 Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)

The abrupt changes in the velocity of

seismic waves at various depths
actually represent “seismic
discontinuities” and these depths are
taken as demarcating zones of different
material composition within earth.
The Two Most Significant Discontinuities are :
1. The Crust-Mantle Mohorovicic Discontinuity
2. The Mantle – Core Discontinuity
These basic discontinuities demarcate 3 major
internal zones of the earth :

1. the Crust,
2. the Mantle and
3. the Core
 The Mohorovicic Discontinuity
• This is the first major discontinuity and is
named after its discoverer, Mohorovicic, a
seismologist of Yugoslavia who first
discovered this discontinuity, in 1904,
• It occurs at 30–40 km below the continents , 5-6 km
below the oceans and 60–70 km below the mountains.
• Both the P & S waves on reaching depths
undergo sharp increase in their velocity.
• The P waves attain 7.75 km/sec from 5.4km/sec
in overlying layer.
• The S waves attain 4.35 km/sec from 3.35
km/sec.
 The Crust
The Mohorovicic Discontinuity marks the lower
limit of the crust.
The crust is divided into two layers:

1. The upper layer called SIAL (Rich in Silica)

2. The lower Layer Called SIMA (Rich in Mafic
Minerals)

The crust makes just an insignificant part in the structure

of the earth when compared with the radius of the earth
(~ 6371km).
 The Crust (contd.)
The Upper Layer - SIAL
 It is made up of light rocks mainly Granite,
Sedimentary rocks with an average density
of 2.7.
 The rocks on average have Silica 65-75%
with Alumina the other most abundant
constituent.
 SIAL is Found only in the Continental Parts
of the Crust. It is Known as Continental
Crust. (not found in Oceanic Parts)
 On an Average it is 30-40km Thick under
Continents but Under Mountains it is ~70km
Thick
 The Crust (contd.)

The lower Layer - SIMA

 It is made up of dark and heavy rocks mainly
Mafic rocks like basalts and related rocks (Rich
in Mafic Minerals) collectively known as Basic
Rocks, with an average density of 2.8-3.0 and
with ~50% Silica.
 The basalts are associated with other heavier
rocks collectively known as Ultrabasic Rocks
with density of ~3.4 and 40-45% Silica.
 The thickness of SIMA varies from 5-20km
 The Mantle

• Beneath the Mohorovicic discontinuity lies

still denser rock (average density 4.53).

• This layer is called the Mantle.

• Its thickness is About 2900 km.
• Density increases with depth.
• The rocks are rich in iron & magnesium but
poor in silica.
 The Core
 It is the 3rd and the innermost structural
shell of the earth.
 It starts at a depth of about 2900km below
the surface and extends right up to the
centre of the earth, at a depth of 6371 km.
 The behavior of P & S waves below the
depth of 2900 km throws sufficient light on
the existence of the 3rd layer called the
Core.
 The Core (Cont.)

 At depth of 2,900 km there exists the second

discontinuity which is called Mantle – Core
Boundary.

 It was first discovered from seismic records by

B. Gutenberg in 1918 and in his honour it is
named as Gutenberg Discontinuity.

The record of seismic waves indicates that the

core has 2 distinct zones:
1. The Outer Core
2. The Inner Core
 The Outer Core

 The Outer Core comprises the region

from a depth of 2900 to 5170 km below
the earth surface.
 This region behaves like liquid
because the S waves from the
earthquake shocks are not transmitted
through this zone (it is the
characteristic of S waves that they are
unable to travel through liquids)
 The Inner Core

 The Inner Core with a thickness of about

1216 km is believed to be solid metallic
body.
 At the base of the mantle, density is about
5.7 gm/cc that jumps to 9.7 gm/cc at the
top of the core.
 The density reaches to ~12.0 gm/cc at the
boundary of inner core and becomes 16.0
gm/cc at the centre of the earth.
 The Inner Core

 The chemical composition of the inner

core is believed to be iron and nickel.
 The velocity of P waves recorded in the
core bear close resemblance to that
recorded for nickel iron alloys.
 Density of Core
 It is fairly established that the mean
density of the earth is 5.517 gm/cc.
 The average density of the rocks of the
crust is 2.8-2.9 gm/cc
 The average density of the materials of
mantle is 4.53 gm/cc.
 Hence, all calculations suggest a density
of 9.71-16.0 gm/cc for the material of the
core which is comparable to alloys of
nickel & iron.
 Inside the Earth
Crust thickness varies
From 5-70 km 6357 km at Poles

Crust
3486 km

1216 km
Mantle
0

Liquid
Core

Solid
Core

Density (gm/cm3)
Earth 5.517
Continental Crust 2.80
Oceanic Crust 2.90
Mantle 4.53
Outer Core 9.71
Inner Core 16.0 48
 Earth's Internal Structure
The Earth's interior is
characterized by a gradual
increase in temperature,
pressure and density with
depth.

At only 100 km depth, the

temp is ~1300°C.

At the Earth's center, the

temperature is >6700°C.

The pressure in the crust

increases ~280 bars for
every kilometer depth.

49
 Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)
Depth wise the Earth
consists of 3 major
divisions marked by
differences in chemical
composition – Crust,
Mantle and Core
Crust: Outermost rigid
layer - 2 types:
1. oceanic - 5-20 km
thick and is
composed of basalt
(igneous). Young
(<180 million years
old).
2. continental - up to 70
km thick comprising of a
wide variety of rock
types Ranges from
young to old (>3.8 billion
years old). 50
 Earth's Internal Structure (contd.)
Mantle: comprises
~82% of the Earth by
volume (~2900 km).
• The mantle is
characterized denser
rocks and is able to
flow (plastically) at very
slow rates.

Core: composed of
iron, nickel and other
minor elements.
• The outer core is
liquid capable of flow
and source of the
Earth's magnetic field
(~2270km).
• The inner core is solid
51
Fe-Ni (~1216km).
 Moho at 30–40 km below the
continents , 5-6 km below the
oceans and 60–70 km below the
mountains.

A = Sedimentary Rock; B = Granitic (SIAL) Layer; C = Basaltic

( SIMA) Layer
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1) What is Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and Lithosphere,
the three layers of Earth?
2) What is the importance of Atmosphere and
Hydrosphere in relation to changes on the surface of
the earth, on the rocks and deposition of sediments?
3) How information about the Interior of Earth is
obtained?
4) What is the Internal Structure of Earth?

53
54
GEOLOGICAL WORK OF
WIND

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
 Weathering, Erosion and Denudation
• Wind, Moving water (Rivers and Ocean Waves), Moving
Ice (Glaciers) continuously act on land changing its surface
and breaking rocks to produce “Rock Waste” which is
gradually carried away. As a result their operation circulates
the matter forming the surface of the earth and therefore
they are known as Geological Agents.
• The production of rock waste by these geological agents,
partly by mechanical breaking and partly by solution and
chemical decay is known as Weathering
• Wind, Moving Water and Moving Ice continuously
transport the Rock Waste. All Destructive Process due to
the effect of transporting agents are known as Erosion.
• Weathering and Erosion operates together and wears down
Land Surface and this combined effect is known as
Denudation.
 Wind – A Geological Agent

• Winds are originated mainly due to unequal

heating of the earth surface causing difference
in atmospheric pressure.
• The pressure difference results air to move
from high pressure region to low pressure
zone.
• Like other agents of nature, wind also does the
action of erosion, transportation & deposition.
• While wind erodes, transports and deposits the
sediments, it produces typical geological
features on the surface of the earth.
 Wind – A Geological Agent (contd.)

The entire geological work by wind can be

categorized into :

1. Erosion
2. Transportation
3. Deposition
Wind Erosion
Wind erosion is the removal of particles from one
place to other.

The Intensity of wind erosion depends on:

i. Nature of the region/terrain
ii. Velocity of wind
iii. Duration of the wind
Wind Erosion (contd.)

i. Nature of the region/terrain:

 Areas covered with vegetation and mostly
of hard rocks are least affected by wind
erosion.
 Conversely, areas made up of loose and dry
material such as clay, silt & sand and also
soft & bare rocks are easily eroded by wind
at faster rate.
Wind Erosion (contd.)

ii. Velocity of Wind:

Winds that blow in same direction and with
higher velocities erode the rocks faster than
compared to those where winds change its
direction frequently and with lower velocity.

iii. Duration :
The longer the duration of the wind, the more
pronounced are the effect.
Process of Wind Erosion

Wind erosion takes place by :

1. Deflation
2. Abrasion
3. Attrition
 Process of Wind Erosion ( Contd.)
1. Deflation (Latin : Deflare = to blow away)
• When wind moves over the ground covered
with vegetation, it does not have much erosive
power.
• But, when wind moves with greater velocity
over dry and loose sands or bare ground with
dust, it can remove or sweep away huge
quantity of the loose material from the surface.
• This process of removal of particles of dust and
sand by strong winds is called “Deflation”.
 Process of Wind Erosion ( Contd.)

Deflation ( Cont…..)
•The removal of loose fine particles, may at
certain places, leave a denuded surface,
consisting mostly of hard rocks or coarse
material like gravel ( >2 – 4mm ) and is called
“Lag Gravel” which is a coarse sediment.
•At some places, where the surface material
contains no coarse particles like gravel or
pebbles, such as in deserts, deflation may result
in the formation of depressions or hollows
called “Blow – Outs” or “Blow Holes”
Lag Gravel
The clastic sedimentary rocks and sediments are
classified according to grain size.

Sediments Grain Size

Clay < 1/256 mm = Less than 0.004
mm

Silt 1/256 - 1/16 mm = 0.004 - 0.167

mm
Sand 1/16 - 2 mm = 0.167 – 2mm
Granule/Gravel 2 – 4 mm
Pebble 4 – 64 mm
Cobble 64 – 256 mm
Boulder > 256 mm
 Process of Wind Erosion ( Contd.)

Deflation ( Contd.)

“Blow – Outs” or “Blow Holes” may range from

3 m in diameter and less than a metre deep to
several kilometer in diameter and several
hundred meter in depth.
eg. The Big Hollow in Wyoming was formed by
deflation and is 14.5 km long and 50 m deep.
Blow – Outs or Blow Holes
Desert Hollows
 Process of Wind Erosion ( Contd.)

Deflation (Contd.)
•At times, these depressions become so deep as
to expose the ground water – table to the surface
, then these depressions are called “Oases” or
“Slack”.
•When the area is eroded down to the water table,
further deflation is prevented.
• Some oases in the Sahara were formed in this
manner.
•An oasis is the most likely place in a desert
where vegetation can grow.
 Process of Wind Erosion ( Contd.)

Deflation (Contd.)
•There are numerous oases with depths of 15 to
30 m in Egyptian deserts.
•The Quattara depression of western Egypt is one
of the of the biggest slacks. It is 300km long,
150km wide & 130 m deep.
•Another feature produced due to wind deflation
is called “Hamada”.
•It is also called a “Desert Pavement” and it may
extend to considerable distance in desert.
Fig. Blow Out and Oasis
 Process of Wind Erosion ( Contd.)

Deflation (Contd.)

A hamada is a type of desert landscape

consisting of barren, hard, rocky surface with
very little sand because this has been removed by
deflation.
Hamada
 Process of Wind Erosion ( Contd.)
2.Abrasion
• The blowing winds generally pick up sand
particles from the earth’s surface, and then
move with them as sand laden winds.
• Most of this sand remains confined to the lower
layers of the wind, within 2 meters from the
surface .
• When the sand laden winds strike the
protruding rocks or other structures in their
way, they will cause them to erode by the
rubbing and grinding action of the moving sand
particles.
 Process of Wind Erosion ( Contd.)
Abrasion ( contd.)
• The abrasion action of winds is most
pronounced on objects very near to the earth’s
surface (i.e. within 30 to 60 cm) due to
maximum concentration of sand load within
this distance.
• The abrasion does not cause any appreciable
erosion at the upper parts of the projecting
rocks, but, maximum erosion takes place at
their lower parts. Due to wind abrasion, the
cliffs are eroded or undercut at the bottom.
Such rocks are called “Pedestal Rocks” and
rock fragments get polished/faceted.
Wind Abrasion
Wind Abrasion
 Process of Wind Erosion ( Contd.)

Abrasion (contd.)
• After one face gets polished, partly or
completely, a second face may be made
available for wind due to overturning of the
fragment during strong gushes of wind.
• This process might repeat over and over again
developing multifaceted fragments.
• These polished & facetted rock fragments are
called “Ventifacts”.
The German name Driekenters has been
used for 2 – Faced Ventifacts
 Process of Wind Erosion ( Contd.)

Desert Varnish - The pebbles of the Desert

Pavements may get further polished with time and
can acquire thin film of oxides of iron &
manganese.

The film of oxides & manganese is referred as

“Desert Varnish” which gives characteristic brown,
dark red or even black appearance to the desert
pavement.
 Process of Wind Erosion ( Contd.)
3. Attrition
• The sand grains lifted by the wind are carried
away to considerable distance.
• During this transportation, these particles are not
moved in straight lines ( as all particles are not of
the same weight and also the wind velocity
varies from base to top).
 Process of Wind Erosion ( Contd.)

Attrition (Contd.)
• The sand grains during their journey are moved
in a zigzag fashion, colliding with one another
again & again.
• This repeated collision cause mutual rubbing
causing wear & tear of sand grains during their
journey.
• This process is known as “attrition” which
causes reduction in size.
Process of Wind Transport

The Wind transports the sediments from one

place to another eventually depositing it at
suitable sites.

Sediment transport by wind is carried out by :

1. Suspension

2. Saltation
Process of Wind Transport (contd.)
1.Suspension
• The light density clay & silt particles may be
lifted by the wind from the ground and are
carried high up to the upper layers of the wind
where these particles move along with the
winds. This process of transport is called
“suspension”.
• The suspended particles once lifted are not
allowed to rest on the ground again till the
velocity of the wind decreases and by the
intervention of rain, storms etc.
Process of Wind Transport (contd.)

2.Saltation
• The heavier and coarser sediments such as sand
grains, pebbles & gravels etc. are lifted up
(during their transport) for short distances and
for smaller heights above the ground.
• These movements takes place close to the
surface, generally up to 2m.
• The particles during the transport (saltation)
process may be dropped and picked up again
and again from one place to another.
Process of Wind Transport (contd.)

Saltation (contd.)
• The height & distance to which these sediments
are transported in one cycle depends on the size,
shape and density of the grain.
• In the typical saltation process, each particle
suffers a fall after reaching a maximum height in
“one cycle of lift and drop”.
• On falling, the same particle transmits an impact
to another stationary particle resting on the
ground and thereby making that particle to
transport.
Process of Wind Transport (contd.)
Saltation (contd.)
• Saltation is thus, a process of sediment transport
in a series of jumps.
• The heavier particles may not be actually lifted
up.
• These materials are transported for short
distances by strong winds through “rolling”,
“sliding” or “skidding” along the ground.
• It has been estimated that a velocity of 20km/
hour is necessary for keeping the fine sand
(1/16th mm in size) in motion.
TRANSPORT OF SAND GRAINS BY
SALTATION METHOD
Wind Deposition
Deposition
When the velocity of sediment laden wind is
checked by some obstruction or otherwise, the
sediments get dropped and deposited forming
“aeolian” deposits.
The causative factors for the check in the velocity
of wind and the consequent deposition of
sediments are:
1. Prominent obstruction like hills, mountains
and forests.
2. Precipitation
Types of Wind Deposits

Deposition by Wind
Types of Aeolian Deposits :
There are two important types of aeolian deposits

1. Dunes
&
1. Loess
Types of Wind Deposits (contd.)

Sand Dunes
• They are the huge heaps of sand formed by the
natural deposition of wind blown sand. Such
heaps are generally have defined shapes, each
having a crest.
• A typical sand dune is a conical heap of sand
characterized with two slopes on either side of a
medial ridge or crest.
• A dune is normally developed when a sand –
laden wind comes across some obstruction – a
small bush or raised surface or even a pre –
existing sand heap.
Sand Dunes

A typical sand dune is characterized with a gentle

windward side and a steeper leeward side.
Sand Dunes

A typical sand dune is characterized with a gentle

windward side and a steeper leeward side.
Types of Wind Deposits (contd.)

Sand Dunes (contd.)

• The obstruction causes some check in the
velocity of the wind, which is compelled to drop
some load (sand) particles along, against or
over the obstruction.
• When the process of deposition is continued
for a long time, the accumulating sand takes the
shape of a heap, which itself then starts acting
as a wind barrier, causing further deposition and
results into dunes.
Types of Wind Deposits (contd.)

Sand Dunes (contd.)

• The presence of the barrier across the direction
of flow of wind causes the development of a
zone of wind - shadow within which the velocity
of wind is much reduced.
• Sand particles, travelling along with the blowing
wind, get the first chance of dropping down
within any such wind-shadow. With the
accumulation of sediments, a dune is formed.
• The dunes get fixed or stabilized by the
vegetation grown over and around the dunes.
Types of Wind Deposits (contd.)

Sand Dunes (contd.)

But, most of the sand dunes move slowly across
the desert and they are called “Active Dunes”.

Most dunes are migratory in nature and are in a

process of constant advance.

The rate of migration may vary from few cm / year

or 25 to 250 m/month or many meters in a week.
 Leeward
Windward Side Side

The drifting movement of an active sand dune

with time
Formation of Sand Dunes
Types of Wind Deposits (contd.)

Sand Dunes (contd.)

Shapes of Dunes
The sand dunes may acquire different shapes and
sizes due to:

• Variations in wind direction,

• Climatic variation
• Possibility of vegetation growth over dune.
Types of Wind Deposits (contd.)

Sand Dunes (contd.)

The active sand dunes may be divided in:
1. Barchans or Crescent Shaped Dunes
2. Transverse Dunes
3. Longitudinal Dunes.
Types of Wind Deposits (contd.)

Dunes (contd.)
Barchans
The dunes which are more or less crescent shaped
are called barchans.The Barchans are convex towards
the windward side and the tapering horns of the
crescent point towards the direction of flow of wind.
The gently sloping side lying windward side , makes
an angle about 10 to 15 with the horizontal.
Barchans generally have height of about 35 m. and
horn to horn width of about 350 m.
There are numerous sand dunes in Barmer region,
Rajasthan.
(Some of them attains height of 70 m.)
Typical Barchan

HORNS

350 m.

HORNS
A Group of Barchans

Wind Direction
Types of Wind Deposits (contd.)

Dunes (contd.)
Transverse Dunes
A large, strongly asymmetrical, elongated dune
lying at right angles to the prevailing wind
direction.
Transverse dunes have a gently sloping
windward side and a steeply sloping leeward
side. They generally form in areas of sparse
vegetation and abundant sand.
Types of Wind Deposits (contd.)

Dunes (contd.)
Longitudinal Dunes / Seifs
• They are elongated ridges of sand with their
linear axis broadly parallel the direction of the
prevailing winds.
• On an average, they may be 3 m. High and 200
m. Long, although, in some cases, they may be
as high as 90 m. and as long as 100km (Egypt).
Longitudinal Dunes
Longitudinal Dunes

Wind Direction
Types of Wind Deposits (contd.)

LOESS
• Loess are the wind blown deposits of silt and
clay.
• They are unconsolidated and porous sediments
ranging in size from 1/256mm to 1/16mm in
diameter.
Types of Wind Deposits (contd.)
Loess (contd.)
• When strong winds blows over very extensive
deserts or from the flood plains of the rivers,
pick up vast amounts of fine grade particles and
transport them in suspension.
• These dust laden winds when intercepted by
precipitation, they drop their entire loads on the
surface below. This process is repeated year
after year.
• The accumulation of such sediments over
thousands of years have resulted the present
Loess deposits.
Types of Wind Deposits (contd.)

Loess (contd.)
Limited Palaeo-loess deposits in India are found in
Kashmere, Laddakh, Son Valley areas; Large
loess deposits are found in America, Sudan,
Nigeria, China etc.

In the presence of water, loess becomes very

fertile and forms a good loamy soil.
Laddakh Loess deposit
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1) What is the Geological work of Wind?
2) What is wind erosion, wind transportation and what
are the types of deposits formed by wind?
3) What are Dunes and Loess deposits?

62
63
Introduction to Minerals

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
 What are Minerals?

• The solid crust of the earth is made up of

rocks and the rocks are made up of
aggregates of minerals.
• The minerals are the smallest geological
units forming the crust.
• They are naturally occurring inorganic
substances.
• They have more or less fixed/ definite
chemical composition.
• They have definite atomic structure.
 Simple Definition of Mineral

A Mineral is a naturally occurring

Inorganic Solid with a definite
range of chemical composition
and a crystalline structure.

Exception : Mercury (Liquid at Room Temperature)

 So What are Minerals ?

1. Naturally Occurring Substances (Compounds)

2. Solid Substances
3. Orderly Crystalline Structure
4. Definite Range of Composition
5. Generally Considered Inorganic
6. ( They are abiotic-Never Alive)
Rocks are mostly made of several
different minerals.
How many different minerals are
there on Earth???

There are >3500 Minerals

 Minerals

 Out of 3,500 - 4,000 minerals on Earth, only

100 minerals are commonly found.
 About 30 minerals make up the majority of the
rocks on Earth. They are called “rock
forming” minerals.
 Rocks, are made of two or more of these
minerals.
 The minerals consist of elements or
compounds.
 Minerals (contd.)

 Minerals are made up of one or more

than one essential elements (Cations
and Anions and is electrically neutral).

 Minerals often have some Cations &

anions as impurities which sometimes
form inclusions (Minerals inside
mineral) within the minerals.
 Minerals (contd.)

 There are about 100 naturally occurring

elements on earth but only 15 elements
occur in the earth’s crust in amounts
(Wt.) greater than 0.25% and make over
99.75% of the Earth's crust (Rocks).
 The rest of about 85 elements are
collectively found to be less than
0.25% in amount (Wt.).
Most of the Rock Forming Minerals are
Composed out of these 15 Elements
About 15 Elements Make Up Most of the Common Minerals

Abundance of elements
> 3500 are Identified in earth’s crust (% Wt.)
 About 100 are Commonly found 1 Oxygen 46.71
2 Silicon 27.69
 About 30 are important 3 Aluminum 8.07
rock forming minerals. 4 Iron 5.05
5 Calcium 3.65
 Rock forming minerals 6 Sodium 2.75
are composed of the most 7 Potassium 2.58
abundant elements found 8 Magnesium 2.08

in the earths crust 9 Titanium 0.62

10 Hydrogen 0.14
11 Phosphorus 0.13
12 Carbon 0.094
13 Manganese 0.09
14 Sulphur 0.052

15 elements constitute 99.75 % 15 Barium 0.050

of Earth’s crust (Rocks) Rest 0.244

10
Total 100.0
 Rocks and Minerals – Raw Material
Life Revolves around Rocks & Minerals
 Needle Soil
Forest
 Tooth paste
 Talcum Powder
 Utensils  Direct Useable
 Electronics Minerals & Rocks
 Appliances  Indirect Useable
Minerals & Rocks
 Fertilizers
 Agriculture
 Transport & Communications
 Gold, Silver
 Houses & Buildings
 Clay
 Energy – Oil & Gas  Sand
 Energy – Hydro,Thermal  Gravel, boulder
 Energy – Nuclear  Lime
 Gem Stones
 Infra-Structure
 Glass
 Paints & Colours  Copper, Zinc, Lead, Steel
 Ornaments and Gem Stones  Borax, Sulphur 11
 Common Rock Forming Minerals (simplified)
S.N. Name S.N. Name
1 Quartz* 9 Montmorinillonite*
2 Orthoclase 10 Chromite
Microcline Hematite*
Albite etc. Magnetite*
Pyrolusite*
Psilomelane*
3 Muscovite, Biotite, Chlorite 11 Garnet
4 Calcite* 12 Epidote
Dolomite* Sillimanite*
Magnesite* Kyanite*
5 Amphiboles 13 Pyrite*
Chalcopyrite*
Pyrrhotite*
6 Pyroxenes 14 Peat, Lignite, Coal,
7 Olivine 15 Apatite*
8 Clays (Kaolin, Bentonite, etc.* 16 Gold**, Silver** etc.
12
* - Also forms mineral deposits ; ** - Occurs in small quantities in some rocks.
 Important Mineral Groups
Minerals Can be Grouped or Classified
According to Their Composition, Crystallinity
(Form/Shape), Optical Properties etc.

S.No. Composition
1 Oxides
2 Silicates
3 Carbonates
4 Sulphides
5 Native

Nitrates, Borates, Hydrocarbons, Mixed

compositions also exist
13
 Important Mineral Groups (contd.)

1.Oxides

Minerals that contain oxygen and one or

more other elements, which are usually
metals (Si, Fe, Ti, Mn, Cr etc)

Common Oxide Minerals : Quartz, Magnetite, Hematite,

Ilmenite, Chromite etc.

Oxide Minerals of Iron, Titanium, Manganese and Chromium

are Usually Dark, Opaque and have Higher Density
 Important Mineral Groups (contd.)
2. Silicates
Silicon and Oxygen Combine with
Hydrogen, Aluminum, Potassium, Calcium,
Magnesium, Iron, Manganese etc.

 Minerals with low or nil Magnesium, Iron and

Manganese are Usually Lighter in Colour (Felsic)
 Magnesium, Iron and Manganese Rich Minerals
are Usually Dark In Colour (Mafic)

Common Felsic Minerals : Quartz, Feldspars, Mica etc.

Common Mafic Minerals : Amphiboles, Pyroxenes,
Olivine, Garnet, etc.
Most common rock-forming
minerals are…

The percent composition

of Silicate minerals in a
rock determines the type
of rock it is.
Rocks that have a high percentage of
Silicates are light in color, and are
called Felsic Rocks
Rocks that have a low percentage of
Silicates are dark in color, and are
called Mafic Rocks
 Important Mineral Groups (contd.)

3. Carbonates

Minerals that contain the elements of

Calcium, Magnesium, Oxygen, Hydrogen.
and one or more other metallic elements

Common Carbonate Minerals :

Calcite – Calcium Carbonate
Dolomite – Calcium Magnesium Carbonate
 Important Mineral Groups (contd.)
4. Sulphides
Minerals that contain sulphur and one or
more other elements, which are usually
metals (Cu, Fe, Ni, Zn, Pb etc.)
Common Sulphide Minerals :
Pyrite – Iron Sulphide
Chalcopyrite – Copper Iron Sulphide
Pentlandite – Nickel Iron Sulphide
Sphalerite – Zinc Iron Sulphide
Galena – Lead Sulphide
 Important Mineral Groups (contd.)

5. Native Metals

Examples of Native Metals (Rare)

Minerals that contain Noble and Rare
Metals Like Gold, Silver, Platinum, etc.
 Common Minerals
Name Type Name Type
Quartz Silicate Marble Carbonate
Mica (Muscovite, Silicate Apatite Phosphate (Not very
Sericite & Biotite) common)
Feldspar Silicate Magnetite Oxide
Olivine Silicate Hematite Oxide
Amphiboles Silicate Pyrite Sulphide
Pyroxenes Silicate Pyrrhotite Sulphide
Garnet Silicate Galena Sulphide
Calcite Carbonate Gold Native Metal (Element)-Rare

Dolomite Carbonate Silver Native Metal (Element)-Rare

Rare Minerals : Diamond, Ruby, Sapphire, Topaz, Zircon etc.

 Properties of Mineral
• There is a great difference in the Physical
Properties (Colour, Appearance, Hardness
etc.), Chemical Properties and Optical
Properties, of Minerals.
• Some minerals sparkle in the light while
others are dull.
• Some minerals are so hard that they can
scratch steel while other minerals are so
soft that they can be scratched easily by a
fingernail.
 Properties of Mineral (contd.)

A “property” is its physical, chemical

and optical characteristic of a
mineral.
Properties help geologists to better
understand :
 Its Identification
 Its origin
and
 Its Usability
 Physical Properties

 Color and Streak

 Luster
 Crystal Habit/Form
 Hardness
 Cleavage and Fracture
 Magnetism
 Electricity
 Specific Gravity
 Transparency, Fluorescence Phosphorescence
and etc.)
• Color is the easiest of the properties to
see, but it is not always the best way to
identify a mineral.
• Many minerals have more than one color
because of impurities that were present
during the formation of the mineral.
• A particular color is produced by
reflection of some and absorption of
other components of white light.
• A mineral shows color of that wavelength
of the white light which is not absorbed by
it and are reflected.
• Quartz is an example of a mineral with
many different colors.
• Quartz can be white, blue, brown, purple
and almost black.
• Amethyst is a quartz crystal with a purple
color. The impurity that makes amethyst
purple is manganese.
 Streak
• The streak of a mineral is the colour of its
powder.
• Colour is different from that of the mineral.
The mineral is rubbed over a rough
unglazed porcelain plate “streak plate”.
• The streak Plate (unglazed porcelain)
which has a hardness of 6.5
• When the mineral is rubbed across the
streak plate some of the mineral is broken
off and ground into a powder.
STREAK PLATE
Streak (contd.)

• The mineral must be softer than the streak

plate if this is to work.
• This different color is due to the mineral
being exposed to the atmosphere. When
minerals are exposed to the atmosphere,
gasses like oxygen chemically combine
with the mineral to change its outer color.
Streak (contd.)

• The colour and streak of a mineral may be

same in some cases but can be radically
different in some minerals.
• (1)The mineral Hematite is of steel-grey
colour but show a cherry – red streak.
• (2) The mineral chalcopyrite is golden
yellow in colour but show a shining
greenish black streak.
Lusture

 Lustre is the property of a mineral that

tells how the mineral reflects light i.e.

 Luster gives us an indication of how

"Shiny" a mineral is.
 Lusture (contd.)

Different Types of lustre :

1. Splendent /Adamantine - Brilliant (Diamond,

Zircon etc)
2. Metallic - Metal Like (Gold, Pyrite, Galena etc.)
3. Vitreous - Broken Glass Like (Quartz)
4. Resinous- Resin Like (Opal, Amber etc.)
5. Pearly - Pearl Like (Talc)
6. Silky - Silk Like (Gypsum)
7. Dull - Earthy (Clays)
Crystal Habit/Form
 Crystals are Solid Bodies Bounded by Usually Flat
Surfaces and Which is the Expression of The
Internal Arrangement of the Cations and Anions
 The Cations and Anions are Arranged into an
Assembly (Group) of Lattice Forms Varying in Size
and Shape
 The Common Mineral Habits or Faces Belong to
One or the Other 11 Types of Lattice Arrangements
or Classes
 All Crystals Have One or the Other Types of External
Surfaces called “Face” as per its Lattice
Arrangements and These Faces Help in
Identification of the Minerals
Crystal Habit/Form

It is the internal atomic arrangement of a

mineral which is expressed outwardly
by development of geometric shapes or
crystal faces.
Crystal Habit/Form (contd.)
The form of a mineral can be:
1. Crystallized: When the mineral occurs in the
form of well defined crystals as represented by
crystal faces.
2. Crystalline: When well defined crystals are
absent but the mineral shows a clear tendency
towards crystallization as evidenced by
development of small grains each of which is
virtually an incipient (embryonic) crystals.
3. Amorphous: Neither a crystal face nor a
cleavage is seen. There is no evidence of
orderly arrangement of atoms.
HARDNESS
Hardness may be defined as the resistance,
which a mineral offers to an external deformation
action such as scratching, abrasion, rubbing
etc.

The harder mineral will scratch the softer

mineral.

 In 1822 a German scientist, Frederick Mohs set

up a scale to determine the approximate
hardness of minerals.
 He arranged 10 minerals in his scale assigning
values between 1 and 10 from softest (Talc) to
hardest (Diamond).
 Mohs’ Scale of Hardness for Minerals
Hardnes Standard Composition
s Minerals
1 Talc Mg[Si4O10][OH]2
2 Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
3 Calcite CaCO3
4 Fluorite CaF2
5 Apatite Ca5[PO4]3F
6 Feldspar KAlSi3O8
(Orthoclase)
7 Quartz SiO2
8 Topaz Al2[SiO4][F,OH]2
9 Corundum Al2O3
10 Diamond C
The minerals get increasingly harder as we read down
the scale, but they do not increase in hardness at a
constant rate. Example: Calcite is not twice as hard as
talc and a diamond is not 10 times harder than talc. In
fact a diamond is over 40 times harder than talc. The
line graph above shows you this relationship.
Hardness(contd.)

Besides the 10 minerals from Mohs scale,

certain other metals or substances have
been found very useful in the field. They
are:

1. Knife Blade ( Steel) : 6.5

2. Glass Plate : 5.5
3. Brass or Copper Coin : 3.0
4. Finger nail : 2.5
Cleavage

• Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break

or split along certain definite directions
yielding more or less smooth, plane surfaces.
• The cleavage planes are the planes of easiest
fractures.
• The cleavage planes are essentially indicative
of directions of least cohesion in the atomic
constitution of a mineral.
• In fact, cleavages form along the directions of
weak bonding.
 Cleavage (contd.)
If the mineral splits easily along these planes the
mineral is then said to have perfect cleavage.
Mica is a good example of perfect cleavage. The
muscovite & biotite mica splits into sheets that
are perfectly parallel. They form because of weak
bonds between the mica layers.
Feldspar has cleavage in more than one direction.
Quartz is a mineral that has no cleavage at all.
Quartz shatters likes glass when struck with a
hammer.
The feldspar breaks into two planes at consistent
angles.
 Fracture
 The fracture of a mineral is defined as the nature
of the surface produced due to fracturing of the
mineral mass.
 The obsidian is a good example of a rock that
has conchodial (glass like) fracture.
 Quartz is a mineral that also has conchodial
fracture.
 Types of Fracture
a. Conchodial: The mineral breaks with a curved
concave or convex surface. The broken surface
of the mineral shows broadly concentric rings.
e.g. Quartz
b. Even : When the broken surface is smooth & flat.
e.g. Chert
c. Uneven : When the mineral breaks with an
irregular surface which is full of minute ridges
and depressions. e.g. Fluorite
d. Hackly: The surface is studded with sharp and
jagged elevation. e.g. Native copper
e. Earthy: The surface is smooth, soft and porous
as in the fracture of chalk.
Conchoidal or shell-like fracture
Magnetism

A mineral capable of being attracted by a magnet

is called magnetic. Minerals containing iron are
generally magnetic. e.g. Magnetite (Iron Oxide)
and Pyrrhotite (Iron Sulphide) .

Minerals like
Chromite (FeCr2O4),
Ilmenite (FeO.TiO2)
are less magnetic
while Quartz, Garnet
etc. are non-magnetic
Electricity

 In some minerals, an electric charge may be

developed on heating. These minerals are called
“Pyroelectric minerals”. e.g. Tourmaline, Quartz
etc.
 In some other minerals, the same effect of
developing a charge may be produced by
applying pressure. These minerals are called
“piezoelectric” . e.g. Quartz
Sp. Gravity
The Sp.Gr. is the ratio of the weight of the mineral
to the weight of an equal volume of water.
Determination of Sp. Gravity:
a. Walker’s steel yard balance – for large
specimen.
b. Specific Gravity bottle (Pycnometer) – for small
mineral grains
c. Chemical balance method – for small fragments
of minerals

Relative heaviness helps in identifying minerals

 Sp. Gravity of Some Common Minerals
S.No. Mineral Sp. Gr. S.No. Mineral Sp.Gr.

1 Talc 2.7-2.8 11 Graphite 2.0-2.3

2 Gypsum 2.3 12 Garnet 3.6-4.27
3 Calcite 2.71 13 Hornblende (Amphibole) 3.3.-4.7
4 Fluorite 3.0-3.25 14 Hypersthene (Pyroxene) 3.4-3.5
5 Apatite 3.17-3.23 15 Olivine 3.4-3.5
6 Orthoclase 2.57 16 Muscovite (Mica) 2.76-3.0
7 Quartz 2.65 17 Biotite (Mica) 2.7-3.1
8 Topaz 3.5-3.6 18 Magnetite 5.18
9 Corundum 3.9-4.1 19 Pyrite 4.8-5.1
10 Diamond 3.52 20 Gold 19.3
(12.0-20.0)*

* Variation due to associated metals

Transparency
 It is a property that makes possible to see
objects through the mineral clearly .
 If the objects are not seen clearly the mineral
is said to be semitransparent
 If a mineral allows transmission of light
through it but the object cannot be seen is
said to be translucent.
 If a mineral does not allow transmission of
light through it, it is said to be opaque.

This is important property for precious and semi-

precious minerals (Gem Stones)
Fluorescence

A few minerals have the property of

glowing or emitting light when they are exposed
to radiation. This property is called fluorescence.
e.g. Fluorite.
Phosphorescence
In some minerals light is emitted by mineral not
during the act of exposure to radiation or
subjected to heating or rubbing but after the
substance is transferred rapidly to a dark place.
e.g.

 Diamond when exposed to X rays

 Quartz fragments when rubbed together
 Fluorite when heated
…….. emit phosphorescence.
 Chemical Properties
• All minerals show variation in Chemical
Composition within certain limits
• Some minerals have different Physical
Properties but similar Chemical Composition
like Diamond & Graphite (Carbon)
• Some minerals have similar or analogous
Chemical Composition and closely related
Crystalline Forms like Feldspars and Garnets

 Polymorphism
 Isomorphism
Polymorphism
At times two minerals of markedly different
physical properties may have same identical
chemical composition.
This phenomenon is known as polymorphism.
These minerals are composed of the same atoms
but the atoms are arranged in different plans so,
their physical properties differ.
Polymorphism (contd.)

Examples of Polymorphism
1) Calcite and Aragonite – CaCo3
(These two minerals show different physical
properties e.g. Aragonite has higher Sp. Gr.
and is harder than calcite)
2) Diamond and Graphite - C
(hardness: 10 & 1-2 respectively)
3) Rutile, Brookite and Anatase - TiO2
(Sp. Gr. : 4.25, 4.15 & 3.9 respectively.
Isomorphism
 Two or more minerals with similar chemical
composition and related crystal forms. Such
minerals form a series with gradual variation in
properties - Isomorphous Series.
 In the Isomorphous series, one element mostly
the cation replaces another cation.
 Olivine group which changes from pure
Magnesium silicate, Forsterite (Mg2SiO4) to
pure Iron silicate, Fayalite (Fe2SiO4).
 Similarly, Plagioclase feldspar constitutes an
excellent example of a Isomorphous series
where the composition changes from one end,
Albite (NaAlSi3O8) to Anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8).
 Optical Properties
An Incident Polarised Beam of light on a mineral either
can be transmitted or Reflected by a Mineral.
1. In doing So the Beam of Light Suffers
Refraction/Double Refraction and can be polarised
by the mineral
2. Due to Different Refractive Indices of Different
Minerals, these Transmitted/Reflected beams
produces Characteristic Colours, Patterns and Cut
Down Completely or Partially the
Transmitted/Reflected Light with reference to the
Type of Lattice Pattern (Form) of the Mineral
3. These Changes Can be Measured and help in
Identifying the mineral
4. For Such Identification a 0.03mm thick Rock Chip is
Studied With a Petrologial Microscope
 Origin of Minerals
 Crystallisation from Magma (hot molten rocks)
 Transformation of pre-existing minerals under
changed pressure & temperature conditions.
 Crystallisation from Solutions
 Crystallisation from Vapours & Geothermal
Springs
Basic Requirements :
 Presence of ions in sufficient concentration
 Cooling of solution and magma
Rapid Cooling - Fine Grains
Slow Cooling - Coarse Grains
Minerals – formed under low pressure & temperature conditions
Minerals – formed under high temperature & pressure conditions
 How do Minerals Form???
1. Minerals form in cooling magma
chambers
2. Transformation of pre-existing minerals
under changed pressure & temperature
conditions
Some minerals occur as the result of Recrystallisation
and Reaction within existing rocks which produces new
minerals in response to changes in
Heat and Pressure
Metamorphism, therefore occurs at temperatures
and pressures higher than 200oC and 300
MPa. Rocks can be subjected to these higher
temperatures and pressures as they become
buried deeper in the Earth. Such burial usually
takes place as a result of tectonic processes such
as continental collisions or subduction
Heat:
• The mineralogical changes in pre-existing rocks
induced by the heat between 300C – 850C is
known as Metamorphism and the changes in
sediments below 300C is known as Diagenesis.
• Above 850C, some components of rock may
actually start melting.

Pressure:
Pressure above 300 Mpa can bring mineralogical
changes in pre-existing rocks (Metamorphism)
Rocks can be subjected to these pressures as
they become buried deeper in the Earth due to
Tectonic or Geodynamic Process like Plate
Tectonics
3. Crystallization from Solutions
Some types of minerals form from saline waters
when water evaporates and the ion concentrations
relatively increases- Crystallisation from solution
starts
Salt deposits
4. Crystallisation from Vapours and
Geothermal Springs

• Vapors and gases coming out of the volcanic

vents and fissures – Some Minerals are formed
due to precipitation, directly from the vapor
state that comes out from the active volcanoes.
e.g. Sulphur and also sulphides of arsenic-
antimony etc. get solidified directly from the
gaseous volcanic emanations
• Precipitation from salts rich (brine) of
Geothermal Springs - Silica and Sulphur etc.
Quartz of Different Colours
Quartz
 Halite (NaCl) Gold (Au) Olivine (MgSiO4)

Chemical
Composition of
Minerals varies All Minerals
within certain have a chemical
limits formula
Olivine
Pyroxene
Biotite (Mica)
Muscovite (Mica)
Plagioclase (Feldspar)
Potassium – Feldspar (Orthoclase)
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1. What is a Mineral?
2. What are Rock Forming Minerals?
3. What are the Physical and Chemical Properties
of Minerals?
4. How Minerals are formed?

75
76
Introduction to Rocks

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
 Study of Rocks - Petrology
Petrology –
It is the Study of Rocks, their origin, types and properties
Rocks are Aggregates of Minerals
Monomineralic – By and large single mineral
Polymineralic – Mainly comprising two or more than
two minerals
Based on the way of formation all rocks can be
divided into Three main Rock Types.

 Igneous Rock - from melt

 Sedimentary Rocks – from pre-existing rocks
 Metamorphic Rocks – from pre-existing rocks
 ROCK CYCLE
• A rock is a naturally
formed, consolidated
material usually
composed of one or
more minerals
• The rock cycle shows
how one type of rock
gets transformed into
another
• Rocks are formed,
broken down, and
processed to form
another type of rock
ROCK CYCLE
 ROCK CYCLE
A ROCK CYCLE thus is a scheme that represents the
processes of continuous changes that connect the Three
major groups of rocks:

S.N. Type Primary/Secondary

1 Igneous Rocks Primary
2 Sedimentary Rocks Secondary (from pre-
3 Metamorphic Rocks existing rocks)

It also shows two other important parts of the “Rock

Cycle” – SEDIMENTS and molten LAVA & MAGMA
 Rocks

Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks

(Primary Rocks) (Secondary Rocks) (Secondary Rocks)

Crystallized Composed of sediments Recrystallized

from an hot, that were deposited on from other rocks
molten liquid the surface of the ground under high
called or bottom of the ocean or temperature and
magma. from the precipitation pressure.
of the dissolved
chemicals.
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1. What is a Rock?
2. What is a Rock Cycle?
3. What is meant by Primary and Secondary
Rocks?
4. How many types of rocks are there based on
origin?

7
8
Introduction to Igneous Rocks

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
 Depth wise Solidification of Igneous Rocks

 Form by solidification (crystallization) of MOLTEN

MATTER.
 At the surface, LAVA hardens to form EXTRUSIVE
rocks with tiny (FINE-GRAINED) crystals or
GLASSY (no crystal) TEXTURES
 Beneath the surface, MAGMA hardens to form
INTRUSIVE rocks with easily visible (COARSE-
GRAINED) crystal texture.
Depth wise Solidification of Igneous Rocks (contd.)

Intrusive rocks have consolidated either :

 at very great depth
 at moderate depth

On the basis of the depth of formation, Igneous

rocks can be are classified into :
Depth wise Solidification of Igneous Rocks (contd.)
Depending upon where they have formed, the igneous
rocks are classed into:

(a) Plutonic (b) Hypabyssal (c) Volcanic

Deep seated At shallow

Origin Depth (generally up
At the surface
(7-10km below to 2 km below the
the surface) surface
of the earth
Depth wise Solidification of Igneous Rocks (contd.)

1) Plutonic Rocks
These rocks are crystallized and solidified while still
below the surface of the earth. When magma cools deep
underground, the rate of cooling is very slow, allowing
time for large crystals to grow. The resulting rock is
coarse-grained. Plutonic rocks are also called Intrusive
Rocks as the magma intruded into the pre-existing rocks
before it cooled.
Depth wise Solidification of Igneous Rocks (contd.)

2) Hypabyssal Rocks
These rocks are formed at shallower depth, show an
intermediate rate of cooling and thus are of intermediate
grain size, contain some amount of glass.
Depth wise Solidification of Igneous Rocks (contd.)

3) Volcanic Rocks
They crystallize on the surface of the earth as lava. As
the lava flows out of a volcano, it immediately comes in
contact with air or water and thus rapidly solidifies. The
rapid crystallization forms very small crystals that are
difficult to distinguish with the naked eye. They are often
made up partly or wholly of glass. These rocks are known
as Extrusive Igneous Rocks as the magma extruded to the
surface before it cooled.
So, Grain Size gives an indication of the conditions
under which the magma got solidified to form rocks.
Colour of Igneous Rocks

About 72% of the earth’s crust is made up of oxygen

(46.71 wt%) and silicon (27·69 wt%).
The two most common minerals in igneous rocks are
(1) Quartz (SiO2) - composed solely of silicon and
oxygen.
(2) Feldspar (actually a mineral group) – contains
aluminum, calcium, sodium, potassium and oxygen.
Colour of Igneous Rocks (contd.)

Quartz & Feldspar – both are light colored minerals.

Thus, rocks rich in quartz & feldspar tend to be light
colored rocks.

Minerals that are low in silica and oxygen tend to be

higher in iron and magnesium and these minerals are
dark colored minerals and the rocks with these
minerals tend to be dark colored rocks.
So, Color gives an indication of the chemical
composition of the magma that solidified to form a
rock.
 Texture of Igneous Rocks
Texture is the mutual relations of the mineral constituents, it
describes this mutual relation in terms of following four
points :
1. Crystallinity – the ratio between crystallised and non-
crystallised constituents. A rock composed entirely of crystals
is called Holocrystalline. When it is composed entirely of
glass, it is called Holohylaine and when it is partly composed
of crystals and partly of glass, it is called Hypocrystalline.
2. Size of the Crystals – The size of crystals in Igneous rocks can
vary from sub-microscopic to as large as few to a couple of
metres. If the size of grains or crystals are visible to naked eye,
the rock is called Phaneric. But, if the individual crystals
cannot be distinguished, it is called Aphanetic.
 Texture of Igneous Rocks (contd.)
3. Shape of the Crystals – It indicates the relative dimensions in
the three directions.
a. Equidimensional – the crystals are developed equally in
all the three directions e.g. Garnet
b. Tabular – The crystals are better developed in two
directions than in the third e.g. Mica, Feldspar
c. Prismatic – Crystals better developed in one direction than
in the other two directions e.g. Hornblende, Apatite

The shape of crystals is also defined in terms of

development of crystal faces :
Anhedral – When crystal faces are absent
Euhedral – When the crystal is completely bounded by faces
Subhedral – When the crystal is partially developed faces.
 Texture of Igneous Rocks (contd.)
4. Mutual Relationship of the Crystals – Texture dependent upon
mutual relationships may be classified as :
(i) Equigranular
(ii) Inequigranular
(iii) Directive
(iv) Intergrown
(i) Equigranular – The constituent crystals are approximately
of the same size so that the rock is evenly granular. When
most of the crystals are anhedral, the texture is called
Allotriomorphic. If most of the crystals are subhedral, the
texture is called Hypidiomorphic. And when most of the
crystals are euhedral, the texture is called Panidiomorphic.
 Texture of Igneous Rocks (contd.)
(ii) Inequigranular – The constituent crystals are of
different size. It has two types :
Porphyritic
In this texture, large size crystals are surrounded by smaller
or fine grained crystals, the large sized crystals are called
Phenocrysts.
Poikilitic
It is converse of Porphyritic texture, in this texture, smaller
crystals are enclosed in the larger crystals without any
preferred orientation. Ophitic texture is a special case of
Poikilitic texture in which plates of Augite crystals (Pyroxene)
enclose numerous thin laths of Plagioclase. If the Pyroxene
only partially encloses the Plagioclase, the texture is called
Subophitic. This is the characteristic texture of Dolerite.
 Texture of Igneous Rocks (contd.)
(iii) Directive – It is produced by the flow in magma
during crystallisation, producing streaks and bands etc.
Where two different textures are juxtaposed.
Felspathic lavas such as trachytes, andesites etc. show this
types of texture, where laths of feldspar are aligned
parallel to the direction of flow.

(iv) Intergrown – It is produced by simultaneous growth of

two minerals. e.g. Quartz and feldspar intergrowth
producing Graphic textures in some pegmatites or
micro-granites.
 Classification of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are commonly classified on

the basis of:
1. Chemical Composition
2. Textural Characteristics
 Classification of Igneous Rocks (contd.)

Determined by composition :
• Magnesium (Mg) + Iron (Fe) = Mafic
• Feldspar(Fel) + Quartz (Silica) = Felsic
 Classification of Igneous Rocks (contd.)
Classification based on Composition

Igneous rocks are classified on the presence of

silica %
1. Oversaturated (Acidic) Rock: silica % is greater
than 66% e.g. granite
2. Saturated (Basic) Rock: silica % is between 45 &
66% e.g. basalt
3. Undersaturated (Ultrabasic) Rock: These are silica
deficient rock, silica % is less than 45% e.g.
Peridotite
 Classification of Igneous Rocks (contd.)
Classification based on Texture (contd.)

The property of texture is indicative of the

conditions under which rocks have formed.
Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of
texture.
1. Phanerites: These are coarse grained (average grain
size greater than 5mm) in which all the constituent
minerals can be identified megascopically
( with unaided eyes)
 Classification of Igneous Rocks (contd.)
Classification based on Texture (contd.)

2. Aphanites: These igneous rocks are composed

chiefly of fine grained ( grain size less than
1mm) constituents. Microscopic examination of
thin sections of these rocks become essential to
determine their mineralogical composition.
 Classification of Igneous Rocks (contd.)
Classification based on Texture (contd.)

3. Glasses: Igneous rocks in which all the minerals

are present in practically uncrystallized form or
glass due to very rapid cooling are grouped as
glasses.
 Classification of Igneous Rocks (contd.)
The Igneous Rocks thus can be classified on the
basis of color and grain size.

Light Coloured Intermediate Dark

Coloured Coloured
Coarse GRANITE Diorite GABBRO
Grained

Fine RHYOLITE Andesite BASALT

Grained
Classification of Igneous Rocks
 Structures of Igneous Rocks
1) Structures of Intrusive Rocks –Injected into the
rocks of earth’s crust
2) Structures of Extrusive Rocks – Erupted onto the
Surface of the Earth’s crust

Structures of Intrusive Igneous Rocks

The intrusive rocks are characterized by the
development of a number of “forms” that depend
upon their exact mode of formation and relation
with the surrounding country rocks.
Types of Igneous Structures – Intrusive Rocks
Types of Igneous Structures – Intrusive Rocks (contd.)

Plutons
• All bodies of intrusive igneous rock, regardless of
shape or size, are called plutons.
• Plutons are given special names depending on their
shapes and sizes.
• A batholith is the largest kind of pluton. It is an
intrusive igneous body of irregular shape that cuts
across the layering or other fabric of the rock into
which it intrudes.
• The Costa Rica Batholith of British Columbia is at
least 2000km long and 40 – 90 km wide.
Types of Igneous Structures – Intrusive Rocks (contd.)
BATHOLITHS (contd.):
• These are discordant igneous bodies of extremely
large dimensions covering as large as 10s or even
100s of sq.kms.
• They are of extremely irregular outline and become
wider with increasing depth, underneath the earth’s
surface.
• The earlier workers thought that the batholiths are
igneous bodies without any bottom because of their
vast size and irregular shape. But after investigation,
it is now proved that the batholiths have well defined
floors. e.g. The Singbhum Granite in India is the
example of batholith.
Types of Igneous Structures – Intrusive Rocks (contd.)

STOCKS:
Batholiths of comparatively smaller dimensions are
described as stocks (less than 100 sq.km.)
Stocks of circular outcrop, upon the surface are
known as Bosses.
Stocks are irregularly shaped intrusives no larger
than 10 km in maximum dimension
Types of Igneous Structures – Intrusive Rocks (contd.)
DYKES:
• They are the discordant igneous bodies and exhibit
a cross – cutting relationship with the country –
rocks.
• Dykes are commonly formed due to the
development of cracks within the country – rocks
and their subsequent filling up with the igneous
intrusive.
• Dykes commonly occur in groups or sets.
• When the no. of dykes occurring in a smaller
area is quite large, the term “dyke – swarm” is
used.
 Types of Igneous Structures – Intrusive Rocks (contd.)

DYKES (contd.):
• Dykes show great variations in their thickness, length
and composition.
• They may be only few cm or many 100s of meter
thick.
• In length, they may be anything between a few
meters to many kms.
Dike

Fig. 4.16
Types of Igneous Structures – Intrusive Rocks (contd.)

SILLS:
• They are tabular concordant igneous bodies that
lie parallel to the country rocks. They Are
commonly sheet like masses, occurring within
the country rocks.
• The upper & lower margins of sills commonly
show a comparatively finer grain size than their
interior portions (Chilled Margins). This is
because of relatively faster cooling of magmatic
intrusion at these positions.
• The sills may vary from few cms to 100s of mts.
Sill
Sill

Fig. 4.15
Sill
Types of Igneous Structures – Intrusive Rocks (contd.)

LACCOLITH
• These are concordant intrusions i.e. parallel to
the layering of the rocks into which it intrudes,
but forces the layers of rock above it to bend
upwards, forming a dome.
• Laccoliths are formed when the magma which
is injected is highly viscous so that it is unable
to flow and spread for greater distances.
Instead, it gets collected in the form of a heap
around the orifice of eruption. As the magma
is injected with sufficient pressure, it makes
room for itself by arching up the overlying
strata.
Laccolith
 Types of Igneous Structures – Intrusive Rocks (contd.)

LOPOLITHS:
• They are saucer shaped concordant igneous bodies
(the central portion of the mass is thicker while it
thins out towards the periphery).
• It is believed that that in the origin of lopoliths , the
formation of structural basin and the injection of
magma are “contemporaneous” (simultaneous).
• They are formed due to the collapse of the rock – beds
and consequent up rise of the magma through the
collapsing layers.
Types of Igneous Structures – Intrusive Rocks (contd.)

PHACOLITHS
• These are concordant, small sized intrusives that
occupy crests and troughs of folds.
• It is thought that when magma is injected into a
folded sequence of rocks, it passes to the crests and
troughs almost passively i.e. without exerting
much pressure.
 Types of Igneous Structures

Structures of Extrusive Igneous Rocks

There is often broad distinction between Extrusive
and Intrusive Rocks. The Extrusive Rocks are
erupted on to the surface as a result it looses much of
their glass into the atmosphere producing cindery
surfaces with vesicles and other characetristics
structures on its upper parts.
 Types of Extrusive Igneous Structures

Important Structures of Extrusive Igneous

Rocks
1. Vesicles and Amygdaloidal Structures
2. Blocky and Ropy Lava
3. Pillow Structures
4. Flow Structures
5. Sheet Jointing
6. Columnar Joints etc.
 Types of Extrusive Igneous Structures (contd.)

1. Vesicles and Amygdaloidal Structures – Most

lava are charged with gas, which escapes as soon
as the pressure is decreased while eruption at
surface of the earth. The escape of gas distends
the molten material with production of cavities,
bubbles, vesicles etc. which may be spherical,.
Elliptical, cylindrical or irregular in shape. The
name Scoria, Slag, Pumice is given to lava rocks
with numerous cavities.
When thee cavities are filled with secondary
minerals like Calcite, Silica, Zeolites, these filled
up cavities are called amygdales.
Vesicles in Lava
Amygdales
 Types of Extrusive Igneous Structures (contd.)
2. Blocky and Ropy Lava – Two very distinct
appearances may be presented by lava flows.
Sometimes the surface is covered by tumbling
clinkers of various sizes, such lava are known as
Blocky Lava. In Hawaiian islands such lavas are
known as “aa” lava. IN Blocky lava the vesicles
are large sized.
On the other hand lava with glazed surface
exhibiting wrinkled, ropy surface like that of
flowing pitch is called Ropy Lava. In Hawaii it is
called “Pahoehoe” lava. The vesicles per unit
volume in Ropy lava is more than the Blocky
Lava.
Blocky Lava
Ropy Lava
 Types of Extrusive Igneous Structures (contd.)

3. Pillow Structures – It is mostly found in basic

lava and especially Soda-rich basalts known as
Spilites. IN this structure the pillows appear as a
stack of small masses that appear like pillows.
The Pillows have in general a vesicular crust, and
often show flow banding, it is thought that Pillow
lava structure are formed when molten lava
comes in contact with sea water as can be seen by
association of marine sediments with Pillow
Lava.
Pillow Lava
 Types of Extrusive Igneous Structures (contd.)

4. Flow Structures – No lava on extrusin is

homogeneous, it has layers, patches with varying
viscosity, composition, gas-content, crystallisation
etc. So while moving/flowing these patches are
drawn into streaks, lenticels, bands etc. Such
bands are often seen as aligned vesicles,
amygdales or minerals.
Flowing Structures in Lava
 Types of Extrusive Igneous Structures (contd.)

5. Sheet Jointing – These are fractures or partings

mostly horizontal to very gently curved upwards.
It is thought to be produced by tensile stress
consequent upon contraction due to cooling.
6. Columnar Joints – With uniform cooling and
contraction in a homogeneous lava, the parting
planes tend to take a regular columnar form
characetrised by four-, five, or six sided prisms.
This phenomenon is common in Basaltic Lavas.
Columnar structures are formed due to
development of centers of contraction at more or
less equally spaced intervals.
Sheet Joints in Lava
Cooling Centres and Columnar Joint Formation
Columnar Joints in Lava
 Phaneritic Rock Aphanetic Rock

Glassy Rock
Porphyritic Rock
Poikilitic Texture
Euhedral Crystals Subhedral Crystals
Anhedral Crystals
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1. What are Igneous Rocks?
2. What are Important Textures and Structures of
Igneous Rocks?
3. How Igneous Rocks are Formed?
4. How Igneous Rocks are Classified?

65
66
Introduction to
Sedimentary Rocks

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
Formation of Sediments & Sedimentary Rocks

Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition :

1. Weathering involves breaking down of rocks and

Erosion involves the removal of rock.
2. Deposition occurs when an agent of erosion—
water, wind, ice, or gravity—loses energy and
drops sediments.
 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks (contd.)
The sediments continue to accumulate in suitable basins
(depressions) of sedimentation and these loose particles
are gradually subjected to litification by compaction and
cementation and finally are converted into sedimentary
rocks.
COMPACTION : It is reduction in bulk volume (up to
40%) or thickness of a body of fine grained sediments due
to the increasing weight of overlying material that is
continually being deposited above that.
CEMENTATION : The cementing materials like CaCO3,
silica, iron oxides etc. may get deposited in between the
individual grains of the loose sediments and brings about
cohesion of these loose particles. These cementing
materials are known as ―matrix‖ .
Sand
Grain

Pore
Space
Compaction and Cementation

• Compaction is a process that squeezes, or

compacts sediments.
• Cementation takes place when dissolved
minerals are precipitated in the tiny spaces
among the sediments.

The Process of Litification (Compaction &

Cementation) converts the sediments into
sedimentary rocks.
 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

 There are 3 Main Groups of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

2. Chemically formed Sedimentary Rocks
3. Organically formed Sedimentary Rocks

1. Clastic (Mechanically formed) sedimentary rocks

- composed - of weathered bits of rocks and
minerals e.g. Sandstone
(Clastic means ―fragmental‖)
 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks (contd.)

• Clastic sediments are derived from fragments of

other rocks (pre-existing rocks : Igneous,
sedimentary & metamorphic rocks).
• For thousands, even millions of years, already
existing rocks have been eroded -- broken down
and worn away by geological actions of wind,
water, glacier etc.
• The disintegrated, loosened material so formed and
accumulated near the source is called ―detritus‖.
Hence, clastic rocks are also called as ―detrital
rocks‖.
 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks (contd.)

• The detritus are washed downstream as bed-load,

suspended load and dissolved load where they settle
to the bottom of the rivers, lakes, and oceans.
• The sediments thus formed, continue to accumulate
in suitable basins of sedimentation.
• These basins may be located in different
environments such as, on the continents, along the
seashores or in deep – sea environments.
• They are then subjected to compaction and finally,
are converted into sedimentary rocks.
 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks (contd.)
The sedimentary rocks formed in different
environments will show different inherent characters
e.g. :
Glacial Deposits – Ropcks showing evidences of
Glacial activities
Fluvial Deposits – Rocks showing evidences of
Rivers & lake activities
Aeolian Deposits - Rocks showing evidnencs of
Wind activities
Marine Deposits - Rocks showing evidences of Sub-
marine activities etc.
Sedimentary Rocks (Cont.)
The clastic sedimentary rocks are classified
according to grain size.
Sediments Grain Size
Clay < 1/256 mm = Less than 0.004 mm

Silt 1/256 - 1/16 mm = 0.004 - 0.167 mm

Sand 1/16 - 2 mm = 0.167 – 2mm
Granule 2 – 4 mm
Pebble 4 – 64 mm
Cobble 64 – 256 mm
Boulder > 256 mm
Types of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Depending upon the size of the constituent particles,

the clastic rocks can be classified as:

a) Conglomerates: Contain particles of sizes greater

than that of sand (Granule to Boulder).

b) Sandstones : Contain cemented sand grains.

c) Siltstones : Consists of cemented silt particles.

d) Shales : Composed of clays

Effect of Grain Size and Sorting
The grain size of the sediments controls the size of the
pore spaces and thus the quality of the oil and gas
reservoir and also of groundwater reservoir.
Larger grains have larger pore spaces between them.
It is easier for oil /gas/water to flow through larger pores.
• The grain size of the sediments controls the size of the
pore spaces and thus the quality of the oil and gas
reservoir and also of groundwater reservoir.
• Larger grains have larger pore spaces between them.
• It is easier for oil /gas/water to flow through larger
pores.
Effect of Grain Size and Sorting (contd.)
• Sorting is the range of particle sizes in the rocks.
• A ―well – sorted‖ rock is composed of particles of
approximately the same size.
• A ―poorly – sorted‖ rock is composed of particles with
a wide range of sizes.
• Sorting is the most important factor in determining
the amount of original pore space in a clastic
sedimentary rock.
• Poorly sorted rocks can hold less fluids and are lower
quality reservoir rocks than well sorted rocks.
• In a poorly sorted rock, finer – sized particles occupy
the spaces between the larger sized particles and
reduce the volume of the pores.
 Well Sorted Rock
Sand
Grain

Pore
Space
Poorly Sorted Rock
Well Sorted Rock
Grain Size and Type of Rock

The Factor of Grain Size is the one most used factor for
the identification of the type of sedimentary rocks.
1. Rudaceous Rocks
2. Arenaceous Rocks
3. Silt Rocks
4. Argillaceous Rocks
1.Rudaceous Rocks:
In this type, the individual
grains forming the rock
are of the size of gravel,
pebbles, cobble or
boulders. (>2mm).
The grains may be rounded
or may have sharp edges.
e.g. Conglomerate, Breccia
etc.
The clastic sedimentary rocks are classified
according to grain size.
Sediments Grain Size
Clay < 1/256 mm = Less than 0.004 mm

Silt 1/256 - 1/16 mm = 0.004 - 0.167 mm

Sand 1/16 - 2 mm = 0.167 – 2mm
Granule 2 – 4 mm
Pebble 4 – 64 mm
Cobble 64 – 256 mm
Boulder > 256 mm
2.Arenaceous Rocks:
In this type, the individual grains forming the rock
are of the size of sand (1/16 - 2 mm) . E.g.
Sandstone, Grit stone, Arkoses etc.
3.Silt Rocks:
In this type, the individual grains forming the
rock are of silt grade (1/256 - 1/16 mm) .
e.g. Siltstone, Loess etc.

4.Argillaceous
Rocks:
In this type, the
individual grains
forming the rock are
of clay grade (<
1/256 mm). e.g. Shale,
Mud stone etc.
Grain Size and Type of Rock (contd.)
• The size of the particles and also their shape are
definite functions of their exact mode of
transportation and accumulation.
• In ordinary condition, Large boulders and pebbles
cannot move to a great distance from their place of
origin while the smaller particles (sand, silt and clay
size particles) are transported to very great distances
under the same set of conditions.

The natural agencies of transportation like wind,

running water, sea waves, currents etc. can sort the
particles as per their grain size and sp. gravity.
Grain Size and Type of Rock (contd.)
• The boulders, pebbles etc. are deposited right at the
spot where the river descends down on the plains from
the hills while, the sand particles are deposited en
route on the plains
• The silt and clay particles are dropped down at the
spot where the river meets the lake or a sea (forming
a delta). If the sediments are well sorted , they
indicate sea shore environment.
• If the rocks are ill sorted, they indicate glacial
environment.
Grain Shape and Type of Rock

SHAPE OF GRAINS :
The shape of the mineral grains within sedimentary
rocks gives an idea on their mode of formation.
The shapes of the individual grains of sedimentary
rocks can be categorized into :

Rounded
Sharp & Angular
Grain Shape and Type of Rock

• ROUNDED: If the grains are rounded in shape,

it is concluded that the materials might have
been subjected to a prolonged transportation
during which the sharp and angular edges of
the grains became rounded due to their mutual
collision or rubbing or rolling.

• SHARP & ANGULAR EDGES: If the grains

have sharp and angular edges, it is concluded that
the materials might have been subjected to very little
transportation .
 Diagenesis of Sediments

• The sediments deposited in the basins gradually get

converted to cohesive, hard and massive rock
formations through the process of compaction,
consolidation and cementation which collectively
known as ―Diagenesis‖ .
• Diagenesis is the process of transformation of loose
sediments deposited in the basins to solid cohesive
rock masses either under pressure or because of
cementation is collectively known as diagenesis.
 Diagenesis of Sediments
Diagenesis is due to :

(i). Welding: Is the process of compaction of the

sediments accumulated in lower layers of a basin due to
the pressure exerted by the load of the overlying
sediments.
This results in squeezing out all or most of the water
from the sediments and transforming into a solid rock
mass.

(ii) Cementation: Is the process by which loose grains

or sediments in a basin are held together by a binding
material or the matrix.
 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks (contd.)

2. Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks ---

Water dissolves many compounds from the rocks
with which it comes in contact.

• The dissolved salts get crystallized out either through

evaporation or through precipitation. e.g. Rock salt.
• Calcium Carbonate dissolved in river and sea waters
get precipitated as Calcite to form Limestone.
• Silica dissolved in sea water gets crystallised
as Silica to form Chert.
 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks (contd.)
Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks ---
• 70% of the earth surface is covered by water which
sustain a great variety of animal and plant life. The
hard parts of many sea organisms are constituted
chiefly of calcium and /or magnesium, silica etc.

• Death of these organisms causes huge accumulations

of carbonate and siliceous materials, which get
compacted & consolidated. e.g. Limestone and Chert
etc. (Chert also gets precipitated from dissolved silica).
 STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

The term structure signifies large scale features:

1. STRATIFICATION: it is layered arrangement in
a sedimentary rock. The different layers, also
called ―beds‖ or ―Strata‖ may be similar or
dissimilar in colour, composition, grain size and
texture.
In a sedimentary sequence, the surfaces separating
the different beds from each other are called
―bedding planes‖.
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)
1. STRATIFICATION
• If the flaky minerals like mica lie parallel to the
(contd.
bedding planes of sedimentary layers, the rock may
be easily fractured along the direction of bedding
planes.
• This property , more or less similar to cleavage in
minerals, is known as the ―fissility‖ of sedimentary
rocks.
• The thickness of each layer in a sedimentary
formation may show great variation: from a few cm
to many meters.
• The layers may be horizontal or slightly inclined ,
they may be steeply inclined, folded or faulted.
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)
1. STRATIFICATION (contd.

• The agents of erosion ( water, wind etc. sort out the

sediments according to their sizes, weight, and shape
of the particles during its transportation.
• These sediments when settle, thus, in general, are in
layers of homogeneity.
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)
1. STRATIFICATION (contd.
• In some stratified rocks, the component sediments in
each layer are further sorted out with the heaviest at
the bottom and the lightest at the top.
• Such an individual layer is called ―graded‖.
• If such graded layers occur one above the other, the
rock structure is called ―GRADED BEDDING‖
Horizontal Stratification and Differential Erosion
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)

2. LAMINATION
If the individual layers or bed are very thin, generally
less than 1cm in thickness. eg. Shale,
The individual layer is called ―laminae‖ and the deposit
with laminae is said to be laminated and the structure
is called ―lamination‖
The laminae may be parallel to the bedding planes or
at an angle to them.
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)

3. CROSS BEDDING
• The sedimentary beds or layers are generally
parallel to one another. But, at times, the beds or
layers may be found oblique to each other.
• They are formed due to the change in the velocity
and direction of flow of streams.
• The sediments are carried horizontally by the
current and dropped over the slope.
CURRENT BEDDING
TORRENTIAL BEDDING:
If thin horizontal beds, made up of fine materials, lie in
alteration with coarse and current bedded deposits, the
resulting angular structure is known as ―torrential
bedding‖.
This is formed due to the rapid deposition of coarser
materials during floods with intervening layers of finer silt
and clay that are deposited at other times.

TORRENTIAL BEDDING
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)

DELTA STRUCTURE:
• Deltas are formed due to the deposition of sediments.
• In delta structure, there are 3 sets of beds of which
the upper and lower beds (known as top set and
bottom set beds) show a very gentle slope towards the
sea.
• In between these two sets, lies the third set (fore set
beds) which exhibits a considerable amount of slope
towards the sea.
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)
DELTA STRUCTURE (contd.):
• The top set beds are those which are laid down on
the sub aerial surface of the delta with a dip equal
to the original slope of that surface.
• The fore set beds are those built by ordinary current
action in the water.
• The bottom set beds consist of fine mud or silt
floated out and deposited on the floor of the basin of
deposition in advance of the fore set beds.
DELTA STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)

4. RIPPLE MARKS

These are the symmetrical or

unsymmetrical undulations as small
height “ridges” and “linear
depressions: that may be seen on the
bedding of sedimentary deposits
(sediments and rocks).
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)
RIPPLE MARKS (contd.)
• The ripple marks are caused by interplay of winds and
waves , during the deposition of sediments in a shallow
water environment.
• The direction of a shallow water current can easily be
effected by strong winds blowing over the current.
• The fine sediments get dragged along with the currents
because of the waves so generated & deposited as and
where the waves become weaker.
• The sand particles are swept up the long slope of the
ripple, pushed over the crest and dropped into the
trough and the ripples thus, slowly migrate like dunes.
RIPPLE MARKS
A. Wave Ripple Marks.
B. Ripple Marks by wind
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)

5. MUDCRACKS or SUNCRACKS:
They consist of polygonal or irregular cracks spread
along the surface of an exposed sedimentary layer like
the formation cracks on the surface of drying mud.
They indicate a condition involving prolonged
exposure of clayey sediments to the atmosphere. They
are therefore, a characteristic feature of the flood –
plains .
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)

MUDCRACKS or SUNCRACKS (contd.):

The mud cracks are formed due to ―contraction‖

which occurs due to the drying of mud.

As the fine clayey mud dries, the tensile stresses

operate from a number of centers within a plane,
giving rise to cracks enclosing roughly polygonal
areas.
The Arrow
heads show
three sets of
forces
responsible for
the
development of
cracks
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)

MUDCRACKS or SUNCRACKS (contd.):

• Similar development of mud cracks can be seen
on the surface of ―drying mud‖ in shallow
environments even at present.
• Once these cracks are covered under further layers
of mud, they get preserved in the body of deposits.
• They can be again observed when the overlying
layers are eroded with the passage of time.
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)

6. RAIN – PRINTS:
• They are shallow depressions formed on the top
surface of the sedimentary rocks, encircled by a low
ridge formed by the impact of the drop.

• If rain falls forcefully on fine grained compacted

clays, it often makes ―crater like depressions‖ ( can
be seen even on present day).
• These may get dried up and subsequently preserved
under another layer of mud.
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (contd.)

7. TRACKS AND TRAILS:

They are the markings indicating the passage of some
animal over soft sediment which was able to take and
retain the impression.
RESERVOIR Rocks
 Reservoir Rocks - Prerequisites

 The reservoir rock is a porous and permeable

lithological unit that are capable of holding oil, gas
or water.

 For a reservoir to be commercially viable, it must

be large and thick enough with adequate pore space
capable of holding an appreciable volume of HCs.

 Sandstone, Siltstone, Porous Limestone and

Dolomites can act as reservoir rocks.
 Reservoir Rocks – Prerequisites (contd.)

The two most important petro physical properties that

control the quality of a reservoir rock are

1) POROSITY

2) PERMEABILITY

Porosity and permeability are measured by Porosity

meter and Permeameter
1) Porosity – Reservoir Rock
• When a sedimentary rock is observed under
microscope, number of openings or voids are seen
between the constituent grains of the rock.
• These openings are called pores.
• These pores are the locales of hydrocarbon molecules.

• So, it is important to know and quantify the volume of

pores in a particular rock type, because that gives us
an idea about the volume of HC fluid that could be
present in the rock.
• This property of a sedimentary rock is termed as
porosity.
1) Porosity – Reservoir Rock (contd.)

• The total sum of opening or voids that occur within a

rock i.e. it is the ratio of pore space to total volume of
rock.
• Porosity is denoted by phi (ф
• ф = (Pore volume of rock × 100) / Total volume of
rock
• The more the volume of porosity, the greater is the
capacity of the rock to hold oil, gas or water.
Sand
Grain

Pore
Space
1) Porosity – Reservoir Rock (contd.)

There are two types of porosity:

(a) Absolute / Total Porosity: It is defined as the ratio of
total volume of pore space to the total volume of
rock. It includes all interstices of voids, whether
interconnected or not.

(a) Effective Porosity: It is the ratio of interconnected

pore space to total bulk volume of the rock.
1) Porosity – Reservoir Rock (contd.)

Geologically, porosity can be classified into two types:

(a) Primary Porosity: It is also called original porosity
because it is the inherent characteristic of the rock
when it was deposited. It is dependent upon packing
which in turn dependent upon sorting. Porosity
declines rapidly with addition of fine matrix, filling
the interstices.
(b) Secondary Porosity: Post depositional porosity. It is
created ( can be formed by fractures). Commonly
seen in limestone, dolomites etc.
1) Porosity – Reservoir Rock (contd.)

Porosity may vary from:

<5% in tightly cemented sandstone or carbonate to
>30% for unconsolidated sands.
1) Porosity – Reservoir Rock (contd.)

What is good
porosity?

0 - 5% - Negligible

5 -10% - Poor

10 -15% - Fair

15 - 20% - Good

> 20% - Very good /

Excellent
Controls of Porosity
(1) Compaction
• Over a long period of time, sediments can accumulate
and create formations that are thousands of feet
thick.
• The weight of the overlying sediments squeezes the
particles together into the tightest arrangement
possible.
• The load pressure also squeezes out the water that
occupies the pore spaces between the particles, thus
reducing the bulk volume of the formation.
• Compaction affects porosity & permeability by
reducing the amount of interconnected pore space.
Controls of Porosity (contd.):
In Sandstone, porosity is largely controlled by sorting.
Sorting is the arrangement of grains.
Well Sorted Rocks: Grains are generally of the same
size and shape. If the grains are well rounded and are of
similar size, then they will not fit well together, thereby
leaving a large amount of pore space between the
grains. Porosity in a well sorted rock is generally high.
Controls of Porosity (Contd.)
Poorly Sorted Rocks: Rocks that are composed
of a wide variety of grain sizes and shapes.
Porosity can be reduced considerably because
smaller or irregularly shaped grains can be
inserted in between the larger grains, thereby
reducing the amount of pore space.
Controls of Porosity (Contd.)
(2) Cementation:
 It is the crystallization or precipitation of soluble
minerals in the pore spaces between
grains/particles .
 Common cementing agents include calcite
(CaCO3), silica (SiO2) and iron oxide (Fe2O3).
 Porosity & permeability can be reduced
significantly due to cementation.
Controls of Porosity ( Cont…..)
Cementation
2) Permeability – Reservoir Rock

PERMEABILITY :

Recovery of HCs from the reservoir is an important

process in petroleum engineering & estimating
permeability can aid in determining how much HCs
can be produced from a reservoir.
2) Permeability (contd.)
Permeability is a measure of the ease with which a
formation permits a fluid to flow through it.

Main controls on permeability are:

1. Grain size
2. Pore connectivity.

• To be permeable, a formation must have

interconnected porosity.

• The fluid present in the pores of a rock can move only

when the pores are interconnected.
2) Permeability (contd.)

• When a well is drilled into a reservoir, the reservoir

fluid moves out of the pores and into the well.
• The rock’s permeability determines at what ease the
reservoir fluid can move out or flow within the rock.
• Thus, permeability is a measure of the
interconnectedness of the open spaces within a rock.
• It is therefore, dependent on porosity, but not
directly related to it.
2) Permeability (contd.)

• If porosity is 0%, permeability is also zero, since there

are no pores to be interconnected.
• But, when porosity is, say 20%, permeability may be 0
to any quantity depending on the nature of the
porosity.
• Fractured rock have very good permeability.
Permeability (contd.)

• The relationship between the porosity and the

permeability of a given formation is not necessarily
a direct one.

• However, a high porosity is often accompanied by

high permeability when they are interconnected.

• e.g. sandstone has good porosity and also good

permeability.
• But, Shale has got good porosity but low
permeability.
Permeability (contd.)

What is good permeability?

< 1 millidarcy - Poor

1 - 10 md - Fair

10 - 100 md - Good

100 - 1000 md - Very Good

Shale
Sandstone
Limestone
Chert
Conglomerate
Breccia
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1. What are Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks?
2. What are Important Textures and Structures of
Sedimentary Rocks?
3. How Sedimentary Rocks are Formed?
4. How Sedimentary Rocks are Classified?
5. What are Reservoir Rocks?
6. What is Porosity and Permeability and Why it
is important for Reservoir Rock?
80
81
Introduction to
Metamorphic Rocks

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks are the rocks that have
been altered their texture and mineralogy due
to increased temperature and pressure. The
process which brings about this change is
known as metamorphism.
The 3 most important factors responsible for
metamorphism are:
• Heat
• Pressure
• Chemically Active Fluid
Metamorphism
Heat:
• Increases the rate of chemical reactions that produce
different minerals.
What are the sources of heat?
 Internal heat ( increase in temperature with depth –
thermal gradient)
 Magmatic Heat (Intrusive magma - rise in
temperature around magmatic intrusions)
 Deep burial along plate boundary
(subduction zone)
Metamorphism (contd.)

Heat:
• Rocks are made up of minerals that are normally
stable at temperatures below 200C.
• When the temperature around these rocks changes,
the mineral composition of the rock changes.

• It is believed that most metamorphic changes

induced by the heat factor between 300C – 850C.
• Above 850C, some components of rock may
actually start melting.
Metamorphism (contd.)
Pressure:
What are the sources?
Many metamorphic changes are induced solely due to
the pressure or in most cases, pressure is the dominant
factor ( assisted by heat factor).
Any given rock , is subjected to pressure from 2
sources:
1. Lithostatic pressure result from the weight of
overlying rocks.
2. Crustal Movements during the convergence of the
tectonic plates.
• Dense heavy Metamorphism (contd.)
oceanic crust can
be subducted
below less denser
continental crust.
• The friction melts
rock.
• This convergence
produces pressure
and heat for the
metamorphism
besides causing
partial melting.
Metamorphism (contd.)

Chemically Active Fluids:

• Presence or absence of chemically active fluids
within the rocks (pore fluids) or around the rocks
plays very important role in metamorphism.
• With the rise in temperature, the pore fluids become
very active in chemical reaction and new minerals
are formed. This process is called
“Recrystallization” ( solid state)
Metamorphism (contd.)

Chemically Active Fluids (contd.)

 The chemically fluids can be:

• Water
• carbon dioxide
• hydrofluoric acid
• fluorine
• bromine etc.
 KINDS OF METAMORPHYSM:

The process of metamorphism can be broadly

categorized into :
1) Thermal Metamorphism/Contact Metamorphism
2) Dynamic Metamorphism
3) Regional Metamorphism
 Metamorphism (contd.)
1) Thermal Metamorphism / Contact
Metamorphism :
If the rocks are intruded by a large body of magma, the
adjacent rocks re-crystallize due to the heat bringing
structural /mineralogical changes.
The zone of metamorphism is restricted to the area
immediately surrounding the intrusive body.
This kind of metamorphism is called Contact
Metamorphism because metamorphism only affects a
relatively narrow contact zone.
Metamorphism (contd.)

2) Dynamic Metamorphism:
 It is also called Cataclastic metamorphism.
 Sudden Pressure is the dominant factor, like
geodynamic pulses producing faults and thrusts.
 There is no or very little formation of new minerals
 The original textures and structures of the rocks
are partially or totally obliterated.

 New textures and structures are imposed.

3) Regional Metamorphism

3) Regional Metamorphism
– Large-scale deformation associated with P & T.
Results from extreme heat & pressure
generated by the process at convergent plate
boundaries.
– Covers large geographic areas and usually
shows a gradation of deformation
corresponding to areas of the most intense heat
and pressure.
TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

• Metamorphism generally results in the production of

secondary parallel structures, which resemble more
or less closely to bedding or stratification of
sedimentary rocks along which the rocks tend to
split with more or less ease.
• These parallel structures are called “Foliation”, e.g.
slates, schists, gneisses etc. (secondary layering)
• The common minerals found arranged in layers are
micas, chlorite, tourmaline, hornblende etc.
TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS (contd.)

The development of foliations is an important feature

of many metamorphic rocks and on the basis of
foliation, metamorphic rocks are classified as :
1. Foliated Rocks: have foliations, slates, phyllites,
schists and gneisses.
2. Non – Foliated Rocks: do not have foliations,
Quartzites, Marbles etc.
TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS (contd.)

During metamorphism, the original textures of pre –

existing rocks may remain unaltered or may be
obliterated to a varying degree or, sometimes, entirely
new textures may be formed.

Depending upon whether the original textures are

altered or not, the textures are classified as:
1. Crystalloblastic Texture ( i.e. new textures)
2. Palimpsest or Relict Textures (i.e. old textures)
3. Cataclastic Texture (i.e. new texture)
TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS (contd.)

1. Crystalloblastic Texture

Crystalloblastic Texture ( i.e. new textures): It

can be :
a. Porphyroblastic
and
b. Granoblastic
TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS (contd.)

1. Crystalloblastic Texture (contd.)

a. Porphyroblastic Texture :
Represented by large idioblastic/ xenoblastic/
hypidioblastic crystals (crystals with perfect outlines)
embedded in a fine grained ground mass (Like
porphyritic texture of igneous rock), e.g. Hornfels
(Contact Metamorphic Rock)
b. Granoblastic Texture:
Composed of equidimensional mineral grains, e.g.
Marble , Quartzite etc.
TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS (contd.)

2. Palimpset Texture
Palimpsest or Relict Textures :
If the old textures of pre - existing rocks have resisted
the metamorphism and thus remained unaltered , are
called palimpsest textures. These textures generally
described by adding the word “blasto” as prefix to the
original texture.
Thus, an igneous rock with Porphyritic or Poikilitic
texture undergoing metamorphism and retaining the
same texture will be classified as metamorphic rock
with blasto – Porphyritic / blasto – Poikilitic texture.
TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS (contd.)

3. Cataclastic Texture:
It is characterized by the development of extremely
fine rock mass. Such a fine mass is generally produced
under the influence of severe crushing and shearing
effects of dynamic metamorphism. e.g. Crushed –
Breccias , Mylonite etc.
Porphyroblastic Texture
Characteristic Common Minerals in
Metamorphic Rocks

Amphiboles
Andalusite
Chlorite
Garnet
Kyanite
Mica (Biotite/Muscovite)
Pyroxenes
Sillaminite
Staurolite etc.
STRUCTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Banded Structures:
In these, lithologically unlike layers of minerals are
arranged in more or less parallel bands. Such foliations
are generally exhibited by Gneisses and the structure is
called Gneissose structure.
STRUCTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Schistose Structures:
They represent the development of evenly foliated
structures, due to which the rock often splits easily.
 Regional Metamorphism Contact
Meta-ism
Low P, high P, Low P, high T
low T high T
Mudstone slate schist gneiss hornfels
Basalt / greenschist amphibolite granulite hornfels
Gabbro
Granite / (granite) foliated granitic (granite)
Rhyolite granite gneiss
Sandstone quarzite quartzite
Limestone marble marble
Classification of Metamorphic
Rocks
Gneiss
Schist
Phyllite
Shale
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1. What is Metamorphism?
2. What Metamorphic Rocks?
3. How Pressure and Temperature brings
metamorphic changes?
4. What are the types of metamorphism?
5. What are metamorphic textures and
structures?
6. What are metamorphic minerals?
33
34
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Mechanism and Classification of Folds

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
 Structural Geology

Structural Geology is the branch of

geology concerned with deformation of
rock bodies by natural forces (Stress &
Strain) that caused the deformations
and/or displacement in rock formations.
 Main structural features of Rocks

• Folds
• Faults
• Joints (Including Shears)
• Unconformity (concerned with periods of
break deposition and erosion)
 Main structural features of Rocks (contd.)

• Rocks within or on the surface are subjected to

number of internal & external forces during and
after their formation.

• These forces are responsible for bringing out

characteristic changes in the rocks.

• The present shape and disposition of rock masses is

largely due to these forces.
 Main structural features of Rocks (contd.)

Rocks may occur in the form of layers/banding on

different scales (characteristic structure of
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks rock) spread
over large area and may be horizontal or inclined at
various angles.

The disposition (horizontal / inclined ) is a structural

feature.
 Mechanism of Formation of Structures by :
A load applied to a material results in a stress at any point
within it .
Stress
Deformation is a change in shape due to an applied
force. This can be a result of tensile (pulling) forces,
compressive (pushing) forces, shear, bending or
torsion (twisting). Deformation is often described in
terms of strain.
 Stress is conventionally defined as a force
acting on some area

1Mpa = ~9.8kg/m2

Figure 1. Stress is defined as a force (F) acting on some

area (A).
A force, F, acting on area A. In the form of this
equation.
Stress is defined as force per unit area. Rock stresses are usually
measured in Megapascal (MPa).
Strain

It is the geometrical expression of deformation caused

by the action of stress on a physical body.

Strain expresses itself as a change in size and/or shape.

If strain is equal over all parts of a body, it is referred

to as homogeneous strain; otherwise, it is
inhomogeneous strain.
Folds
1. Rocks can deform by irreversible bending
called Folding in diverse type of characters,
features and disposition when they are strained
due to imposition of stress.
2. Folding is part of ROCK DEFORMATION during
Metamorphic Events, particularly Regional
Metamorphism and Dynamo-Thermal Metamorphism
3. Same rock may suffer deformation multiple
times if subjected to repeated stress over
different times Accordingly we have different
types of folds.
4. Due to folding there is repetition of beds/rocks.
Stress Direction
and Folding
 Definition of a Fold
Folds may be defined as undulations or bends or
curvatures developed in the rocks of the crust as a
result of stresses to which these rocks have been
subjected from time to time .

The process of development of folds in the rocks is

called “folding”.
 Parts of the fold

1. Fold axis
2. Axial plane
3. Limb
 Fold Nomenclature

Dip of the
Axial Plane

Hinge Line/
Fold Axis

Limbs

Axial Plane/Surface
 Parts of a Fold
Axis Plane

Axis
Trough Crest

4-Youngest Bed
1-Oldest Bed
Hinge Line / Fold Axis - connects points of maximum fold
curvature
Inflection Point - limb point where sense of curvature
changes.
 Parts of a (contd.)
Hinge or Fold Axis:
It is the line of maximum curvature in a folded bed and
is characterised by orientation and position. It can be
horizontal or inclined.

Crest and Trough of a fold:

The line running though the highest points in an up-
arched fold is defined as crest.

The line running though the lowest points in an down-

arched fold makes its trough.
 Parts of a (contd.)
Axial Plane: It is the surface that connects all
hinges of a fold and divides the fold into two
parts (equal or unequal).
The axial plane may be vertical, horizontal or
inclined and is characterised by orientation and
position. It passes through the apex (crest) or
trough of the fold.
Limb :
It is the sides or flanks of a fold. An individual fold will
have two limbs.
The stretch of the rock beds lying between crest and
the adjacent trough on either side is a limb of the fold.
 Horizontal Axis
&
Inclined Axial Plane

Horizontal Axis
&
Vertical Axial Plane

Inclined Axis
&
Vertical Axial Plane Horizontal Axis
&
Horizontal Axial Plane
Different
orientation
of Fold Axis Inclined Axis
and Axial &
Inclined Axial Plane
Plane
Refolded Fold
Plunge or Pitch of the Fold: When fold axis is
inclined the angle which it makes with the horizontal,
as measured in a vertical plane is called angle of
plunge.

Plunge of Fold
Axis is measured
in Vertical Plane
passing through Limbs
the axis and is
the angle made
by the Axis with
a horizontal line
contained in the
vertical plane
Classification of Folds

Folds show a great variety of forms:

1. Anticline : They are defined as those folds in

which the strata are up-arched i.e. convex
upwards and the limbs dip away from each other.

The geologically older rocks occupy core

position (interior) of the fold and the younger
rocks form the outermost flank (provided the
strata show a normal order of superposition).
Classification of Folds (contd.)

2. Syncline : They are reverse of anticlines. The strata

are down arched i.e. convex downwards and the
limbs dip towards each other.
The geologically younger rocks occupy core
position (interior) of the fold and the older rocks
form the outermost flank (provided the strata show
a normal order of superposition).
 Syncline & Anticline
Axis Plane

Axis
Trough Crest

4-Youngest Bed
1-Oldest Bed
Anticlines
Synclines
Classification of Folds (contd.)

Besides classification of folds as

Synclines and Anticlines; folds are also
classified on following basis :

1. Position of Axial Plane

2. Degree of Compression of the Beds
3. Mode of Occurrence
4. Position of Fold Axis
5. Behavior with Depth
6. Miscellaneous Folds.
1.Classification of Folds on the basis of Position of axial
plane

a) Symmetrical
b) Asymmetrical
c) Overturned
d) Recumbent
e) Isoclinal Fold
f) Fan Fold
Overturned Limb
1. Classification of Folds on the basis of Position
of axial plane (contd.)

a) Symmetrical Fold: A fold whether a syncline

or an anticline, is described as symmetrical
when its axial plane is vertical and as a
consequence, either of the limbs has the same
amount of dip.
b) Asymmetrical Fold: A fold whether a syncline or
an anticline, is described as asymmetrical in which
the limbs are unequal in length and these dip
unequally.
The axial plane in the asymmetrical fold is essentially
inclined.
1. Classification of Folds on the basis of Position
of axial plane (contd.)

c) Overturned Fold: These are folds with inclined

axial planes in which both the limbs are dipping
essentially in the same direction. The amount of dip
of the two limbs may or may not be the same.
Overturned folding indicates very severe degree of
folding.
One of the two limbs comes to occupy the present
position after having suffered a rotation through
more than 90.
Overturned Fold
Folds:
 Overturned Fold

Reversed
Limb
1. Classification of Folds on the basis of Position
of axial plane (contd.)
d) Recumbent Fold : These may be described as
extreme types of overturned folds in which the axial
plane acquires an almost horizontal attitude.
In such folds, one limb comes to lie exactly under
the other limb so that a drill hole dug at the surface
in the upper limb passes through the lower limb
also.
The lower limb is often called the inverted limb or
the reversed limb.
 Recumbent Fold

Core has Older Metamorphic Rocks (Crystallines)

Recumbent Folds
1. Classification of Folds on the basis of
Position of axial plane (contd.)

e) Isoclinal Fold : In these folds, all the axial planes

are essentially parallel, meaning that all the
component limbs are dipping at equal amounts.
1. Classification of Folds on the basis of Position
of axial plane (contd.)

f) Fan Fold :In certain cases, both the limbs of a fold

may get overturned because of very high lateral
compression.
It may be originally either an anticline or a syncline
but the extreme compression from opposite sides
results in bringing the limbs so close to each other
that the usual dip conditions may get reversed.
1. Classification of folds on the basis of Position
of axial plane (contd.)
Fan Fold (contd.) : Anticlinal limbs dip towards
each other and the synclinal limbs dip away from
each other.
Such a type of fold is commonly called a fan fold (as
the Anticlinal tops are said to have opened up into a
broad, fan shaped outline due to immense
compression in the lower region.)
Fan Fold
2. Classification of Folds on the basis of
Compression of the Beds

i) Open folds : Where the thickness of bed is the

same throughout its fold layer, is called an open
fold.

ii)Closed folds: Where the thickness is more at

troughs and crests than at the limbs. is called a
closed fold.
 Open Fold

No
Flowage
takes
place
 Closed Fold

Flowage
takes
place
from
Limbs
towards
Crest
and
Troughs
3. Classification of Folds on the basis of their mode
of Occurrence

Anticlinorium / Synclinorium - Regional scale

anticlines/synclines that contain smaller folds.

Anticlinorium Synclinorium
Anticlinorium- Synclinorium
4. Classification of Folds on the basis of the
Position of Fold Axis:

(a) Non plunging fold: When fold axis is horizontal, it

is called a non-plunging fold.

Non-Plunging Folds
4. Classification of Folds on the basis of the
Position of Fold Axis (Contd.)

(b) Plunging fold: When the fold axis is inclined to the

horizontal, it is called a plunging fold.

Plunging Folds
5. Classification of Folds on the basis of their
Behavior with Depth:

(a) Similar folds: The shapes of the folds remain the

same with any amount of depth. In such folds, there is
thickening at axial regions and thinning of the limbs.
Similar Folds
5. Classification of Folds on the basis of their
Behavior with Depth (contd.):

(b) Parallel Folds: The shapes of the folds varies

with depth, but the thickness of the folded bed layers
remain more or less the same. In such cases the
anticlines become sharp and sharper with depth,
whereas, the synclines become broad and broader with
depth.
Parallel Folds

syncline

syncline

anticline
anticline

Parallel Fold Similar Fold

6. Miscellaneous Folds:

(a) Monocline
(b) Homocline
(c ) Drag folding
(d) Chevron folds
6. Miscellaneous Folds (contd.):

(a) Monocline : It is a local warping in which the

otherwise horizontal strata is warped locally. The
inclination of a monocline may be from almost
vertical to horizontal).

A monocline is a step-like fold in rock strata

consisting of a zone of steeper dip within an otherwise
horizontal or gently-dipping sequence.
Monocline
6. Miscellaneous Folds (contd.):

(b) Homocline: It expresses a sequence of strata

dipping in the same direction, at a uniform angle.
Homocline
Homocline
6. Miscellaneous Folds (contd.):

(c) Drag Fold: They are the minor folds developed

within the body of a weaker (incompetent) bed
enclosed between two stronger (competent) beds.
They are developed due to dragging effects. When
the stronger beds (competent beds) happen to slide
past the sandwiched weaker bed (incompetent beds),
in opposite directions.

It is also known as Parasitic Folds

 Drag Folds

Folding is almost always accompanied by a number

of associated minor structures.
These include Drag Folding
Drag Folds
Major fold

Parasitic fold Minor fold

Recumbent Fold
Plunging Anticline
Plunging Folds and Outcrop Pattern
6. Miscellaneous Folds (contd.):
(d) Chevron Fold: Chevron folds are generally close to
tight with straight limbs and small angular hinges.
They typically form in multi layers, consisting of
regular alternations of beds with contrasting
mechanical properties e.g. sandstones and
mudstones.
Chevron folds are characterized by repeated well
behaved folded beds with straight limbs and sharp
hinges. these folds develop repeated set of v-shaped
beds. They develop in response to regional or local
compressive stress. Inter-limb angles are generally
60 degrees or less. (Chevron Folds are also called
Angular Folds).
Chevron Folds or Angular Folds
 Importance of Folds

• Hydrocarbon traps.
• Concentration of valuable minerals like
sulfide mineral deposits localized in the
hinges of the fold
• The crestal and/or trough parts may
develop faults/fractures and weak zones.
• If the fold is overturned or it is a recumbent
fold the overturned limb invariably is a
reverse fault or a thrust fault (weak zone)
Mechanism of Folding – Introduction

Or

How Folds are Formed ?

Folds are Formed by :

1. Flexure Folding
2. Shear Folding
3. Flow Folding
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1. What are Folds?
2. What are the different parts of Folds?
3. What is the mechanism of Folding?
4. What are the different types of Folds?
5. Why Folds are important in Oil & Gas
exploration?

72
73
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Mechanism and Classification of Faults

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
 Structural Geology

Structural Geology is the branch of geology

concerned with deformation of rock bodies
by natural forces (Stress & Strain) that
caused the deformations and/or displacement
in rock formations.
 Main structural features of Rocks

• Folds
• Faults
• Joints
• Unconformity (concerned with
periods of break deposition and
erosion)
 Main structural features of Rocks (contd.)

Rocks within or on the surface are subjected to

number of internal & external forces during and
after their formation.

These forces are responsible for bring out

characteristic changes in the rocks.

The present shape and disposition of rock masses is

largely due to these forces.
 Mechanism of Formation of Structures by :
A load applied to a material results in a stress at any point
within it .
Stress
Deformation is a change in shape due to an applied
force. This can be a result of tensile (pulling) forces,
compressive (pushing) forces, shear, bending or
torsion (twisting). Deformation is often described in
terms of strain.
 Stress is conventionally defined as a force
acting on some area

1Mpa = ~9.8kg/m2

Figure 1. Stress is defined as a force (F) acting on some

area (A).
A force, F, acting on area A. In the form of this
equation.
Stress is defined as force per unit area. Rock stresses are usually
measured in Megapascal (MPa).
Strain

It is the geometrical expression of deformation caused

by the action of stress on a physical body.

Strain expresses itself as a change in size and/or shape.

If strain is equal over all parts of a body, it is referred

to as homogeneous strain; otherwise, it is
inhomogeneous strain.
Types of strain

Elastic deformation - changes in shape of rock are

reversible. Deform it, remove the stress, and it returns
to its original shape (like a rubber band or a piece of
elastic) .

Plastic deformation - changes in shape of rock are

permanent and not irreversible (like folding or
faulting).
Types of strain (contd.):

1. Due to Plastic deformation the rocks may break

along a planar surface or a zone of crushed/
pulverised rock.
2. The rocks across this surface or crushed zone
suffer either horizontal, vertical or mixed relative
movements.
3. Due to this breaking and movements the continuity
of rocks suffer disruption/rupture and it may abut
against another rock in its direction of continuity.
Faults and Faulting
This breaking/ rupture and displacement
of rocks along a surface or zone is known
as Faulting and the surface or the zone is
known as Fault.

The fractures along which the rock masses

on either side have suffered relative
displacement are called “Faults”.
 What is a Fault
A Fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two
blocks of rock. Faults allow the blocks to move
relative to each other. This movement may occur
rapidly, in the form of an earthquake - or may occur
slowly, in the form of Creep.

Faults may range in length from a few millimetres to

thousands of kilometres. Most faults produce repeated
displacements over geologic time. During an
earthquake, the rock on one side of the fault suddenly
slips with respect to the other. The fault surface can be
horizontal or vertical or some arbitrary angle in
between.
 Fault Planes and Fault Lines

Since faults occur along well defined planes, their

attitude in space can be shown by their dip and
strike.

But , First let us learn what are

1. Fault Planes

2. Fault Lines
Fault plane:

The surface of fracture along which the two sides or

blocks of rocks have suffered relative movement is
termed as Fault Plane or Fault Surface. The surface
may be either smooth or uneven, and it may be in a
horizontal, vertical or inclined position.
Fault line:
Intersection of fault plane and ground surface is called
fault line.
Dip and strike of Faults:
The inclination of the fault plane with the horizontal is
called the dip (amount & direction) of the fault. The
direction perpendicular to the dip direction is the strike
of the fault.
Hanging wall and Foot wall:
Fault plane separates two blocks, each block is known
as a wall. The block lying over the fault plane is called
the hanging wall; whereas, the block lying beneath
underside of the fault plane is called the foot wall.
Hade :

Hade is the angle which the fault plane makes with the
vertical.

Hade
 Heave :

Heave is the total horizontal displacement in a fault.

Hade
Heave
Net Slip
The Total Displacement due to a fault is described as
its “Net Slip”

Fig (A) – Net Slip : ab (Dip Slip)

Fig (B) – Net Slip : ab (Strike Slip)
Fig (C) – Net Slip : ab (Net Slip)
: cb (Dip Slip)
: ac (Strike Slip)
Fig (D) – Net Slip : ab (Dip Slip)
Fig (E) – Net Slip : ab (Dip Slip)
: bc (Strike Slip)
: ac (Dip Slip)
 Classification of Faults

Faults can be classified on the basis of :

1. Net Slip

2. Apparent movement of blocks

3. Dip Angle

4. Fault Pattern
(1) Classification of faults on the basis of Net
Slip

On the basis of net slip (total displacement) faults

have the following three types
• Dip Slip Fault
• Strike Slip Fault
• Oblique Slip Fault
Dip Slip & Strike Slip

The component of net slip along the true dip of the

fault plane is defined as the dip slip of the fault

While the other component, lying parallel to the

strike of the fault is called strike slip.
Dip Slip & Strike Slip Components

Fig. I – Before Faulting

Fig. II – Strike Slip
Fig. III– Dip Slip
Normal Fault (Dip Slip Component)
Normal Fault (Strike Slip Component)
Oblique Fault
When the net slip is neither parallel to strike nor
parallel to the dip of fault is called Oblique strike
fault.
Oblique Fault
(2) Classification of faults on the basis of
apparent movement of blocks:

• Normal fault
• Reverse fault
Normal Fault
When the hanging-wall side appears to have moved
relatively downwards in comparison with the
adjoining foot-wall side it is called Normal fault. The
fault plains of majority of normal faults dip More
than 45 degrees .
Normal Fault
Normal Fault (contd.)

Normal Fault is also called gravity fault. Normal faults

with very shallow dipping fault planes (<10 degrees)
are called "detachment" faults or "decollemonts“.
Reverse Fault
When the foot wall side
appears to have moved
relatively downwards in
comparison with the
adjoining hanging wall
side, it is called a Reverse
Fault. A Reverse Fault is
a Thrust that dips more Hanging Wall
than 45 degrees.
or Foot Wall
The Hanging wall has
moved upward relative to
the Foot wall.
Reverse Fault
Reverse Fault (contd.)

Reverse faults with very shallow dipping fault planes (<

45 degrees) are called “Thrust" Faults or simply
“Thrust”.
A thrust fault is a Reverse Fault that dips less than 45
degrees.
(3) Classification of faults on the basis of dip
angle

• High Angle Fault

• Low Angle Fault
High Angle Fault
A high angle fault is one that dips at angle greater than
45°

Low Angle Fault

A low angle fault is one that dips at angle less than 45°
(4) Classification of faults on the basis of fault
pattern:

• Parallel Faults
• Step Faults
• Graben and Horst or Rift Fault
• Radial Fault
Parallel Faults
• A series of faults running more or less parallel to one
another, having the same dip & strike are called “parallel
faults”.
• It is consists of parallel faults where the successive blocks
are downthrown more & more towards a particular
direction, the resulting structure looks more or less like the
steps in a staircase & is known as step fault.
Step Faults
Horst and Graben

A series of normal faults, having more or less parallel

strikes, do sometimes cause uplift of the alternate
blocks with the intervening ones downthrown.
The elevated blocks are known as Horsts while those
forming the depressions are known as Graben.
Horsts & Grabens of large size give and rise to what
are known respectively as block mountains & rift-
valleys.
Horst and Graben (contd.)

The elevated blocks are known as horsts while those

forming the depressions are known as grabens

Horsts & grabens of large size give rise to what are

known respectively as block mountains (the Sierra
Nevada mountains in N. America the Harz Mountains
in Germany) & rift-valleys (African Rift Valley).
 Horst and Graben

H – Horst
G - Graben
Horst and Graben
Horst and Graben
Radial faults
A number of faults exhibiting a radial pattern are
descried as radial faults.
 Recognition of Faulting in the field

A variety of lithological features are associated with

faulting.

(a) Older beds overriding younger beds

(b) Slicken sides - striations and grooves
(c) Brecciation and gouge - Rocks are
crushed/pulverised and fractured
(c) Shear zones: Closely spaced fractures
(d) Abnormal behavior of strata: Abrupt termination.
Why are faults important?
• Sudden rupture or movements along Faults generate
earthquakes.
• Faults reveal how the earth has deformed through
time.
• Faults play critical roles in fluid transport in the
earth's crust (e.g., water, magma, oil & natural gas
etc.
• Faults help in formation of Traps for Oil & Gas
during its migration.
• Faults are zones of weakness to account for in
engineering projects.
Normal Faults
 Reverse Faults
F

F F

F F
 Thrust Faults

F
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1. What are Faults?
2. What is the Fault Terminology?
3. What are types of Fault movements?
4. What is the mechanism of Faulting?
5. What are the different types of Faults?
6. Why Faults are important in Oil & Gas
Exploration?

51
52
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Mechanism and Classification of Joints

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
 Structural Geology

Structural Geology is the branch of geology

concerned with deformation of rock bodies
by natural forces (Stress & Strain) that
caused the deformations and/or displacement
in rock formations.
 Main structural features of Rocks

• Folds
• Faults
• Joints
• Unconformity (concerned with
periods of break deposition and
erosion)
 Main structural features of Rocks (contd.)

Rocks within or on the surface are subjected to

number of internal & external forces during and
after their formation.

These forces are responsible for bring out

characteristic changes in the rocks.

The present shape and disposition of rock masses is

largely due to these forces.
 Mechanism of Formation of Structures by :
A load applied to a material results in a stress at any point
within it .
Stress
Deformation is a change in shape due to an applied
force. This can be a result of tensile (pulling) forces,
compressive (pushing) forces, shear, bending or
torsion (twisting). Deformation is often described in
terms of strain.
 Stress is conventionally defined as a force
acting on some area

1Mpa = ~9.8kg/m2

Figure 1. Stress is defined as a force (F) acting on some

area (A).
A force, F, acting on area A. In the form of this
equation.
Stress is defined as force per unit area. Rock stresses are usually
measured in Megapascal (MPa).
Strain

It is the geometrical expression of deformation caused

by the action of stress on a physical body.

Strain expresses itself as a change in size and/or shape.

If strain is equal over all parts of a body, it is referred

to as homogeneous strain; otherwise, it is
inhomogeneous strain.
Types of Strain

Elastic deformation - changes in shape of rock are

reversible. Deform it, remove the stress, and it returns
to its original shape (like a rubber band or a piece of
elastic) .

Plastic deformation - changes in shape of rock are

permanent and not irreversible (like folding, faulting
or jointing).
Types of strain (contd.):

1. Due to Plastic deformation the rocks may break

along a planar surface or a zone of crushed/
pulverised rock.
2. The rocks across this surface or crushed zone
suffer either horizontal, vertical or mixed relative
movements.
3. Due to this breaking and movements the continuity
of rocks suffer disruption/rupture and it may abut
against another rock in its direction of continuity.
Plastic Deformation

Rocks may suffer brittle failure (fracturing and

Joints) without faulting during plastic deformation.

In vicinity of Faults the rocks invariably fail by

developing joints producing a zone of dilation.
 Brittle Failure

• Joints are forms of brittle deformation, there are

two types of primary brittle deformation:
(i) Tensile fracturing results in joints and
(ii) Shear fractures are the first initial breaks
resulting from shear forces exceeding the
cohesive strength in that plane.

• After those two initial deformations, several other

types of secondary brittle deformation can be
observed, such as Frictional Sliding or Cataclastic
Flow on reactivated joints or faults.
 Brittle Failure (contd.)
• Joints in rocks are formed either due to
compression or tension.
• Joints are commonly caused by stress exceeding the
rock strength, causing the rock to lose cohesion
along its weakest plane.
• Invariably Faults are associated by Groups of joints
in its vicinity.
• Similarly during folding the crestal parts of the
folds develop strains due to tensional stress
resulting in formation of joints parallel to the fold
axis. In contrast the troughs develop strains due to
compressional stress and joints are developed
parallel to the fold axis.
JOINTS
1. The tensional and compressional forces
(Geodynamic Forces) within the earth's interior
deform the rocks,
2. When these forces act suddenly the rocks may
suffer brittle failure and develop cracks, fractures
and joints in different direction.
3. Due to the presence of joints the strength of rock
mass is reduced.
 JOINTS (Contd.)
 Cracks and fractures in rocks along which the
fractured rockmass appears to have suffered no
relative displacement are known as joints. The length
of zones of joints can be in meter, tens of meter, or
even hundreds of meter.
 However individual joints may run for several cm to a
few meter.
 Normally joints occur in sets, a rockmass may have
normally two or more sets of joints and in rare case
more than this.
JOINTS (Contd.)

• Joints occur in all types of rocks – igneous,

sedimentary & metamorphic.
• In igneous rocks, the joints develop during cooling
& contraction of magmatic masses and are known
as “primary joints”.
• A very large joint, which can be traced over an
extensive area, is described commonly as a “master
joint”.
JOINTS (Contd.)

• The joints in the rock mass can run in any

direction and they can be vertical / inclined/
horizontal.
• The attitude of joints can be described in terms of
dip (amount and direction) & strike.
• Dip of the joint is its inclination with the
horizontal and the strike of the joint is the
direction of intersection of a joint plane with the
horizontal plane.
JOINTS (Contd.)
Joints may be “open or closed”.
Open Joints: In which the blocks have been separated
or opened up for small distances in a direction at right
angles to the fracture surface.
The open joints may be gradually enlarged by
weathering processes and may develop into fissures
in the rocks.
The open joints may get filled up by secondary
minerals forming “thin veins” or “thick fissure veins”
.
JOINTS (Contd.)

Closed Joints: In which there is no separation of

blocks.

But, these joints also may be capable of allowing gases

/ water to pass through the rock (secondary
permeability).
OPEN JOINT

CLOSED JOINT
JOINTS (Contd.)
Discontinuous joints:
The joints which are small in their extension,
confined to only a part of a layer or mass of
rock, are called “discontinuous joints”.

Continuous joints:
The joints which are quite prominent and
extend for considerable depth and lateral
extent, are called “Continuous joints”.
DISCONTINUOUS CONTINUOUS
JOINTS JOINTS
Joints Grouping

Joints Grouping :
• Joints generally occur in groups of two or more
joint planes.
• A “joint set” is a group of two or more joints
trending in the same direction with almost the
same dip.
• A “Joint System” is a group of two or more joint
sets.
Fig.(a) – Showing one joint trending NS
Fig.(b) - a &c and b,d & e representing Joint Set
Fig.(b) – a,c and b,d&e representing Joint System
Joints Classification

Joints are classified on the following basis:

1. Spatial relationships,
2. Geometry and
3. Genesis.
1. Spatial Relationship

Systematic Joints
Regular Joints) : They show a distinct regularity in
their occurrence which can be measured and
mapped easily.
They are parallel/ sub parallel joint sets that are
repeated in the rocks at regular intervals e.g. the
columnar joints.
1. Spatial Relationship (contd.)

 Non – Systematic ( Irregular ) Joints:

They do not possess any regularity in their

occurrence.

They appear randomly in the rocks.

2. Geometry - on the basis of attitude

• Strike Joints: In this type, the joint sets

extends/run parallel to the strike of the rocks.
• Dip Joints: In this type, the joint sets extends/run
parallel to the dip direction of the rocks.
• Oblique Joints : In this, the strike of the joints is
at any angle other than the dip.
 2. Geometry - on the basis of attitude (contd.)

 Bedding Joints: In stratified rocks, some joints

may develop essentially parallel to the bedding
planes.
 3. Genesis - on the basis of origin

• Tension joints : They are developed due to the

tensile forces acting on the rock either during or
after their formation . The direction of such joints is
always perpendicular to that of the force which tries
to pull them apart. The important types of tension
joints are :
a. Columnar joints
b. Mud cracks
c. Sheet joints
d. Tension Joints & Shear Joints
a. Columnar joints:

• These are generally developed in igneous volcanic

rocks, particularly in Basalts.

• These joints are hexagonal in plan and are produced

in the body of the cooling magma, due to the
contraction caused by cooling.
Columnar Joints (contd.)
• As cooling and crystallization of magma progresses,
the magma becomes increasingly rigid and
ultimately gets subjected to cracking.

• The tension joints are, thus, developed in the body

of rock, at times in some definite pattern producing
characteristic structures.
Columnar Joints (contd.)
• In the formation of basalts and in some other fine
grained or glassy igneous rocks, cracks or joints
which are hexagonal in plan and resembles the mud
cracks, are often developed in the top layers of
cooling magma.

• As cooling proceeds into the sheet of the rock, the

cracks grow inward at right angles to the cooling
surface, and thus dividing the sheet into a system of
vertical hexagonal columns .
Initiation of Columnar Joints
Initiation of Columnar Joints (contd.)

The Arrow heads

show three sets of
forces responsible
for the development
of hexagonal
columns
Columnar Joints
b. Mud Cracks :

• They are also tension joints, formed in a similar

manner as columnar joints.
• But, here, the contraction occurs due to the drying
of mud.
• As the fine clayey mud dries, the tensile stresses
operate from a number of centers within a plane,
giving rise to cracks enclosing roughly polygonal
areas.
Mud Cracks
c. Sheet Joints

• Sheet joints are developed due to the expansion

of the rock mass, as the overlying body of the rock
is removed by erosion.
• They are the horizontal joints developed in massive
igneous rocks, especially Granites.
• These horizontal joints are closely spaced in the
upper layers, and become progressively farther
apart with depth. They divide the rocks into sheets.
Sheet Joints
Sheet Joints
d.Tension & Shear joints

The Tension joints:

• These are developed during folding of the rocks.
• The axial parts of folds, along which beds are bent,
are subjected to tension, resulting in the
development of such joints
d.Tension & Shear joints (contd.)

The Shear Joints :

They are commonly observed in the vicinity of fault
planes and shear zones where the shearing stress
slide one part of the rock against the other.

Such joints are thus, developed during folding or

faulting.

e.g. The joints developed in the limbs of the folds.

 Important of Joints

• Joints produce secondary permeability in rocks

which otherwise may have little or no primary
permeability.
• Joints provide permeability for fluid movement,
such as water or hydrocarbons.
• Highly fractured rocks can make good aquifers or
hydrocarbon reservoirs, since they may possess
both significant permeability and fracture porosity.
• Hence identification of jointed rocks is important
for locating potential hydrocarbon reservoir rocks.
Joints
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1. What are Joints?
2. What is the Mechanism of Jointing?
3. What are different types of Joints?
4. Why Joints are important in Oil & Gas
Exploration?

45
46
Dip and Strike
of
Strata
September-2014

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
1. ATTITUDE

Attitude is the disposition of rocks

in space or the way in which they
are exposed.

The DIP and STRIKE are two basic

quantities which are used to
express the attitude of any rock
body.
1. STRIKE

1. The direction of the line, along which

an inclined (or dipping) bed intersects a
horizontal plane, is known as the strike
of the bed.
2. It is the horizontal extension of a
strata/Bed or foliation/Gneissosity
3. It is a line on the Strata/Bed or
Foliation/Gneissosity surface with equal
elevation from a known datum.
Mapping of the Strike and dip of the formation
3. DIP

1. It is defined as the angle of maximum

inclination of a bed or layer of a rock
with the horizontal.
2. The dip direction is the direction in
which the inclination of the bedding
plane/Foliation/Gneissosity occurs.
3. It gives the vertical or inclined extension
(in depth) of the Bed/ Foliation/
Gneissosity
3. DIP ( Cont……)
Dip amount :
1. It is the angle of inclination between the
bedding plane/Foliation/Gneissosity and
a horizontal plane. The amount of dip
may vary from zero degree (horizontal)
to 90 (vertical).
2. The direction and angle of dip is
measured with Brunton Compass.
ABCD is a horizontal plane. Beds are dipping
30 towards east. The strike is North – South.
 Variation in Dip and Strike

1. Changes in amount of dip amount and /or

direction may indicate presence of Folding
or Faulting.
2. Changes in Strike directions may indicate
presence of Folding or Faulting.
 4. APPARENT & TRUE DIP
1. When the dip is measured in a
direction that is essentially at right
angles to the strike of that layer, only
then it is called “ true dip”.
2. When the dip of a layer is measured in
any other direction, which is not at right
angles to its strike, it is called an
“apparent dip”.
3. Apparent dip is always less than the true
dip.
 Dip and Strike Symbols – Sedimentary Rocks

A- Inclined Strata/Bed B- Horizontal Strata/Bed C- Vertical Strata/Bed

 Dip and Strike Symbols – Metamorphic Rocks

A- Inclined Foliation Vertical Foliation C- Horizontal Foliation

Instrument - Brunton Compass

Developed
by Colorado
Mining
Engineer –
D.W. Brunton
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1. What meant by Attitude, disposition of Beds,
surfaces etc.?
2. What Strike and Dip of rocks, Fault Planes or
any geological surface?
3. How Attitude is measured and by what
instrument?
4. How to represent Strike and Dip on geological
maps?

15
16
Introduction to Geological
Mapping and Geological
Sections
(Surface & Sub-Surface Analysis)
March-2015

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
Surface and Sub-Surface Analysis
• The Surface and Sub-Surface Analysis
requires a good contour and geological maps
of the area on different scales, depending
upon what kind of information is required
(1:250:000, 1:50,000, 1:10,000 or still large
scale).
• Normally small scale geological maps are
made available by the respective Geological
Surveys of the countries but, large scale maps
are required to be made on requests.
• Geological Maps on large scale 1:10,000 or
larger are made with the help of surveying
instruments like Total Station
Contour Maps
Contours
• A contour may be defined as an imaginary line
on ground, every point of which as at same
altitude ( elevation) above the mean sea level.
• Contour lines on map are simply the graphic
representation of same ground elevations,
drawn at fixed intervals.
• No two contours intersect each other, if
ground slope is gentler the contour spacing
becomes wide spread but if the ground slope
is steeper the contour spacing becomes
closer.
• At escarpment all contours meet each other.
Drawing Contours
Contours
 Topographic Maps and Contour Maps
Topographic map-
• It is a detailed, accurate graphic
representations of features that appear on the
Earth's surface. These features include:
cultural: roads, buildings, urban development,
settlements, railways, airports, names of places
and geographic features, administrative
boundaries, state and international borders,
forest, agricultural land, water bodies, mines,
oil & Gas Fields etc.
• A map legend (or key) lists the features shown
on that map, and their corresponding symbols.
In all Topographic Maps year of surveying/preparation of map is given - Why
Topographic Maps and Contour Maps (contd.)
Topographic map (contd.)-
• Topographic maps are detailed, accurate graphic
representations of features that appear on the
Earth's surface. These features include:
• cultural: roads, buildings, bridges, urban
development, railways, airports, names of places
and geographic features, administrative
boundaries, state and international borders, forests,
agricultural land,
• hydrography: lakes, rivers, streams, swamps,
resrvoirs, coastal flats
• relief: mountains, valleys, slopes, depressions
• vegetation: wooded and cleared areas, vineyards
and orchards, villages.
Contours and Streams
Topographic Map
Geological Map
Geological Maps
• A geologic map or geological map is a special-
purpose map made to show geological features.
• Rock units or geologic strata or geological feature
are shown by colour or symbols to indicate where
they are exposed at the surface.
• A geologic map shows what it is you are standing
on; where similar rocks or sediments may be
found; how old they are; what they are composed
of; how they formed; how they have been affected
by faulting, folding, or other geologic processes;
and what existing or potential mineral resources
and geologic hazards are in the area.
Purpose of Geological Maps
• A geologic map is the principal tool that geologists
use to convey information about the structure and
Stratigraphy of the earth’s surface; the location
and type of geologic hazards such as landslides
and faults; and the location and type of resources
such as sand and gravel, coal, ore deposits, Oil &
Gas deposits and ground water.
• It is a tool that can be used in many ways – from
learning about the geologic history of an area, to
natural resource and hazard assessment, to
providing information for intelligent land-use
planning and growth – and indeed, is as useful for
its descriptive as well as predictive nature.
Geological Maps Mapping
• To make a geologic map, geologists roam the
landscape, plotting the location of geologic
contacts, faults, folds, and other features on aerial
photographs, or, occasionally, directly on a
topographic base map. Aligned pairs of aerial
photos give the geologist a three-dimensional,
birds eye view of the landscape, greatly
facilitating fieldwork.
• Back at the office, information from these photos
is digitized and the final geologic map is edited
and printed. New field methods are being
developed for computerized data capture, but in
the end there is no substitute for careful geologic
fieldwork. Nowadays GPS & GIS is used to
capture and plot data.
How Geological Mapping is Done
• The geologist traverses in the area to be
mapped and observes the surface geology
as exposed at different localities in field.
• He records the location of his observation
point on the topographic base map (paper
form or in his GPS compatible tablet etc.) as
well as note down his observations in a field
diary.
• He tries to trace and record the variation in
lithology, structures and nature that has
occurred in the area during the geological
past and also the changes that the area i
undergoing at present.
Tools required for Geological Mapping
1. Topographic Map on appropriate scale or GPS compatible tablet with
topographic map of appropriate scale.
2. Geological Hammer
3. Magnifying pocket Lens (10x)
4. Horse shoe magnet
5. Streak Plate A Camping Site
6. Penknife for Camping
7. Sample Bags
8. Marker Pens
9. Eraser
10. Pencils B/W & Coloured
11. Water Bottle
12. Hunter shoes
13. Appropriate field clothings
14. medical Kit
15. Transport Support
16. Field Coolies
 Geological Mapping

• Small Scale - Regional Geological Maps

(1:250,000/1:50,000 and 1:25,000 scales) – on toposheets

• Large Scale Geological Mapping

(1:10,000/1:5,000; 1:2,000/1:1000; 1:500/1:100 scales) –
Surveyed with Total Station

Mobile Mapping Systems – GPS enable

 Data Matrix

Activity Scale Resolution

1:250.000/1:50,000/ Small Scale data

Data Acquisition 1:25,000
1:10,000 / 1:5,000/4,000 Large Scale data
1:2,000/1,000 to 1:100 Detailed Scale data
Data Plotting Manual & Digital
Cartographic Manual & Digital
Small Scale – Low
Representation
Large Scale – High
Precision and Accuracy As Per Scale
 Actual Ground Conditions
830

Scale

N
820

535

500
810

LEGEND
525

= Quartz Mica Schist

+ ~ Quartz Biotite Gneiss ~
800
400

410

420

430
Geological Map -1
830
Scale

N 820

535

500

810
525

LEGEND
 Overburden
800
400

410

420

430
 Geological Map -2
830
Scale

N 820

535

500

525 810

LEGEND

= Quartz Mica Schist

+ ~ Quartz Biotite Gneiss
Lineaments
800
400

410

420

430
Geological Map without Title, Scale and Legend (Sample)
Geological Sections

• A Geological Map only shows the geology of

the earth's surface. In order to provide the third
dimension i.e. The depth persistence, it is a
standard practice to draw geological (vertical)
sections.
• These vertical sections or geological cross
sections show rock units, folds, faults,
unconformities and intrusions etc.
Constructing a Geological Cross Section
1. A line is selected along which geological
section is to be made.
2. The section should be representative of the area
being studied, and should cross major structural
features such as faults, fold, etc.
3. There should be appropriate data on the map or
in a well log to draw a complete section.
4. One of the most common ways to draw cross
sections is to orient them perpendicular to major
structural features.
5. Sections drawn perpendicular to planar features
avoid the problem of determining apparent dips.
Constructing a Geological Cross Section (contd.)

6. First a topographic profile along the cross

section.
7. For a horizontal scale, it is easiest to use the
map scale. The vertical scale is usually the
same as the horizontal scale, in which case
you say that the cross section has “no vertical
exaggeration.”
8. In some cases, however, horizontal and
vertical are kept different.
Constructing a Geological Cross Section (contd.)
9. Next Mark contacts of lithounits are marked on
the topographic profile where the particular
feature crosses the line of the section. Dip data
is projected onto the line of the cross section
and then to the topographic profile.
10.Projections can usually be made from several
km distance, depending on the scale of
heterogeneity of the structures.
Constructing a Geological Cross Section (contd.)
11.Next geological structures (faults, folds) and
the lithologic units on the cross section so
that unit thicknesses are preserved (in other
words, constant) and the cross section units
are consistent with the observed dips.
12.The structures and lithologic units are
extended above the present level of erosion
and to depth.
13.Finally the section is finished by drawing in
the traces of the axial surfaces of anticlines
and synclines, measuring offsets across the
faults, and determining the stratigraphic
thicknesses of the units.
Geological Section – How it Appears
Geological Map of Xyz area, District abc, Rajasthan, India
Geological Map of Xyz Area, District Abc, Uttarakhand, India
Legend
Geological Map and Geological Section
What is Isopach Line
• An individual line connecting points of equal
thickness is called an isopach line.
• An isopach map is a map showing lines
connecting points of equal formation thickness
• An isopach is a line that connects points of
equal true thickness (i.e. measured
perpendicular to bedding).
Isopach Maps
Uses of Isopach Maps
• for predetermining drilling depths to specific
horizons in wildcat wells
• to locate buried structures in regions where
formations habitually become thinner over
structural crests.
• In estimating the elevation of a datum bed below
the total depth of a well that penetrated a higher
known stratigraphic horizon.
• To calculate the volume of oil in a formation
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1. What are Contours and Contour Maps?
2. What is a Geological Map?
3. What information a Geological Map provides?
4. What are Isopach and Geological Sections?
5. What are the use of geological Maps and
Isopach Maps?

36
37
Introduction to Stratigraphy
April-2015

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
What is Stratigraphy

Strata =Layers
Graphion =Description (description
of layers)

Means description of Layers of

rocks

Sedimentary rocks are mostly layered rocks and

therefore strictly speaking, Stratigraphy would
mean description of sedimentary rocks.
Three Basic Questions to Answer in Stratigraphy

Questions
 How do geologists place the events of
geologic history in sequence?
 How do geologists correlate different
geological events or rock sequences?
 What is correlation?
What is Stratigraphy (contd.)

Geology is a history of Earth…….

it asks “what did happen and when did it

happen.”

Events not seen by anyone who exist now

but the effects or signatures of the events
recorded on rocks that a geologist can
decipher.
What is Stratigraphy (contd.)

When considering events not observed in the

past, two basic needs are :
1. to establish the relative order of events
&
2. to fix the absolute age of events.
What is Stratigraphy (contd.)
Stratigraphy gives information related to:

• sequence of geological events

• evolution of life
• climate of ancient geological periods (paleo-
climates) & changes therein,
• environment of sedimentation (depth, current,
direction etc,)
• age of rocks etc.

Since Stratigraphy reveals the history of our

mother planet (earth), it is called the “Historical
Geology” .
What is Stratigraphy (contd.)

Stratigraphy: Deals with the:

1. Arrangement,
2. Form,
3. Distribution,
4. Chronologic succession (sequence &
correlation),
5. Classification of the different sedimentary
formations deposited in different ages.
Objectives of strigraphical studies

Studying the chronological sequence of

scattered strata of different places.
1) Correlating the said local data with that of the
world wide or established regional
chronological frame work, to fix the mutual
time relationship
2) Interpreting the geological history of the earth
as a whole from the foregoing observations.
Principles of Stratigraphy

Principles of Stratigraphy:

Detailed studies and research work carried out

by number eminent scientists (Lehman, Grabau,
Steno, Smith, Hutton, Lyell), three principles of
stratigraphy , have been evolved:

1) Principle of the order of super- position

2) Principle of uniformitarianism
3) Principle of faunal succession.
1. Principle of the order of super-position

M. Steno (1669) was

the first person to
recognise the
chronological
importance of the Younger
order of superposition
in sedimentary rocks,
where the younger
beds lie upward
during the formation
of sedimentary rocks.
Older
1. Principle of the order of super-position (contd.)

In a normal sedimentary rock deposit, the bottom

most bed is the oldest, while the uppermost bed is
the youngest.

But, this principle of the successively younger

beds lying upward, get reversed when the beds
get overturned ( recumbent fold)
Order of Superposition
Sequence of rocks
(order of Correlation studies
superposition)
are expected to
develop A
in different places C
during the B

same geological period

under similar D

conditions. E
1 1 1
Based on this basic
principle, correlation of
different scattered
sequences of rocks
can be delineated.
2. Principle of Uniformitarism

This principle was established by James Hutton

in 1788.
It states that the forces at play in nature today
and those played during the past are uniform.
In stratigraphy, the dictum (Statement) “The
present is the key to the past” has almost
become a proverb.
2. Principle of Uniformitarism (contd.)

Example: Dune formation process is same for

the formation of dune at present or paleo that is
the wind.

Patterns of current bedding and ripple marks in

the sedimentary rocks formed in millions of years
ago, are identical with the pattern found in the
present day river channels or the present day
beaches.
3. Principle of faunal succession

Evolved by a British engineer Mr. Willam Smith

who became acquainted with fossils occurring
in the sediments of a region of his work in
England.
3. Principle of faunal succession

Smith (known as father of stratigraphy) realized

that in the sequence of the sediments, each layer
is characterized by an assemblage of fossils of
marine invertebrates.

When his observations were extrapolated, it

could be gathered that different periods were
characterized by different stages of organic
evolution.
What is meant by Fossils?
Fossils: The fossils are defined as the relicts and
remains (remnants) of ancient animals and
plants that have been preserved inside the rock
by the natural processes.

Rocks which posses the fossils, belong to the

same age.

The rocks which had been formed in a particular

geological period will have the remains and
relicts of only those animals and plants which
used to exist at that very geological time.
What is meant by Fossils (contd.)?

Hence by treating “the present as the key to the

past” the study of the presence of different
kinds of fossils in the rocks at different depths
and places, can help us to understand and
delineate the history of the earth.
What is meant by Fossils (contd.)?
The important clues which are explained by different
fossils in stratigraphic studies are:
1) Fossils like graptolites and ammonites lived very
short period, If they are found in to occur in any
unknown rock, their age can easily be predicted.
Such fossils are termed as Zonal fossils.
2) Fossils help in Correlation of different
sequences of rocks
3) Fossils help in easy indication of climatic
conditions of geological past.
4) 4) ) Establishing sea level oscillations
(Transgressive and regressive).
What is Stratigraphy (contd.)

The science of Stratigraphy helps us

to know the past details of:

 Climate
 Geography
 Glaciations
 Evolution & migration of plants & animals etc.
Aims of Stratigraphical studies

(i) studying the chronological sequence of

strata of different places.

(ii) Correlating the local data with that of the

world wide to fix the mutual time
relationship.

(iii) Interpreting the geological history of the

earth as a whole.
Categories of Stratigraphic Correlation
Categories of Stratigraphic Correlation

Four ways of correlating a sequence:

1. Lithostratigraphy,

2. Biostratigraphy

3. Chronostratigraphy

4. Magnatoetratigraphy.
Lithostratigraphy

• It is based primarily on the lithological

characters which are easily recognizable in
the field.
• Lithostratigraphic units are the rock units on
the basis of its Lithological characteristics.
• The Lithostratigraphic units are given regional
names (where they are best developed) and
they are used for describing the geology,
structure and economic resources of that
region.
Lithostratigraphy (contd.)

The various Lithostratigraphic units are:

1. Laminae: Is a layer < 1cm in thickness.
2. Beds: Is a layer of sediment that is recognizable in
outcrop by its separation from other beds along a
bedding plane.
3. Member: Is a distinctive bed or set of beds
within a formation.
4. Members may have wide geographic extent, but
are usually thinner and lesser in extent relative to
formation.
5. The member is characterised by a remarkable
lithology or some characteristic fossil assemblage.
Lithostratigraphy (contd.)
4. Formation is a body of rock identified by lithic
characteristics (composition, colour,
sedimentary structures, fossils, etc) and
stratigraphic position. It is large enough to be
mappable at the earth’s surface or traceable in
the subsurface.
5. Groups comprises a thick succession of rock
formations spread over a large area.
The successive groups are demarcated on the
basis of well marked unconformities.
Lithostratigraphy (contd.)

5. Groups (contd.)
A group has more than one formations.

Each Group is given a name after its type area

where all the subdivisions or most of the
subdivisions are well exposed.
Lithostratigraphy (contd.)

Supergroups

An association of mutually related

Groups is known as Supergroup.
Lithostratigraphy (contd.)

Type Section:
It is the geographic location where an exposure
provides the basis for the originally published
description of a formation.
All formations are named after the geographic
location or a prominent geographic feature of
their type sections. A type section should include
both upper & lower boundaries of the formation.
Biostratigraphy

Biostratigraphy = subdivision of the

stratigraphic record into rocks by means of
fossil content.
Chronostratigraphy

Chronostratigraphy = subdivision of the

stratigraphic record into bodies of rocks
represented by a particular age, separated from
underlying and overlying units.
Chronostratigraphy

Chronostratigraphic Units:

• The purpose of such a classification is "to

organize systematically the Earth's sequence
of rock strata into Chronostratigraphic units,
corresponding to intervals of geologic time.
Magnetostratigraphy

• Magnetostratigraphy: exploits variations in

the magnetic properties of rocks as a basis
for geological correlation.
• The basic magnetostratigraphical unit is the
magnetic zone or magnetozone which is
identified as a rock interval.
 Summary :
This chapter helps you in understanding :
1. What is meant by Stratigraphy?
2. What are the basic Principles of Stratigraphy?
3. What are Fossils and how they help in
geological correlation?
4. What Geodynamic Processes take place at
different types of Plate Boundaries?
5. What information can Stratigraphical studies
provide to Geologists?

35
36
Introduction to Geological Time
Scale
April-2015

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
 Geological Time

Geologists believe that earths age is

4.6 b.y or 4600 m.y old.

The geologists tried to reconstruct

the history of the earth from the
beginning.
During this time, rocks, have formed and suffered
mountain building activities to form mountains
many times
 Geological Time

Several events (igneous activity, creation of

mountain chains,. Igneous intrusions,
redistribution of continents and oceans,
glaciations, variation of life) have been taken
place during 4.5 b.y. which must left their
imprints on the rocks.
 Geological Time
For the sake of convenience, the 4600 m.y. has
been divided into different units on the basis of
events taking place.

The internationally accepted Geological Time

Scale is divided into number of eras,
eras into periods,
periods into epoch,
epoch into ages and
ages into phases.
 Events Markers on Earth
During this long history of earth several types of
events have taken place on earth that have left
their marks on the rocks. Such events include:
1. Episodes of structural disturbances, which
resulted major mountain chains of the world.
2. Major and minor igneous intrusions.
3. The glaciations experienced by the earth.
4. The redistribution of continents and oceans.
5. The varieties of life dominating and suffering
extinction different time periods of the earth
history etc.
 Events Markers on Earth (contd.)
• The flow of geological time, accumulation of
sediments and evolution of life forms have taken
place together, e.g. the sedimentary rocks are
deposited in layers arranged in chronological
order ;
• Each layer was formed in a definite time period
of the earth’s history and life forms that are
characteristic to that period was preserved in
that layer in the form of fossils.
• It is also established that different periods of
time were characterized by different stages of
organic evolution which is the most suitable
criterion for dividing the geological time.
 Events Markers on Earth (contd.)
• Events around our daily life do not happen on
the same Time Scale. Things happen in years,
months, weeks, daily, hourly, on minute and
second basis.
• Obviously, it doesn't make sense to talk about
everything on the same time scale. That's why
we've broken up our time into years, months,
weeks, days and so on.
• Geologists use the very same strategy to talk
about the history of the earth. They break up
geologic time into larger and smaller chunks of
time, so that major events are easier to talk
about.
 Geological Time Scale
Geological Time of 4600 million years since the
origin of Earth has been divided into different
Eons, Eras, Periods, Epochs and Ages by
Geologist

Time Units
Eons
Eras
Periods
Epochs
Ages
 Geological Time Scale (contd.)

The Five major eras are:

1. Archaean or Azoic era ( Zeo= life;

Azoic=means Era with life less)

2. Proterozoic era (Protero = very early life

means Era with very early life)

3. Primary or Paleozoic era( palaeo = ancient or

old means Era with first important life).
 Geological Time Scale (contd.)

4. Secondary or Mesozoic era (Mesos= Middle

means life which is neither old nor recent

5. Tertiary or Cenozoic/kainozoic era (Ceno=

recent; means Eras with recent life)
 Geological Time Scale (contd.)

Depending upon the predominance of

occurrence of particular types of
fossils in a particular period or an era,
some of the periods or eras have been
named after them.
 Important Geological Milestones

Era/Period Time/Age Important Events

(m.y.)
Cambrian 543-490 (53) Age of Trilobites
Ordovician 490-443 (47) Age of Graptolites
Devonian 417-354 (63) Age of Fish

Mesozoic Era 250-65 (185) Age of Reptiles

Tertiary Period 65-1.8 (63.2) Alpine-Himalayan Mountain
Chain formed,
Major Oil & Gas Fields
originated
Quaternary Period 1.8 to present Age of Man
 Geological Time of 4600 million years has been
divided into different Eons and Eras

Eon Era Time Period

Cainozoic 0-65 m.y. (65 m.y)
Phanerozoic 543-0 m.y. Mesozoic 250-65 m.y. (185 m.y.)
(543 m.y.)
Palaeozoic 543-250 m.y. (293 m.y.)
Neoproterozoic 1000-550 m.y.(450m.y.)
Proterozoic 2500-550 m.y. Mesoproterozoic 1600-1000 m.y. (600m.y.)
(1950 m.y.)
Paleoproterozoic 2500-1600 m.y.(900 m.y.)
Archean 4600-2500 m.y. Neoarchean 2800-2500 m.y.(300 m.y.)
(2100 m.y.) Mesoarchean 3200-2800 m.y.(400 m.y.)
Paleoarchean 3600-3200 m.y.(400 m.y.)
Eaarchean 4600-3600 m.y.(1000 m.y.)
 Division of Era into Periods and Epochs
Era Period Time Epoch
Period
1.8 m.y. To Holocene
present Pleistocene
Cainozoic Quaternary
(Age of recent Life) 65-1.8 m.y. Pliocene
(63.2 m.y.) Miocene
Oligocene
Tertiary
Eocene
Palaeocene
144-65 m.y. Late Cretaceous
(79 m.y.) Early Cretaceous
Mesozoic Cretaceous
(Age of Medieval Life) 206-144 m.y. Late Jurassic
(62 m.y.) Middle Jurassic
Jurassic
Early Jurassic
250-206 m.y. Late Triassic
(44 m.y.)
Triassic Early Triassic
 Division of Era into Periods and Epochs (contd.)
Era Period Time Period Epoch
Permian Late P
Early P

Carboniferous Late C
Middle C
Early C

Devonian 543-250 m.y. Late D

(293 m.y.) Middle D
Palaeozoic Early D
(Age of Ancient Life)
Silurian Late S
Middle S
Early S

Ordovician Late O
Middle O
Early O

Cambrian Late C
Middle C
Early C
 Division of Era into Periods and Epochs (contd.)

Era Period Time Epoch

Period
Edicaran Not Named
Neoproterozoic 1000-543 m.y.
(Age of primitive/earliest Life)
Cryogenian (457 m.y.)

Tonian
Mesoproterozoic Stenian
1600-1000 m.y.
(Age of primitive/earliest Life)
Ectasian (600 m.y.)

Calymmian
 Division of Era into Periods and Epochs (contd.)

Era Period Time Epoch

Period
Stratherian Not Named
Paleoproterozoic 2500-1600 m.y.
(Age of primitive/earliest Life)
Orosirian (900 m.y.)

Rhyacian
Siderian
 Division of Era into Periods and Epochs (contd.)

Era Period Time Epoch

Period
2800-2500 m.y.
Neoarchean (300 m.y.)
(Devoid of Life) Not Named Not Named
3200-2800 m.y.
Mesoarchean (400 m.y.)
(Devoid of Life)
3600-3200 m.y.
Paleoarchean (900 m.y.)
(Devoid of Life)
4600-3600 m.y.
Eoarchean (900 m.y.)
(Devoid of Life)
Lower Limit not known
Layout of The Geological Time Scale

1 3

2 4
The Geological Time Scale

Contd. On next page

The Geological Time Scale (contd.)

Contd. On next page

The Geological Time Scale (contd.)

Contd. On next page

The Geological Time Scale (contd.)

Contd. On next page

Indian Sub-Continent Stratigraphy
Indian Sub-Continent Stratigraphy (contd.)
Indian Sub-Continent Stratigraphy (contd.)

Recent studies - Age of Jaunsar – Tal has been found to be Proterozoic in age
 Summary :
This chapter helps you in understanding :
1. What is meant by Geological Time Scale?
2. What are Eon, Era, Period, Epoch in
Geological Time Scale?
3. What is the International Stratigraphic Chart or
Geological Time Scale?

29
30
Introduction to Paleontology
April-2015

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
Paleontology
 Paleontology is the study of
creatures/organisms (animals and plants)
of earlier times, a word derived from the
Greek words “paleo” meaning old, “onta”
meaning beings, and “logos” meaning
study.

 It studies the remains or evidence of

animals and plants which we call fossils.
 Fossils range in size from huge dinosaur
skeletons to microscopic plant pollen.
What do you think a Paleontologist is?
A paleontologist is a
scientist who studies
paleontology, learning about
the forms of life that existed
in former geologic periods,
chiefly by studying fossils.

Animals
• Invertebrates - Terrestrial & Marine
• Vertebrates – Terrestrial & Marine
Plants (Terrestrial & Marine)
 Paleontology (contd.)

Most of the organisms are destroyed

quickly, by the erosional action of
geological agents like water, wind etc., and
due to it, they do not form fossils or they
do not get preserved as fossils within the
rock.

Study of Microfossils (micro-organism) is called

Micropaleontology
 Paleontology (contd.)

 Animals like jelly fish, insects and different

worms possess no bony skeleton
 These remains, therefore, are not usually
preserved, since the softer parts constituting
their bodies are decomposed quickly under
terrestrial (related to land) or aquatic (water)
conditions.
 For the same reason, the softer leaves, buds
and flowers of plants are not commonly found
to occur as fossils.
 Fossils

Fossil are remains of organisms (animal and

plants) occur in layers of sedimentary rocks.

The organisms that are now fossils were alive

when the rocks were being formed.

 They were buried and preserved in the layers of

rocks.
 Fossils (contd.)
• There are two major types of fossils - body
fossils and trace fossils. Both are the remains
of living organisms.
• Body fossils reveal the body structure of the
organism while trace fossils reveal the
activities of these organisms
 Fossilisation
What are the geologic conditions favourable for
preservation of remains of plants and animals?

i. In order that an organism may become a

fossil it must posses a skeleton of some kind
or other, since the soft parts are rapidly
decomposed. However, under favorable
conditions, the soft parts leaves impressions
of the existence of the organism and such
impressions are also called fossils.

ii. Their remains should be covered quickly by a

thick cover of sediments.
 Mode of Preservation

1. The Whole of the Organism, including its soft

parts, preserved as such
 When the original body of an organism or a
plant gets perfectly buried in a suitable
environment, whole or greater part of it might
get preserved in the rocks.
 Even the most delicate and soft parts are left
unaltered due to entombment of the animals
under a thick cover of ice. e.g. The remains of
Wooly mammoth and rhinoceros, in Northern
Siberia.
 Mode of Preservation (contd.)

2. Hard Parts only preserved

This is most common form of fossils in which the

soft parts disappear as a result of being eaten up
by other animals or due to chemical
decomposition as a result, the hard parts only
get preserved in the rocks.
 Mode of Preservation (contd.)

3. Petrifaction of the hard parts:

 It is the conversion of the remains of plants

and animals into rock.

 In petrifaction, the “internal organic structure”

as well as the “external form of preserved
bodies” remain unaffected.

 Only the bodies lose their original

constituents, which are replaced molecule by
molecule by silica, calcium carbonate, oxides
or sulphides of iron etc.
 Mode of Preservation (contd.)

3. Petrifaction of the hard parts (Contd.) :

 In petrified remains of trunks of trees, the

internal structure of the plants and their outer
appearance remain unchanged, although the
organic constituents are found to have been
replaced by silica.
 Petrification (contd.)

3. Petrifaction of the hard parts (contd.):

 Petrifaction is a very slow process.

 It involves removal of each individual molecule
of the material constituting the hard parts of
animals or plants in solution and, simultaneous
precipitation of an equivalent quantity of the
replacing mineral.
 This molecule by molecule replacement of one
substance by another takes place very slowly
and thus, even the most delicate organic
structures are preserved as such.
Impressions/Imprints - Fossils
Petrified Wood
The Archaeopteryx is the oldest
known fossil bird, now extinct. It dates
from about 150 million years ago during
the late Jurassic period.
 Horse
Fish

Human Jaw
Bone
Dinosaur Eggs
Dinosaur
Tracks
Track
Trail
 Microfossils

1mm = 0.001mm

100mm = 0.1mm
 Mode of Preservation (contd.)

4. Carbonization of the hard parts and,

sometimes, of the soft parts:

During carbonization, the organism is

decomposed and it loses nitrogen, oxygen and
other volatile constituents. As a result, it is
enriched in carbon and is said to have been
carbonized. e.g. Seams of coals.
 Mode of Preservation (contd.)

5. Mold of hard parts :

 In some cases, the hard parts of animals and

plants which are preserved in the sediments,
may be totally removed in solution.
 As a result, “hollows” are left within the rock –
beds and these are known as the moulds.
 Mode of Preservation (contd.)

5. Mold of hard parts (contd.) :

 In porous and permeable rock beds, sub -

surface water charged with mineral acids can
remove, in solution, the shells of organisms,
and, thus, facilitate the formation of moulds.
 Sometimes, these moulds are subsequently
filled up with mineral matter, giving rise to
casts.
Mould Cast
 Mode of Preservation (contd.)

The difference between casts and petrified

remains are:

Casts can at best retain only the external form of

the hard parts

While

Petrified remains essentially preserve their

organic structures as well.
 Mode of Preservation (contd.)

6. Imprints marked upon the rocks:

 Plants & animals, devoid of hard parts, do

sometimes leave a record of their existence in
the form of imprints within the rock - beds.

 Distinct impressions of leaves of plants,

occurring in some of the argillaceous rocks, are
pertinent examples of this mode of
preservation.
 Importance of Fossils

The study of fossil is of interest because,

the remains of organisms, preserved
within the rocks, furnish the scientists
with many useful information.
 Importance of Fossils (contd.)

(1) In the study of evolution & migration of plants

& animals through ages.
• Remains of the most primitive types of life forms
occur in rock beds, which are formed during the
earlier part of the geological history of the earth.
• The rocks belonging to later geological periods,
however, contain the remains of more advanced
forms of plants and animals.
 Importance of Fossils (contd.)

(1) In the study of evolution & migration of plants &

animals through ages (contd.).
• A number of ancient plants and animals, which
occur as fossils within rock beds have ceased to
exist on the surface of the globe or, have become
extinct.
• In their place, plants and animals of new more
advanced types have grown and flourished during
the subsequent periods.
• In course of their gradual development, the animals
have often migrated from place to place on the
surface of the earth.
 Importance of Fossils (contd.)

(1) In the study of evolution & migration of plants

& animals through ages (contd.) .
• The records of their fossil forms, traced from
different parts of their earth’s surface
adequately justify this conclusion e.g. the
primitive horses happened to originate in N.
America and in course of their gradual
evolution, they left their home for ever and
migrated to Central Asia and also to India,
towards the later part of the Tertiary period
(approx. 55 - 60 m. y. ago).
 Importance of Fossils (contd.)

(1) In the study of evolution & migration of plants &

animals through ages (contd.) .

It is thus apparent that the existing ideas about the

evolution and migration of life forms, through ages,
is based from a detailed & systematic study of
fossils.
 Importance of Fossils (contd.)
(2) In establishing the geological age of rock beds
& their correct order of succession, in any area

• From a study of fossils, it is possible to establish

the geological age of the rock – beds occurring
in any region.

• Some of ancient plants & animals existed only

for very short period & during the tenure of their
life, were widely distributed on the surface of the
globe. The remains of such organisms
constitute what are known as index-fossils &
these are very useful in establishing the correct
age of the rock – beds in which they occur.
 Importance of Fossils (contd.)

(2) In establishing the geological age of rock beds

& their correct order of succession, in any area
(contd.)

• remains of trilobites (a kind of invertebrate

animal) occur characteristically in the rock of
Lower- Paleozoic age - Cambrian to Devonian
period ( about 550 - 350 million yrs).
• the remains of ammonites (another kind of
invertebrate animal) are abundant in the rocks of
Triassic period (200 m.y.).
 Importance of Fossils (contd.)

(2) In establishing the geological age of rock beds

& their correct order of succession, in any area
(contd.)

• Amongst the vertebrates, remains of reptiles

occur abundantly in the rock of Jurassic Period
(165 my).
• the remains of mammals are dominated in the
rocks belonging to the Tertiary period (02 – 61
m.y.)
 Importance of Fossils (contd.)

(3) In correlating rock –beds of one area with those

of another

• If the geological age of the individual rock-beds

is determined , their order of succession in any
area can be established correctly.
• The age of the rocks of two different areas can
be established readily on the basis of the fossils
contained in them.
• Fossils are, thus, of great importance in the
correlation of rock-beds occurring in different
localities.
 Importance of Fossils (contd.)

(4) In visualizing the palaeogeography (ancient

geography) of any country
• The plants & animals, which live on “land” can be
differentiated readily from those living in water.
• Similarly, the marine organisms can be
distinguished from those which dwell in fresh water.

• Again, organisms living in shallow water differ from

others occurring at great depths.
 Importance of Fossils (contd.)

(4) In visualizing the palaeogeography (ancient

geography) of any country (contd.)

• It is, thus, apparent that marine, lacustrine,

estuarine, terrestrial or any other type of
sediment can be identified readily from a study
of its fossil content . Occurrence of marine
sediments , within a continent, obviously
suggest that there was a sea, during the geologic
past at the place where such deposits lie at
present.
 Importance of Fossils (contd.)

(4) In visualizing the palaeogeography (ancient

geography) of any country (contd.)

• The nature of distribution of land & sea during

the earlier part of the geological history of the
earth or, in other words the palaeogeography
of any country can, therefore be visualized
with the help of the fossils contained in the
rock-beds. e.g. study of fossils has
established that the region, where the
Himalayan mountains now lie, was occupied by
a shallow sea during the pre-Tertiary period.
 Importance of Fossils (contd.)

(4) In visualizing the palaeogeography (ancient

geography) of any country (contd.)

• On the basis of evidences offered by fossils it

has , further, been concluded that the eastern
coast of the Indian Peninsula had more or less
the same configuration in the past & was
modified only locally during a few periods of
marine transgression
 Summary :
This chapter helps you in understanding :
1. What is Palaeontology?
2. What are Fossils and what is fossilisation?
3. What is the mode of fossilisation?
4. What is the importance of fossils?

43
44
 Introduction to
Micropaleontology
April-2015

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
 Micropaleontology

• Micropaleontology/ Micropaleontology) is the

branch of paleontology that studies
microfossils..

• Microfossils are fossils generally not larger

than 4 millimeters, and commonly smaller than 1
millimeter.

• The study of microfossils requires the use of

microscope including Scanning Electron
Microscope.
 Micropaleontology (contd.)

• Fossils which can be studied with the naked

eye or low-powered magnification, such as a
hand lens, are referred to as macrofossils.

• Obviously, it can be hard to decide whether or

not some organisms should be considered
microfossils, as there is no fixed size boundary.
 What are Microfossils
• Microfossils are the tiny remains of animals,
and plants.
• A fossil group with at least two third of its
population is visible under the microscope is
a microfossil.
• As a discipline it lacks homogeneity, most
are unicellular plants and animals
• Some are multicellular or microscopic parts
of macroscopic forms
• These are calcareous, siliceous, organic-
walled and phosphatic in test composition.
Their morphology as well as genetic
characters are different
 What are Microfossils

• Thus, microfossils, unlike other kinds of

fossils, are not grouped according to their
relationships to one another, but only
because of their generally small size and
methods of study.
• Fossils of bacteria, foraminifera, diatoms,
very small invertebrate shells or skeletons,
pollen, and tiny bones and teeth of large
vertebrates, among others, can be called
microfossils. But it is an unnatural grouping
 What are Microfossils (contd.)

• Microfossils are a common feature of the

geological record, from the Precambrian to the
Holocene.
• They are most common in deposits of marine
environments, but also occur in brackish water,
fresh water and terrestrial sedimentary deposits.
• While every kingdom of life is represented in
the microfossil record, the most abundant forms
are protist skeletons or cysts from the
Chrysophyta, Pyrrhophyta, Sarcodina,
acritarchs and chitinozoans, together with
pollen and spores from the vascular plants.
 What are Microfossils (contd.)
• Some are plankton living in top 200m making
them useful in monitoring sea surface
temperature, e.g. Foraminifera, Diatoms,
Radiolaria, Coccoliths.
• Some are benthic (vagile/sessile) – Foraminifera,
Bryozoa, Ostracoda, Diatoms
• Some have both benthic and planktic phases in
their reproduction
• Spores and pollens derived from land plants, are
strongly climate dependent.
• A small amount of sediment sample can give
rise to thousands of specimens of foraminifera.
 What are Microfossils (contd.)

Micropaleontology can be roughly divided into

four areas of study on the basis of microfossil
composition:

1. Calcareous as in foraminifera,
2. Phosphatic, as in the study of some
vertebrates,
3. Siliceous as in diatoms and radiolaria,
4. Organic, as in the pollen and spores.
 Importance of Microfossils

• Microfossils are extremely useful in age-

dating, correlation and paleoenvironmental
reconstruction - important in the oil, mining,
engineering, and environmental industries.
• Because they usually occur in huge numbers
in all kinds of sedimentary rocks, they are the
most abundant and most easily accessible
fossils.
• Indeed, some very thick rock layers are made
entirely of microfossils.
• The pyramids of Egypt are made of
sedimentary rocks, consisting of the shells of
Foraminifera, a major microfossil group.
Microfossils
Microfossils
Microfossils
 Main Microfossil Groups

Classified on the basis of test composition

A. Calcareous Microfossils
1. Foraminifera (Cambrian to Recent)
2. Calcareous Nannoplanktons (Jurassic to
Recent)
3. Ostracodes (Cambrian to Recent)
4. Pteropods (Late Cretaceous to Recent)
5. Calpionellids (Late Jurassic to Early
Cretaceous)
6. Calcareous Algae (Precambrian to Recent)
7. Bryozoa
 Main Microfossil Groups (contd.)

B. Siliceous Microfossils
8. Radiolaria (Cambrian to Recent)
9. Marine Diatoms (Late Cretaceous to Recent)
10. Silicoflagellates (Late Cretaceous to
Recent) and Ebridians (Tertiary to Recent)
C. Phosphatic Microfossils
11. Conodonts and other phosphatic
microfossils (Cambrian to Triassic)
 Main Microfossil Groups (contd.)

D. Organic-Walled Microfossils
12. Dinoflagellates (Silurian to Recent),
Acritarchs (Precambrian to Recent) and
Tasmanitids (Cambrian to Tertiary)
13. Spores and Pollens in the Marine realm
14. Chitinozoa (Ordovician to Devonian)
 Important Microfossils

Planktic – Fossils of organisms than could

swim
Benthic – Fossils of organisms that dwelled on
the surface of sediments
Vagile – Fixed
Sessile – Able to move
 Foraminifera
• Foraminifera are single-shelled belonging to
Kingdom Protista, Phylum Protozoa, Class
Sarcodina
• The word is from Latin foramen = hole, ferre =
to bear
• They have both benthic and planktic mode of
life
• Ornamentations: ribs, ridges, furrows, spines,
etc.
• Benthic foraminifera: Marshes, Brackish
environments, Carbonate platforms, reefs and
back reefs, Continental shelf, open marine
Planktic foraminifera: Tropical to Polar
 Planktic Foraminifera
(Jurassic to Recent)

Planktic -The
small or
microscopic
organisms that
drift or swim
weakly in a body
of water
 Benthic Foraminifera
(Cambrian to Recent)

Benthic –It is
the community
of organisms
which live on,
in, or near the
seabed
CALCAREOUS NANNOPLANKTONS
• The word is from Greek nano means dwarf
• Unicellular, autotrophic marine
algae/phytoplankton also
known as coccolithophores
• Range from Jurassic to Recent
• Cell secretes a skeleton of minute
calcareous shields forming coccosphere
• Individual elliptical to circular shields or
coccoliths range from ~1-15 microns
• Discoasters also comprise this group
Nanoplanktons
 OSTRACODES
Shrimp like Benthos
ranging in size generally
up to 1mm

• Range from Cambrian to Recent

• Length between 0.15 and 2 mm
• Bivalved (carapace), living in fresh, brackish,
saline and hypersaline waters
• Both benthic (abundant) and planktic (rare)
 Ostracods

Ostracode - a minute aquatic

crustacean of the class Ostracoda
 Geological Distribution
• Ordovician seas witnessed a great expansion
of Ostracodes
• In the Triassic ostracodes constitute one of
the most important elements of the
microfauna
• Many genera persist from Jurassic into early
Cretaceous faunas
• Cenozoic witnessed a different set of
ostracode assemblage
 CALCAREOUS ALGAE
• Important in micropaleontology as
records of ancient life
• Calcium carbonate depositing benthic
red and green algae
• Significant producers of carbonate
sediment
• Algae represent a large and diversified
assemblage of aquatic photosynthetic
plants, varying from a minute plankton
to huge marine benthic plants
 SILICEOUS MICROFOSSILS
Radiolaria
(Cambrian to Recent)

• Exclusively marine, found in all the

oceans
• Planktic living at all depths
• Characteristically open ocean
organisms
 Radiolaria

Radiolaria -a single-celled aquatic animal

which has a spherical amoeba-like body with a
spiny skeleton of silica. Their skeletons can
accumulate as a slimy deposit on the seabed.
 MARINE DIATOMS
Cretaceous to Recent
• Abundant in high latitudes and in low latitude
upwelling zones
• Useful as biostratigraphic marker and
paleoecologic proxy – indicators of water
chemistry, paleosalinity, paleodepth,
paleotemperature, paleonutrient
concentrations and paleocurrents
• Diatoms may be free-floating (planktic) or
attached to some foreign surface (sessile)
• They alongwith coccoliths make up bulk of
marine phytoplankton mass
 Diatoms

Diatoms- a single-celled alga which has a cell

wall of silica. Many kinds are planktonic, and
extensive fossil deposits have been found.
 PHOSPHATIC MICROFOSSILS
Conodonts
(Cambrian to Triassic)

• By far the most important and

biostratigraphically important group of
phosphatic microfossils
• Range in size from 200 microns to 6 mm
• Cambrian to Triassic in age

Importance:
Important as biostratigraphic markers, used in
lower Himalayan biostratigraphy; can be used in
the exploration of phosphatic deposits
 Conodonts
Conodont - a fossil marine animal of the
Cambrian to Triassic periods, having a long
worm-like body, numerous small teeth, and a
pair of eyes. It is now believed to be the
earliest vertebrate.
PHOSPHATIC MICROFOSSILS
Conodonts
 Use of Micropaleontology in Hydrocarbon
Exploration
• The two most common uses are:
• Biostratigraphy and Paleoenvironmental
analyses
• Biostratigraphy is the differentiation of rock
units based upon the fossils which they
contain.
• Paleoenvironmental analysis is the
interpretation of the depositional environment
in which the rock unit formed, based upon the
fossils found within the unit. There are many
other uses of fossils besides these, including
paleoclimatology, biogeography, and thermal
maturation.
 Summary :
This chapter helps you in understanding :
1. What is Micropaleontology?
2. What are different types of Micro Fossils?
3. Importance of Microfossils?

34
35
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Shear Zones

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
Shear Zones
• Shear Zone is a zone composed of rocks that
are more highly strained than the rocks
adjacent to the zone.
• A shear zone is a very important structural
discontinuity surface in the Earth's crust and
upper mantle. It forms as a response to
inhomogeneous deformation partitioning strain
into planar or curviplanar high-strain zones
• High deformations in rocks are often localised
in a narrow, sub-parallel sided zones, and these
have been loosely termed shear zones.
Shear Zones (contd.)

• The deformations in shear zones are

responsible for the development of
characteristic fabrics and mineral assemblages
reflecting the reigning pressure–temperature
(pT) conditions.

Rock Fabric – Textures and Structures

Shear Zones (contd.)

Starting at the Earth's surface, the

following rock types are usually
encountered in a shear zone:
• Uncohesive fault rocks. Examples being fault
gouge, fault breccia, and foliated gouge.
• Cohesive fault rocks like crush breccias and
cataclasites (Mylonites, Phyllonites, Stripped
Gneiss etc.)
• Glassy pseudotachylites.
Types of Shear Zones

There are three type of Shear Zones :

1. Faults as Brittle Shear Zones
2. Brittle Ductile Shear Zones
3. Ductile Shear Zones
Types of Shear Zones (contd.)
1. Faults as Brittle Shear Zones – The sides of
Shear Zone are almost unstrained or are
perhaps brecciated – Brittle Failure
2. Brittle Ductile Shear Zones – The walls show
some permanent strains for distances of up to
10m on either side of the Fault Break.
3. Ductile Shear Zone - The deformation and the
differential displacement of the wall is mainly
by ductile flow and at the scale of rock
outcrop no discontinuities ca be seen. Ductile
Shear Zones are very common in deformed
granite, gneisses etc. Which have been
deformed under high pressure metamorphism.
Shear Zones
Sheared Rocks
 Rotation of Garnet Porphyroblast

Sheared Rock
Important Himalayan Shear Zones

• The Himalayan Frontal Thrust - HFT

• The Main Boundary Thrust – MBT
• The Main Central Crystalline Thrust – MCT
• The Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone - ITSZ

Normally a Thrust is a low angle Reverse Fault –

Older Rock override younger rocks and in
Himalaya it is believed such translation has
moved rocks for tens to hundreds of km away
from the root zones.
Important Himalayan Shear Zones (contd.)

1.The Himalayan Frontal Thrust – HFT :

• The Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) also known
as Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF) is a regional,
north dipping southernmost and youngest
major structural discontinuity, parallel to the
Himalayan ranges that separates the outermost
Siwalik sub-Himalayas from the Indo- Gangetic
plains.
Important Himalayan Shear Zones (contd.)

2.The Main Boundary Thrust – MBT

• The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) also known
as Main Boundary Fault (MBF) is defined as
the north dipping thrust that places Pre-
Tertiary metasedimentary rocks of the lesser
Himalaya over Cainozoic unmetamorphosed
(sedimentary) clastic rocks of the Himalayan
foredeep - The Siwalik Foothill Belt rocks.
Important Himalayan Shear Zones (contd.)

3.The Main Central Crystalline Thrust - MCT

• The Main Central Crystalline Thrust marks the
boundary between the higher and lesser
Himalayan mountains. The MCT is a north
dipping ductile shear zone along which the
High-grade Great Himalayan Crystalline
complex moved above the low-grade to
unmetamorphosed Lesser Himalayan
Sequence.
Important Himalayan Shear Zones (contd.)

4.The Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone - MCT

The Indus - Tsangpo Suture Zone or Indus-
Yarlung Tsangpo Suture one is a tectonic suture
in southern Tibet and across the north margin of
the Himalayas which resulted from the collision
between the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate
starting about 52 Ma. It separates Indian Plate
from Eurasian Plate and marks the zone of
collision of these two Plates.
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1. What are Shear Zones?
2. How Shear Zones are formed?
3. What are the important Himalayan Shear Zones?

15
 Division of
Himalaya

Main
Himalayan
Thrusts
17
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Salt Domes

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
What is a Salt Dome?
• A Salt Dome is a Diapiric Structure where an
underlying sedimentary rock bed consisting
of evaporite minerals (halite, gypsum,
anhydrite etc.) injects upwards or pierce
through the overlying sedimentary rocks.
• The words “Diapir”, “Diapirisim” and
“Diapiric” are derived from Greek Words
meaning “ to pierce”.
• A dome-shaped structure in sedimentary
rocks, formed where a large mass of salt has
been forced upwards. Such structures often
form traps for oil or natural gas.
What is a Salt Dome (contd.)?
• A salt dome is a type of structural dome
formed when a thick bed of evaporite
minerals (mainly salt, or halite) found at
depth intrudes vertically into surrounding.
• A salt dome is a mound or column of salt that
has risen toward the surface because it has a
density that is lower than the rock above it.
The salt behaves like a stream of high-
viscosity oil ascending in slow motion
through a thick layer of water above.
• Salt domes can occur in sedimentary basins
where thick salt deposits have been buried
by at least 150m. of other types of sediment.
Evaporite
• Evaporite, any of a variety of individual minerals
found in the sedimentary deposit of soluble salts
that results from the evaporation of water.
• Evaporites are sediments chemically precipitated
due to evaporation of an aqueous solution.
Common evaporates can be dominated by halite
(salt), anhydrite and gypsum. Evaporites may be
marine or non-marine .
• Evaporites are layered crystalline sedimentary
rocks that form from brines generated in areas
where the amount of water lost by evaporation
exceeds the total amount of water from rainfall
and influx via rivers and streams.
What is a Salt Dome (contd.)?
• The formation of a salt dome begins with the
deposition of salt in a restricted marine basin.
Because the flow of salt-rich seawater into the
basin is not balanced by outflow, much to all
water lost from the basin is via evaporation,
resulting in the precipitation and deposition of
salt evaporites.
• One of the world's largest salt dome regions is
the Gulf of Mexico. Over 500 salt domes have
been discovered onshore and under the Gulf of
Mexico seafloor.
What is a Salt Dome (contd.)?
• The rate of sedimentation of salt is significantly
larger than the rate of sedimentation of clastics,
but it is recognised that a single evaporation
event is rarely enough to produce the vast
quantities of salt needed to form a layer thick
enough for salt diapirs to be formed.
• At the present day, evaporite deposits can be
seen accumulating in basins that merely have
restricted access but do not completely dry out;
they provide an analogue to some deposits
recognised in the geologic record, such as the
Garabogazköl basin in Turkmenistan.
Salt Domes
Salt Domes
Salt Domes Occurrences

• Major occurrences of salt domes are found

along the Gulf Coast of the USA in Texas and
another example of an emergent salt dome is
at Onion Creek, Utah / Fisher Towers near
Moab, Utah, U.S.
• One of the most spectacular examples of
anticlinal fold structures in the world, these
folds lie on the shores of the Persian Gulf, on
the north shore of the Strait of Hormuz, near
the important city of Bandar Abbas.
Formation of Salt Domes
Rock salt (the mineral halite) has two properties
that enable it to form salt domes:
1) when salt is buried to depths greater than a few
hundred m., it will have a density that is much
lower than most other sedimentary rocks; and,
2) 2) salt has the ability to deform and flow like a
high-viscosity fluid when it is under pressure.
3) When a layer of salt is deposited on the floor of an
evaporating body of water, it has a specific gravity
of about 2.2. Other sedimentary rocks such as
shale and limestone have lower specific gravities
when they are deposited because the mud that they
form from contains a significant amount of water.
Formation of Salt Domes (contd.)
• As the depth of burial increases, the specific
gravity of salt remains about the same, but the
specific gravity of shale and limestone
increases as the water is squeezed from their
pore spaces.
• Eventually they might have a specific gravity of
2.4 to 2.7, which is significantly higher than the
salt. That creates an unstable situation where a
lower specific gravity material that is capable of
behaving like a fluid is overlain by materials
with a higher specific gravity.
Formation of Salt Domes (contd.)

• Salt movement can be triggered if the rock

sequence is subjected to tectonic forces.
Compression will produce folding, and salt
domes might erupt through the crests of
anticlines.
• Extension will produce thinning and normal
faulting, which might create weaknesses that
the salt will exploit. Shear can produce faults or
weaknesses that might be exploited by the
unstable salt.
Importantance of Salt Domes

• Salt Domes are source of Salt, Sulphur,

Potash, Gypsum, Anhydride etc.
• Salt Domes provide Traps for migrating oil
as a result Salt Domes are invariably
associated with Oil and Gas pools
• Salt Domes provide space to construct
large cavers to hold and keep safely
nuclear waste materials etc.
 Summary :

This chapter helps you in understanding :

1. What are Salt Domes ?
2. What is the Mechanism of forming of Salt Domes?
3. What is the importance of Salt Domes?

14
15
Introduction to Plate Tectonics
March-2015

n.k.agarwal
ex-Director, GSI
Visiting Professor, UPES
• The theory of “Plate Tectonics” was
developed by Geoscientists during
early 1960s.
• It is a most revolutionary concept in
the history of GEOLOGY.
• The word “tectonics” comes from the
Greek word meaning “builder”.
• The plate Tectonics theory states that
the outer solid lithosphere is made up
of several plates.
 Dynamic Earth
• The Theory of Plate Tectonics is a "great
unifying theory" in geology.
• Plate tectonics explains the
interrelatedness of many large scale
patterns in the Earth's geological record.
• It has revolutionized the understanding of
geology.
 Continental Drift:
An Idea Before its Time
Alfred Wegener (1880-1930)
• Alfred Wegener
– First proposed his
Continental Drift
Hypothesis in 1915.
– Published The Origin
of Continents and
Oceans
Scientific Method Exercise
• Continental Drift Hypothesis:
– The continents move or "drift" relative to one
another.
– Supercontinent called Pangaea began
breaking apart about 200 million years ago
 The diagrams
show the break-up
of the
supercontinent
Pangaea (meaning
“All Lands" in
Greek), which
figured
prominently in the
theory of
continental drift --
the forerunner to
the theory of plate
tectonics.
 Continental Drift:
Evidence
• Evidence used in support of Continental Drift
Hypothesis:
• Fit of the continents
• Fossil evidence
• Rock type and geologic structural similarities
• Paleoclimatic evidence
• Apparent Wandering of the Earth's Polar
Regions
• Geodetic evidence that Greenland was moving
away from Europe at a measurable rate
Fit of the Continental Shelves
 Fit of the
Continental
Shelves
The fit was made along
the continental slope
(green) along the contour
line for a depth of 500
fathoms (3,000 feet).
Overlaps and gaps
(orange) probably result
from deformation and
sedimentation after
rifting.
Continental Shelf, Slope, and Rise
and Abyssal Plain
 Similar
Rock
Types and
Geologic
Structures
Good correlation of the
Appalachian Mountains
rocks and structures
with mountains of
similar age and
structure in eastern
Greenland, the British
Isles, and Norway.

These Folded mountain

belts formed ~300 mya
as these landmasses
collided during the
formation of the super-
continent of Pangaea.

Animations\MountainRanges.mo
 Rock Types and
Geological Structures
• Good correlation of a
line (unconformity)
separating 550 million
year old rocks from 2
billion year old rocks in
northwestern Africa
with a similar line in
eastern Brazil.
 Similar Rock
Sequences
Rock sequences in South America,
Africa, India, Antarctica, and
Australia show remarkable
similarities. Wegener showed that
the same three layers occur at each
of these localities. The bottom
(oldest) layer is called glacial tillite
and is thought to be a glacial
deposit. The middle layer is
composed of sandstone, shale, and
coal beds. Glossopteris fossils are in
the bottom and middle layers. The
top (youngest) layer is lava flows.
The same three layers are in the
same order in areas now separated
by great distances. Wegener
proposed that the rock layers were
made when all the continents were
http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/part4.html part of Pangaea. Thus, they formed
in a smaller contiguous area that was
later broken and drifted apart..
 Fossil Evidence
• Identical fossils on widely
separated landmasses:
– Mesosaurus – snaggle-toothed reptile
– Glossopteris – tropical fern

Fossils of Mesosaurs, small freshwater reptiles, are found in

Early Permian strata in a limited area along the Brazilian and
West African coasts and nowhere else in the world.
Fossil remains of this and other organisms on the African and
South American continents appear to link these landmasses
during the Late Paleozoic through Early Mesozoic. STOP
 Fossil
Evidence
Fossils of the same species were
found on several different
continents. Wegener proposed
that the species dispersed when
the continents were connected
and later carried to their present
positions as the continents drifted.
For example, Glossopteris, a fern,
was found on the continents of
South America, Africa, India, and
Australia. If the continents are
reassembled into Pangaea, the
distribution of Glossopteris can be
accounted for over a much smaller
contiguous geographic area. The
distribution of other species can
also be accounted for by initially
spreading across Pangaea,
http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/part3.html
followed by the breakup of the
supercontinent, and movement of
Animations\FossilEvidence-Pangaea.mov the continents to their present
positions.
 Gondwana Rock and Fossil Correlations

Pangea Break-Up

Volcanism, including basaltic lava flows near the top of each section, reflect
the opening of fissures as Gondwana began to break apart.
Paleoclimatic Evidence

• How can rocks indicate

paleoclimate?

• Examples?
 Paleoclimatic
Evidence
Near the end of
the Paleozoic Era
(~300 mya) ice
sheets covered
extensive areas
of the Southern
Hemisphere and
India.
Many of the
glacial deposits
now lie in sub-
Arrows show
tropical areas
directions of within 30° of the
glacial movement
as inferred from equator.
glacial scouring
grooves in
bedrock. Animations\AncientClimates.mov
Paleoclimatic Evidence

Glacial striations
on quartzite
bedrock.

These striations
were scratched
into Proterozoic
quartzite in
Australia during
the Permian
Period (250-295
mya).

STOP
 Paleoclimatic
Evidence
• Glaciation in South America, Africa,
India, and Australia is best explained if
these continents were once connected.
Glaciers covered all or part of each of
these continents during the same time
period in the geologic past.
• If the continents were in their present
position, a major glaciation event that
covered nearly all of the continents
and extended north of the equator
would be required. Geologists have
found no evidence of glacial action in
the northern hemisphere during this
time period. In fact, during this time
period, the climate in North America
was warm.
• Wegener proposed that the
continents were adjacent to each other
during the glacial event. Therefore,
glaciers spread over a much smaller
area in the southern hemisphere and
probably did not influence the climate
http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/part5.html
of the northern hemisphere.
 Paleoclimatic Evidence
• Rocks deposited in warm
arid environments often
include evaporite deposits
(formed when a body of
water containing salts
evaporates).
• It would be difficult to
explain the presence of the
great Permian evaportite
deposits in northern
Europe, the Urals, and
southwestern U.S., if the
continents have always
remained stationary.
 Paleoclimatic Evidence
• Large Paleozoic
swamps (coal fields)
in eastern U.S.,
Europe, and Siberia
with fossil plants
indicative of a
tropical setting.

• Blue Triangles = Glacial Tillites

• Red Circles = Coal Deposits
– Humid climates during
interglacial periods, possibly
associated with glacial
meltwaters
• Irregular Green Areas =
Evaporites
 Fossil and
Paleoclimatic
Evidence
• Fossils are also paleoclimatic indicators:
• (A) Permian-aged fossil leaf in coal from
Antarctica.
• (B) Reconstruction of a Permian-aged
tropical tree.
• Tropical trees typically lack annual rings that
result from seasonal variations in growth.
• Tropical climates are required for the growth
of these trees and the formation of coal
deposits containing their fossils.

Animations\TropicalSwamps.mov http://www.scotese.com/climate.htm
 Paleoclimatic
Evidence
Wegener used the distribution
of specific rock types to
determine the distribution of
climate zones in the geologic
past. For example, glacial till
and striations (scratches on
the rock), sand dunes, and
coral reefs, indicate polar,
desert, and tropical climates,
respectively. The present
climate zones are shown in the
above figure. Note how the
distribution of reefs, deserts,
and glacial ice constrain the
position of the rotational pole
http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/part5.html of earth.
 Paleoclimatic
Evidence
Using the distribution of rock
types, Wegener reconstructed the
distribution of climates zones at
specific times in the geologic past.
He found that, unlike the present
distribution, in which zones
parallel the equator, the past zones
occupied very different positions.
This implies that the rotational
pole was in very different locations
relative to today. Wegener
proposed an alternative
interpretation. He believed that the
climate zones remained stationary
and the continents drifted to
different locations. The drift of the
continents caused the apparent
http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/part5.html
movement of the climate zones.
 Paleoclimatic
Evidence
Wegener used the distribution of
climate zones to determine the
location of the poles at different
times in the geologic past. He
found that the rotational pole
appears to gradually change
location, arriving at its present
position only in the very recent
geologic past. The apparent
movement in the pole position
over time is called polar
wandering. Wegener offered an
alternative explanation. He
suggested that the poles
remained stationary and that the
continents changed their
positions relative to the poles.
http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/part5.html
 The Great Debate
• Objections to the
Continental Drift
Hypothesis:
– Lack of a mechanism for moving
continents.

• Wegener incorrectly
suggested that continents
broke through the ocean
crust, much like ice
breakers cut through ice.
• Strong opposition to the
hypothesis from all areas of
the scientific community.
 Wegener’s proposal that continents
broke through the ocean crust

The greatest shortcoming, at least in the eyes of American geologists, was

the lack of an adequate mechanism for moving the continents. Wegener
proposed that the Earth's spin caused the continents to move, plowing
through the oceanic plate and producing mountains on their leading edges.
Geologists at that time understood enough about the strength of rocks to
know that this was highly unlikely.
http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/part6.html
 Wegener’s proposal that continents
broke through the ocean crust

• Wegener's model was not accepted by all geologists.

• Some thought that dispersion by winds or ocean currents could explain
the distribution of fossil species.
• Other geologists thought the poles might wander and continents remain
stationary.
• Many geologists thought Wegener's evidence was insufficient.
http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/part6.html
 The Great Debate
• Continental Drift and the
Scientific Method
– Wegener’s hypothesis was
correct in principle, but
contained incorrect details.
– The hypothesis was all but
abandoned by the 1930’s
for the predominant
“Shrinking Earth” Theory
of the time.
 Arthur Holmes’ hypothesized in 1930
that the mantle underwent convection

• However, a few scientists considered Wegener’s ideas plausible and

continued the search, most notably, Alexander du Toit and Arthur
Holmes.
• Would not be until later that this hypothesis would be proven
correct.

http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/part6.html
 Continental Drift and
Paleomagnetism
• Very little new information was shed on
continental drift from 1930 until the early 1950s.
• In the mid-1950s, renewed interest in continental
drift initially came from rock magnetism.
• Magnetized minerals in rocks…
• Show the direction to Earth’s magnetic poles.
• Provide a means of determining the direction and
distance from the poles, and latitude of origin of the
rocks during formation/magnetization.

Fossil Magnetism or Paleomagnetism

 The Core Generates the
Earth’s Magnetic Field
• The requirements for the core to produce Earth’s
magnetic field are met in that it is
• made of material that conducts electricity and it is mobile.
 How Rocks Become
Magnetized
• Igneous rocks contain magnetic minerals, like
magnetite.
• These magnetic mineral grains in rock align
with the earth's magnetic field (as if they
were tiny compass needles floating freely in a
liquid) and become magnetized in that
direction when they cool below the Curie
Point (about 580°C).
• The magnetism remains "frozen in".
 How Rocks
Become
Magnetized in the
Direction of the
Earth’s Magnetic
North Pole
Continental Drift and Paleomagnetism
• Magnetized grains record both the magnetic declination and the
inclination at the time the rock cooled through the Curie Point.
• Inclination = the angle of the magnetic field with respect to the
horizontal (or the dip of the magnetic field).
– Inclination = 90o at North magnetic pole
– Inclination = 0o at the equator
Continental Drift and Paleomagnetism
• The closer the igneous body containing the magnetic
minerals is located to the poles, the higher the magnetic
inclination.
• Therefore, the magnetic inclination is used to determine
the latitude at which an igneous body containing the
magnetic minerals cooled and solidified.
• Thus, if either the pole or the rock moved between the time
the rock formed and the present, the magnetic field locked
in the rock would not be appropriate for the rock's current
location.
Earth’s Magnetic and Geographic Poles
• Magnetized grains record both the magnetic declination
and the inclination at the time the rock cooled through the
Curie Point.
• Declination = the angle between where a compass needle
points (magnetic north) and the true geographic north pole
(axis of the Earth).
 You may have
noticed a
Difference
Between Earth’s
Magnetic and
Geographic Poles
on a Map
Earth’s Magnetic and Geographic Poles
In addition, the Earth’s Magnetic Field
Varies Through Time
Continental Drift and Paleomagnetism
• Paleomagnetism
• The study of ancient magnetic field
directions by studying the magnetism
frozen into rocks of different ages.
• Polar Wandering
• The apparent movement of the magnetic
poles illustrated in magnetized rocks.
• Indicates that the continents have moved.
 Polar-Wandering Paths for Eurasia and
North America
• Polar Wandering:
– A study of rocks in both Europe
and North America indicated
that during the past 500 million
years, the position of the North
Pole had gradually wandered
from points in the Pacific to its
present position (termed "polar
wandering").
– But what was even more
surprising was that the two
polar wander paths diverged
more and more the further back
in time they went.
 Polar-Wandering Paths for Eurasia and North America
• Paths for North America and Europe have similar shapes but are
separated by about 30 of longitude.
– Differences between the paths can be reconciled if the continents are
placed next to one another.
– When Europe and North America were reconstructed according to Wegener's
earlier model, the two paths coincided during the period from ~400 to 160
mya.
– North America and Europe were joined together and moved relative to
the poles as part of the same continent.

Animations\MagneticPoleDri
ft.mov
Animations\MagneticPoleDrift2
 A Scientific Revolution Begins
• Following World War II, during the 1950s and
1960s technological advances permitted
extensive mapping of the ocean floor:
o Echo Sounder -- bathymetric mapping (mid-
ocean ridges)
o Magnetometer -- mapping the magnetization of
the sea floor
o Deep Sea Sampling -- mapping the age of the
sea floor (found to be less than 180 million years
old)
 Continuously Recorded Profiles Along the
Edge of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

A new picture of the little-known ocean floor began to emerge that included
great chasms, flat-topped submerged mountains, boundless abyssal plains,
and globe-spanning volcanic ranges that appeared on the new maps
begged explanation.
Mid-Oceanic Ridge, Deep-Sea Trenches,
and other Features of the Ocean Floors
 These New Features Begged
Explanation
o How did the volcanic mid-oceanic ridges
originate?
o How did the deep-sea trenches originate?
o Why were both so prone to earthquake
activity?
o How did the submerged mountains originate?
o Why was the Mid-Atlantic Ridge so nicely
centered and parallel to the coastlines of the
continents on either side?
 Sea Floor Spreading –
A New Hypothesis
• Seafloor Spreading
Hypothesis was
proposed by Harry
Hess in the early
1960s.
• Central Idea:
Convective flow in the
mantle caused the
Earth’s outer shell to
move.
– Building on Arthur
Holmes’ idea (1930’s) –
Convection currents in the
mantle are the
mechanism by which the
continents move.
 Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis
• Proposed
that oceanic
ridges are
located
above zones
of
convective
upwelling in
• the
Themantle.
rising magma cools at the surface and is carried away laterally in
both directions from the ridge crest in "conveyor belt" fashion.
• Tensional forces fracture or rift the crust at the ridge crest providing
pathways for magma to intrude and generate new slivers of oceanic
crust.
• Descending limbs of convection cells are located in the vicinity of
deep-ocean trenches.
• Older seafloor consumed/recycled as it descends into the mantle.
 Geomagnetic Reversals –
The Other Piece of the Puzzle
• Normal Polarity
(today) versus
Reversed Polarity
(present-day north
magnetic pole
becomes the south
magnetic pole).

• Rock magnetic measurements on lavas of various

different ages on the continents indicated that the
earth's magnetic field periodically reversed polarity
(geomagnetic reversal).
 Geomagnetic Reversals –
The Other Piece of the Puzzle
• Dates when the
polarity of Earth’s
magnetism
changed were
determined from
lava flows at
various localities
and used to
establish a
magnetic
polarity time
scale.
 Geomagnetic Reversals –
The Other Piece of the Puzzle
• At the same time, magnetometers were being towed over the world's
oceans to map the magnetism of the sea floor.
• Geomagnetic reversals are recorded in the ocean crust.
– It was discovered that
there were alternating
bands (stripes) of
high-and low-intensity
magnetism parallel to
the ridge crests.
– It was also discovered
that the patterns of
stripes were mirror
images of one another
on either side of the
ridge.
The ocean floor as a magnetic tape recorder
The high-intensity stripes were
correlated with regions where the
magnetism of the ocean crust was
normal, and the low-intensity
stripes where the magnetism was
reversed.
 Geomagnetic Reversals and
Paleomagnetism
• These observations confirmed the formation
of crust at mid-ocean ridges and the
spreading away in either direction.
• Furthermore, from the polarity time scale,
rates of spreading could be determined (on
the order of a few centimeters per year).
 Geomagnetic Reversals and
Paleomagnetism
• In 1963 Vine and Matthews tied the
discovery of magnetic stripes in the
ocean crust near ridges to Hess’s
concept of seafloor spreading.
• Paleomagnetism was the most
convincing evidence set forth to
support the concepts of continental
drift and seafloor spreading.
 A Scientific Revolution Begins
• In 1965, J. Tuzo Wilson provided the missing
pieces needed to formulate the Theory of
Plate Tectonics
– Proposed that large faults connected the global
mobile belts into a continuous network dividing
the Earth’s outer shell into rigid plates.
– Described three types of plate margins and how
these solid blocks of Earth’s outer shell moved
relative to one another.
Plate Tectonics: The New Paradigm
• The Theory of Plate Tectonics
• Theory, called plate tectonics, has now
emerged that provides geologists with
the first comprehensive model of Earth’s
internal workings.
• It is a unifying theory showing how a
large number of diverse, seemingly-
unrelated geologic facts are interrelated.
• A revolution in the Earth Sciences
 Plate Tectonics:
The New Paradigm

Video Clip
Basic Concepts
1. The hypothesis has been transformed from a highly
controversial idea into a theory which is widely
accepted by Geoscientists.
2. Though there is now overwhelming evidence of
large horizontal movements of entire continents,
neither Wegner’s Continental Hypothesis (1912) nor
its important variant the “Sea Floor Spreading”
(1960) proved it entirely successfully. In the late
1960s a new concept known as Plate Tectonics
emerged that postulates that the outer 150-200 km of
the earth consists of a number of rigid plates in
relative motion and this relative motion between the
plates produces earthquakes.
3. Therefore the locations of these earthquakes can be
used to demarcate the boundaries of the plates.
Basic Concepts (contd.)

4. Jack Oliver of Columbia University in 1971 gave a

simple three layer model of Plate Tectonics of earth
based on seismological evidences:
i. The 1st or the outermost layer is called
Lithosphere, a layer of strength ~150-200km thick
hence including the crust and the upper part of the
Mantle.
ii. The 2nd layer is called Asthenosphere, a layer of no
effective strength and several km in thickness
iii. The 3rd layer is called the Mesosphere, extending
from the base of Asthenosphere to near the core,
probably of significant strength.
Basic Concepts (contd.)

5. There are three types of boundaries :

i. Divergent boundaries forming Mid-oceanic ridges,
sites where new crust is formed.
ii. Convergent boundaries forming Sub-duction zones,
sites where deep trenches are located.
iii. Transform Fault Boundaries along which one pltae
movers past the other and these transform faults
offset the alignments of Mid-oceanic ridges.
6. Only shallow earthquake occur at Divergent
boundaries or Mid-oceanic ridges as well as at the
Transform faults and the seismic activity is in general
moderate. The largest shocks and regions of most
activity occur at the zones of convergence/subduction.
Basic Assumptions in the Plate Tectonics Model

The earth is essentially in steady state both as to the

density and to surface area. It means the volume of
earth has not changed by the creation of new crust
at the Mid-Oceanic Ridges.
The crust is subjected to movements
which is proved by:
• Frequent E.Qs.
• Volcanism,
• Folding,
• Faulting
• Elevation and depression of coastal areas.
Interior of the Earth
The studies have shown that the lithosphere
(the crust of the earth together with the upper
portion of the mantle) down to a depth of 150 –
200 km is divided into different plates or blocks
by faults which are called “Lithospheric
Plates”.

The high temperature and pressure below the

crust produces melting which allows the plates
to move.
Theory of Plate Tectonics explains following :

a. continents drifting majestically from place to

place breaking apart, colliding, and grinding
against each other.
c. terrestrial mountain ranges rising up like
rumples in rugs being pushed together.
d. oceans opening and closing and undersea
mountain chains girdling the planet.
e. violent earthquakes and fiery volcanoes.
Salient Features of Plate Tectonics:

1. It is assumed that the earth is composed of

20 lithospheric plates.
2. The plates may contain continental as well
as oceanic surfaces.
3. The plates are supported from below on a
hot – plastic flexible part of upper mantle
zone, called “Asthenosphere”
Salient Features of Plate Tectonics (contd.):

4. The plates are supported from below on a

hot – plastic flexible part (top of the liquid
mantle) of upper mantle zone, called
“Asthenosphere” on which these plates are
capable of shifting or drifting w.r.t. each
other especially along and at the plate
boundaries.
Salient Features of Plate Tectonics (contd.):

5. The plates are in continuous motion w.r.t.

each other.
6. All seismic, volcanic and tectonic activities
are locallized around plate margins .
7. The plates move with a velocity ranging from
1 to 6 cm. per year.
Important Twelve major lithospheric plates
1. The Pacific Plate
2. The North American Plate
3. The South American Plate
4. The African Plate
5. The Antarctic Plate
6. The Indian (Australian) Plate
7. The European Plate
8. The Arabian Plate
9. The Nazca Plate
10. The Caribbean Plate
11. The Scotia Plate
12. The Phillipine Plate
The Earth’s surface is covered by about 20
lithospheric plates

USGS
 The Great Lithospheric Plates

Out of 12, the, six – called the Great Plates are of

enormous extent. These are:

1. The Pacific Plate

2. The American Plate
3. The Eurasian Plate
4. The African Plate
5. The Australo – Indian Plate
6. The Antarctica Plate
• The Pacific plate is the largest and consists of
mostly oceanic floor.
• The thickness of these plates ranges from 80 to
100 km for oceanic lithosphere and to about 100
to 400 km. for continental lithosphere.
• As the plates move, the distance between places
on the same plate, for e.g. New York and
Chicago remains the same while the distance
between New York and London, which are
located on different plates, changes.
 Plate Boundaries

Three principal type of plate boundaries are:

1. The Diverging Boundaries
2. The Converging Boundaries
3. The Transform Boundaries
 A B C
Divergent Convergent Transform

• plates are moving apart • plates move towards

each other, causing
• leaves a gap between one plate to go
them which gets filled under the other or • plates slide past each
up with molten rock causing plates to other scrapping and
which oozes from collide forming deforming as they pass.
below the crust mountains. • crust is not created or
• Ocean ridge is formed destroyed
where new material • crust is returning to
pushes up widening the mantle
the ocean floor
 Movements pf Plates
1. The Diverging Boundaries: These are places
/ narrow zones where two adjoining plates are
in the process of “pulling away from each
other”. e.g. North American Plate versus
Eurasian Plate.
2. The North American Plate is drifting away in
a westward direction w.r.t. Eurasian plate
which is moving in an easterly direction.
3. It is believed that this divergent movement
started some 200 million years ago .
Divergent Boundaries

• Boundary between two plates that are moving

apart or rifting


• RIFTING causes SEAFLOOR SPREADING
Divergent Boundaries (contd.)

• This diverging plate movement @ 2.5cm / year

has resulted pouring out of huge volume of
molten material from, below forming Mid
Atlantic Ridge (encircling the globe from
Atlantic ocean to South Africa,
adding/expanding the sea floor
• This type of process is also known as “Sea
Floor Spreading”.
Divergent Boundaries (contd.)

Iceland is an island located on the Mid Atlantic

Ridge can be taken as a natural laboratory of
recording movements due to Divergent Plate
Movements during last fifty years.
Many cracks have been recorded appearing and
other widening around KRAFLA VOLCANO in
northern Iceland e.g. The displacements of about
7m during the period of 1975 – 1984 in this region.
 Features of Divergent Boundaries

• Mid-ocean ridges
• Rift valleys
• Fissure volcanoes
Many cracks have been recorded which are
widening around KRAFLA VOLCANO in northern
Iceland.
The displacements of about 7m during the period
of 1975 – 1984 in this region.
 Convergent Boundaries
• Boundaries between two plates that are colliding in
which two adjoining plates come close to each
other from opposite directions and COLLIDE.
e.g. South American Plate and the Nazca Plate
There are 3 types…
 Type 1
• Ocean plate of denser material colliding with a less
dense continental plate made up of lighter rocks .

• When an oceanic plate is pushed on to a continental

plate, the oceanic plate being heavier & denser, the
oceanic plate subducts under the continental plate
(Subduction Zone)

• VOLCANOES occur at subduction zones

 Type 1 (contd.)
Subduction involves destruction of the crust .
• It results into long, narrow & deep trenches along the
subducting boundaries.
• e.g. The Peru – Chile Trench developed off the South
American coast line.
• The over – riding continental plate is naturally lifted
up at the boundaries and results in mountain ranges.
• The South American continental plate supporting the
high range of Andes mountains is the example. So is
the case of Himalaya.
Andes Mountains, South America
 Type 2
• Ocean plate colliding with another ocean plate
• The denser plate slides under the less dense plate
creating a subduction zone creating deeper TRENCH.
• e.g. The Challenger Deep, the deepest trench (11,000
meters). It is located at the southern subduction end
of the Mariana Trench caused by the convergence of
Pacific Plate.
• In this type, the western edge of one plate, the Pacific
Plate, is subducted (i.e., is drawn under and
downward) beneath the smaller Mariana Plate.
Oceanic-Oceanic Plate Convergence
Oceanic-Oceanic Plate Convergence
 Type 3

• Continental plate collides with Continental plate.

• Such colliding often results in buckling (folding) ,
fracturing (jointing) and displacement ( faulting) at
different locations depending on rocks
• e.g. The Himalayas is considered to be originated due
to collision of two continental plates – the Indian plate
and the Eurasian plate.
 Type 3 (contd.)
• A continental plate colliding with another
continental plate
• Have Collision Zones:
i. a place where folded and thrust faulted
mountains form.
ii. The process of formation of Himalayas is
believed to have started more than 50 million
years ago with the Eurasian plate advancing
southward towards the Indian plate that was itself
drifting northwards.
iii. The process of the formation of Himalayas is
still continuing at present.
Continental-Continental Plate Convergence
Continental-Continental Plate Convergence
 Transform Fault Boundaries

• Boundary between two plates that are sliding past

each other. There is neither subduction nor is any
collision. E.g. San Andreas Fault
• EARTHQUAKES along faults
• The adjoining plates just slide ahead in their own
directions along the boundary regions in a
horizontal direction.
• They are called transform boundaries or simply
transform faults (strike slip faults).
 Transform Fault Boundaries (contd.)

• The San Andreas fault zone ( 1300 km long and at

places 10 km wide) of California is considered as
transform fault formed due to the relative
movement of Pacific Plate and North American
Plate.
• These plates are moving for 10 million years at an
average rate of about 5cm/year.
Transform Faults
Transform boundary

When the
lithospheric
plates slide past
each other, the
plates neither
lose or gain
surface areas,
there results a
transcurrent or
transform faults.
San Andreas Fault, California
Causes of Plate Tectonics
 What Drives Plate Tectonics?
• Researchers agree that convective
flow in the mantle is the basic driving
force of plate tectonics.
• Convective flow occurs via huge
thermal convection cells that move
very slowly, taking millions of years to
complete a cycle.
• Convection cells transfer heat in a
circular pattern. Hot material rises;
cool material sinks.
• Convective flow in the mantle is
driven by the Earth’s “internal heat
engine.”
 Earth’s Internal Heat Engine
• Major processes that have contributed to
Earth’s internal heat:
1. Heat remaining from the formation of the
planet (high-velocity impact from colliding
nebular debris).
2. Heat released as iron crystallized to form the
solid inner core.
3. Heat continuously generated by radioactive
decay of isotopes of uranium (U), thorium
(Th), and potassium (K) powers the internal
processes that produce volcanoes,
earthquakes, and mountains.
 Convection Currents

• Hot magma in the Earth moves toward the

surface, cools, then sinks again.
• Creates convection currents beneath the
plates that cause the plates to move. Hot in
the center
• less dense magma rises up due to heat.
• When the magma reaches the surface, it
cools and sinks back down creating a
circular pattern of movement. This process
happens continually.
Convection Currents (contd.)
Pea-Soup Analogy
 Mantle Convection

Heat transfer from the core to the

mantle produces slow convection
of the mantle material

(in the order of centimetres per year)

 Mantle Convection (contd.)

• Heat generated deep inside the earth creates

convection currents in the mantle. These
currents slowly push the overlying plate
around.
• Rising currents may drive the plates apart and
create new crust. This is happening in the
middle of the Atlantic Ocean.
• Sinking currents may drag the plates towards
each other & cause mountains to form.
• The source of heat driving the convection
currents is radioactive decay deep inside the
earth.
Plate Motions due to Convection Currents

PLATE MOTIONS
Divergent Boundary
Convergent Boundary
Convergent Boundary

• It represents the zone of convergent plate

boundary (The lithospheric plates come
towards each other and one plate is forced
to plunge down into the mantle).
• In this case, the plate boundary is a thrust
fault (dipping at an angle of about 300
from the horizontal) .
• The overriding of one plate on another
gives rise to trenches and island arcs.
Significance of Plate Tectonic Theory
 Enigma Solved ?
Plate Tectonic Theory has solved many
puzzling questions like:
• Why did many of the continents look like
pieces of a jigsaw puzzle with matching
outlines?
• How could fossils of the same plant be found
in places separated by thousands of kilometer
of open ocean?
• How can the rocks of the Deccan Plateau in
India match those of Africa not only in the age
and type, but also in the layer sequence in
which they occur?
Fit of
Continents
Across the
Atlantic
Answers
• All the continents once had been joined in a
single super continent known as “Pangea”.
• Hence, there is a likeness of landforms, flora
& fauna across continents even though they
are now separated by vast oceans.
• Ever since the Pangea split up 200 m.y. ago,
the continents have been moving at the rate of
a few cm./yr. (about the same rate as our
fingernails grow). The position of the
continents that are in today is just a
temporary one.
Answers (contd.)
Fifty million years from today, there may be
many changes:
 The Atlantic Ocean would be wider.
 North & South America may no longer be
joined.
 Africa and Asia may split apart at the Red Sea.
 The Red Sea may widen and link up with the
Mediterranean Sea.
 Australia may continue to drift northwards
and be situated at the Equator.
 Summary :
This chapter helps you in understanding :
1. What is Plate Tectonics?
2. How Plate Tectonics evolved through
Continental Drift and Sea Floor Spreading
Concepts?
3. What are Different types of Plate Boundaries?
4. What Geodynamic Processes take place at
different types of Plate Boundaries?
5. What causes the Plates to move?
6. What is the significance of Plate Tectonics
etc.?
127
128