Lecture 2 Geophysics PEGS2055

Geological and Geophysical Factors in Hydrocarbon

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Exploration

Dr. Sambit Prasanajit Naik

[email protected]

Department of Petroleum Engineering and Earth Sciences, SOAE,

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Geological factors are crucial in identifying regions with

favorable conditions for hydrocarbon generation, migration,
and accumulation.
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Source Rocks
Definition: Rocks rich in organic
matter, primarily Kerogen,
capable of generating
hydrocarbons upon thermal
maturation.

Key Parameters: Organic

content:

Total of
Type Organic Carbon
kerogen: (TOC) >
Determines oil2%
or gas generation potential.
is favorable.
Thermal maturity: Indicated by vitrinite reflectance (Ro) or
Tmax values.
 GE OLOGI C A L FAC T OR S

Kerogen is a significant organic substance found in sedimentary rocks.

It is crucial in forming fossil fuels such as crude oil and natural gas.
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It is a complex, insoluble material that originates from the remains of ancient plants
and microscopic marine organisms.

Over millions of years, these organic remains undergo decomposition and

transformation through a combination of heat, pressure, and geological processes,
ultimately yielding kerogen.

Kerogen is typically found in sedimentary rocks such as oil shales and source rocks.
These rocks contain organic-rich layers where the organic matter has been preserved
and transformed into kerogen.

Oil shales, for example, are sedimentary rocks that contain significant amounts of
kerogen and can potentially be a source of shale oil through a process known as oil
shale retorting.
 GE OLOGI C A L FAC T OR S

Kerogen primarily consists of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and

smaller amounts of sulfur. It consists of complex macromolecules.
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These macromolecules include various organic compounds such as

lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lignins.

The specific composition of kerogen varies depending on the type of

organic matter from which it originates and the environmental
conditions under which it was deposited.
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Thermal Maturity: Understanding Vitrinite

Reflectance (Ro) and Tmax
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Thermal maturity is a measure of the extent

to which organic matter in sedimentary rocks
has been exposed to heat and pressure over
geological time.

It is a critical factor in determining whether a

source rock has generated hydrocarbons (oil
or gas) and what type of hydrocarbons are
present.

Two key indicators of thermal maturity are

vitrinite reflectance (Ro) and Tmax values
derived from Rock-Eval pyrolysis.
 GE OLOGI C A L FAC T OR S

Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro)

Vitrinite reflectance measures the reflectivity of vitrinite, a type
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of maceral (organic component) found in sedimentary rocks,

particularly in coals and shales.

Vitrinite reflectance is expressed as a percentage (%Ro).

What is Vitrinite?

Vitrinite is derived from woody and cellulosic plant material that

has been subjected to diagenesis (compaction and chemical
alteration).

It has a shiny appearance under a microscope and reflects light

in a measurable way.
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How is Vitrinite Reflectance Measured?

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1.Preparation:
1.Thin sections or polished pellets of the
rock sample are prepared.

2.Measurement:

1.Under a reflected light microscope, the

intensity of light reflected from the
vitrinite particles is measured.

2.The measurement is expressed as a

percentage of incident light (%Ro).
 GE OLOGI C A L FAC T OR S
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Applications

Oil and Gas Exploration: Determines whether a source rock is

in the oil or gas window.

Coal Ranking: Higher Ro values indicate higher coal ranks

(e.g., lignite → bituminous → anthracite).

Thermal History Analysis: Helps reconstruct the thermal

history of a basin.
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Tmax: Maximum Temperature in Rock-Eval Pyrolysis

Tmax is the temperature at which the maximum release of

hydrocarbons occurs during Rock-Eval pyrolysis.
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It reflects the thermal maturity of the organic matter in the

rock.

What is Rock-Eval Pyrolysis?

A laboratory technique used to evaluate the hydrocarbon

generation potential of source rocks.
Measures the amount of
hydrocarbons and CO₂ released as
the sample is heated.
 GE OLOGI C A L FAC T OR S

Measures the amount of hydrocarbons and CO₂ released as

the sample is heated.
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How is Tmax Determined?

Sample Heating:The sample is

heated in a pyrolyzer in a
controlled manner.

Hydrocarbon
Evolution:Hydrocarbons are
released from kerogen (organic
matter)
Peak Hydrocarbon Release: Tmax as temperature
is the temperatureincreases.
at
which the S2 peak occurs, representing the maximum release
of hydrocarbons from kerogen.
 GE OLOGI C A L FAC T OR S

Interpretation of Tmax Values

Tmax correlates with the maturity of the organic

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matter:

<435°C: Immature. Organic matter has not

generated hydrocarbons.

435°C–450°C: Early to peak oil generation (oil

window).

450°C–470°C: Gas window.

>470°C: Overmature. Hydrocarbons are mostly

degraded.
 GE OLOGI C A L FAC T OR S

Comparison of Vitrinite Reflectance (Ro) and Tmax

Vitrinite Reflectance
Aspect Tmax
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(Ro)

Optical (microscopic analy- Thermal analysis (pyroly-

Method
sis) sis)

Can be applied to any or-

Sample Type Requires vitrinite macerals
ganic matter

Output % Reflectance Temperature (°C)

Indicates peak hydrocarbon

Thermal Maturity Indicates maturity directly
generation

May not be available in all Influenced by contamina-

Limitations
rocks tion or alteration
 GE OLOGI C A L FAC T OR S
Significance of Thermal Maturity Indicators

1.Exploration and Production:

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Identifies whether a source rock is within the oil or gas

generation window.

Guides drilling decisions and resource estimation.

2.Basin Modeling:

Reconstructs the thermal history of sedimentary basins.

Assists in predicting the timing of hydrocarbon generation

and migration.

3.Quality Control:

Ro and Tmax values provide cross-validation for thermal

maturity assessments.
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RESERVOIR ROCKS
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A reservoir rock is a subsurface volume of

rock that has sufficient porosity and
permeability to permit the migration and
accumulation of petroleum under adequate
trap conditions.
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RESERVOIR ROCKS
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A reservoir rock is a subsurface volume of

rock that has sufficient porosity and
permeability to permit the migration and
accumulation of petroleum under adequate
trap conditions.
 RESERVOIR ROC KS

In hydrocarbon exploration and production, reservoir rocks are

classified based on their significance and ability to store and
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transmit hydrocarbons.

These classifications are divided into major and minor reservoir

rocks based on their prevalence, quality, and contribution to
global hydrocarbon reserves.
 RESERVOIR ROC KS

POROSITY
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Is also defined as a measure of the capacity of

reservoir rocks to contain or store fluids.

The porosity is genetically classified basing on

standard sedimentologic description of reservoir rock.

• Primary Porosity
• Secondary
porosity.
 RESERVOIR ROC KS

POROSITY
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Is also defined as a measure of the capacity of

reservoir rocks to contain or store fluids.

The porosity is genetically classified basing on

standard sedimentologic description of reservoir rock.

• Primary Porosity
• Secondary
porosity.
Geophysics PEGS2055 RESERVOIR ROC KS
 RESERVOIR ROC KS

The primary porosity types are:

Inter-particle- In this type by which rock content was quickly lost

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in muds and carbonate sands through compaction and

cementation respectively. This type is mostly found as
siliciclastic sands.

Intra particle porosity by which the porosity is made of interiors

of carbonate skeletal grains.
 RESERVOIR ROC KS

Secondary porosity, the porosity formed after deposition leads

to other couple of reservoirs types.
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Dissolution porosity type is made of carbonate dissolution and

leaching. It is also called carbonate reservoirs.

Fracture porosity which is characterized by not being

voluminous.
 P OR OS I T Y I N S A N DS T ON E

• Sandstone usually has regular grains; and is referred to as a

grainstone
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• Porosity Determined mainly by the packing and mixing of

grains.
• Fractures may be present.
The porosity of a sandstone de-
pends on the packing arrangement
of its grains.
 P OR OS I T Y I N S A N DS T ON E

GRAIN-SIZE SORTING IN SANDSTONE

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 P OR OS I T Y I N S A N DS T ON E

SANDSTONES POROSITY TYPES

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Intergranular (Primary)
Interstitial Void Space Between Framework Grains.

Micropores
Small Pores Mainly Between detrital Framework Grains or Cement.

Dissolution
Partial or Complete Dissolution of or Authigenic Grains (Can Also Occur
Within Grains)
Fractures
Breakage Due to Earth Stresses.
 P OR OS I T Y I N S A N DS T ON E

SANDSTONES POROSITY TYPES

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Intergranular (Primary)
Interstitial Void Space Between Framework Grains.

Micropores
Small Pores Mainly Between detrital Framework Grains or Cement.

Dissolution
Partial or Complete Dissolution of or Authigenic Grains (Can Also Occur
Within Grains)
Fractures
Breakage Due to Earth Stresses.
 P OR OS I T Y I N CA R BON AT E

C A R B O N AT ES PO R O S IT Y T Y P E S

Interparticle porosity
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Each grain is separated, giving a similar

pore space arrangement as sandstone.
Intergranular porosity
Pore space is created inside the individual
grains which are interconnected.
Intercrystalline porosity
Produced by spaces between carbonate
crystals.
Mouldic porosity
Pores created by the dissolution of shells,
etc.
 P OR OS I T Y I N CA R BON AT E

C A R B O N AT ES PO R O S IT Y T Y P E S
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Fractured porosity
Pore spacing created by the crack-
ing of the rock fabric.

Channel porosity
Like fracture porosity but larger.

Vuggy porosity
Created by the dissolution of
fragments, but unconnected.
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 PERMEABILIT Y

Permeability is a measure of the ability of a fluid to

pass through its porous medium. Permeability is one
of important to determine the effective reservoir.
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Porosity and permeability are two properties

describing the reservoir rock capacity with regard to
the fluid continence.

Moreover, a reservoir rock can be porous without

being permeable.
 PERMEABILIT Y

The rate of flow of a liquid through a formation de-

pends on:
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– The pressure drop.

– The viscosity of the fluid.
– The permeability.

Permeability measures the capacity and ability of the

formation to transmit fluids.

It controls the directional movement and the flow rate

of the reservoir fluids in the formation.

The unit of measurement is the Darcy.

 PERMEABILIT Y

DA RCY L AW

K = permeability, in Dar-
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cies.

L = length of the sec-

tion of rock, in cen-
timetres.

Q = flow rate in cen-

timetres / sec.

P1, P2 = pressures in
bars.

A = surface area, in
 PERMEABILIT Y

Types
permeability
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Absolute Permeability

When the medium is completely saturated with one fluid, then

the permeability measurement is often referred to as specific or
absolute permeability

Effective Permeability

When the rock pore spaces contain more than one fluid, then the
permeability to a particular fluid is called the effective
permeability. Effective permeability is a measure of the fluid
conductance capacity of a porous medium to a particular fluid
when the medium is saturated with more than one fluid

Relative Permeability
 PERMEABILIT Y

PERMEABILITY AND ROCKS

In formations with large grains, the permeability is high and the flow
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rate larger.

The permeability in the horizontal direction is controlled by the large

grains.
 PERMEABILIT Y

In a rock with small grains the permeability is less and the flow lower.

The permeability in the vertical direction is controlled by the small grains

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Grain size has no bearing on porosity, but has a large effect on permeabilit
 T Y PE OF R E S ERVOI R

Major type of reservoir

rocks
Siliciclastic Reservoir
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Lacustrine Reservoir

Shallow and Deep Marine

Reservoir

Fluvial Reservoir
 T Y PE OF R E S ERVOI R

Siliciclastic Reservoir
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are the most
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abundant of the sedimentary rock.

They are formed from the detritus left over from the
weathering of igneous, metamorphic, and older
sedimentary rocks.
 T Y PE OF R E S ERVOI R

SHALLOW AND DEEP MARINE RESERVOIR

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On the clastic sedimentary, contained some precipitation area, as

one in marine area.

Rock type can be formed in deposition marine areas such as shelf

sandstone and turbidity sandstone.

Shelf sandstones are formed from precipitating in the shallow

marine area.
Turbidity sandstones: rock formed in deep marine area with
rotation force existing rotation deep current so as formed the
coarse layer
 T Y PE OF R E S ERVOI R

LACUSTRINE RESERVOIR
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This type of reservoir formed in

basin containing water surrounded
by land and initially formed by
tectonic processes, volcanic, rifting,
soil movement, the erosion by the
wind on the coast or in land.

The texture of sedimentary rocks in

the environments usually granules
grained and the size between 2
mm–4 mm.
 T Y PE OF R E S ERVOI R

FLUVIAL RESERVOIR
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Type reservoir generated by the flow of the river where the proces
is formed by the erosion, transport and deposition of forming
depositional formation.
 SEAL ROCK

A seal rock is a low-permeability geological formation that acts as

a barrier, preventing the migration of hydrocarbons from the reservoir.
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It ensures hydrocarbons remain confined within the reservoir, playing a

vital role in the petroleum system's success.
 SEAL ROCK

Key Characteristics of Seal Rocks

Low Permeability: Seal rocks possess minimal pore

connectivity, restricting fluid flow.
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Common examples include:

Shale: Comprised of compacted clay and silt particles.

Evaporites: Such as halite, gypsum, and anhydrite.

Tight carbonates: Cemented limestones or dolomites.

Geophysics PEGS2055 SEAL ROCK
 SEAL ROCK

Factors Influencing Seal Rock Permeability

1.Pore Structure:
 Seal rocks like shales have fine-grained, compacted structures
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with small, disconnected pores.

 Tight carbonates and evaporites show minimal pore connectivity
due to cementation and recrystallization.

2.Grain Size and Sorting:

 Rocks with smaller grain diameters (d) tend to have lower
permeability because of restricted pore throat sizes.

 Poorly sorted grains also reduce permeability.

3.Porosity (ϕ):
Though porosity measures the total void space in a rock, not all
pores are connected. Seal rocks may have moderate porosity but
extremely low permeability due to poor pore connectivity.

4.Fluid Viscosity (μ):

Higher fluid viscosity reduces permeability, making it harder for
fluids to move through the rock matrix.
 SEAL ROCK

Methods to Calculate or Estimate Seal Rock Permeability

1. Laboratory Techniques
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Core Analysis:
1. Core samples of seal rocks are collected and tested under
controlled conditions.
2. Gas or liquid is forced through the sample, and the flow rate is
measured to calculate permeability using Darcy's law:
 SEAL ROCK

Example

Q = 0.001 cm³/s (fluid flow rate)

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A = 1 cm² = 0.0001 m² (cross-sectional area)

ΔP = 50,000 Pa (pressure difference across the core)
μ = 1 cP = 0.001 Pa (fluid viscosity)
L = 5 cm = 0.05 m (length of the core sample)

Darcy's Law: k = (Q ⋅ μ ⋅ L) / (A ⋅ ΔP)

Where: k: Permeability (m² or Darcy)
Q: Fluid flow rate (m³/s)
A: Cross-sectional area (m²)
ΔP: Pressure difference (Pa)
μ: Fluid viscosity (Pa)
L: Length of the core (m)
 SEAL ROCK

Example
Darcy's Law: k = (Q ⋅ μ ⋅ L) / (A ⋅ ΔP)
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Where: k: Permeability (m² or Darcy)

Q: Fluid flow rate (m³/s) k=(0.001*0.001*0.05)/
(0.0001*50,000)​
A: Cross-sectional area (m²)
ΔP: Pressure difference (Pa)
μ: Fluid viscosity (Pa)
L: Length of the core (m)

The permeability of the core sample is approximately 0.01 Darcy or 10

millidarcies (mD).
This permeability value is consistent with rocks that act as good seals, where permeability is
generally less than 10 millidarcies.

If the calculated permeability were much higher (e.g., >100 mD), it would suggest the rock
may not function effectively as a seal.

This example illustrates how Darcy’s law can be applied in a laboratory setting to evaluate
the ability of a rock to act as a seal.
 SEAL ROCK

Question-1
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 SEAL ROCK

Question-2
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 SEAL ROCK

Question-3
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 SEAL ROCK

Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (MICP):

Mercury is injected into the rock sample at increasing pressures.

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The pressure at which mercury enters the pore throats provides an estimate of
pore throat size and connectivity, indirectly indicating permeability.

Helium Permeameter:

Helium gas is used to measure permeability due to its small molecular size and
ability to penetrate fine pores.
 SEAL ROCK

Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (MICP):

Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (MICP) is a laboratory technique
used to evaluate the pore structure and connectivity of reservoir
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rocks.

Mercury is injected into the pore spaces of a rock sample under

controlled pressures, and the pressure required to force mercury into
the pores provides information on pore throat sizes and distribution.
Key Principles:

Mercury is non-wetting for most rocks, meaning it will not naturally

enter pore spaces without applied pressure.

The capillary pressure required to force mercury into a pore is inversely

proportional to the size of the pore throat.

The relationship between pressure and pore throat radius is given by

Washburn's Equation:
 SEAL ROCK

Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (MICP):

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 SEAL ROCK

Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (MICP):

Numerical Example for MICP Analysis
Given:
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 SEAL ROCK

Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (MICP):

Interpretation of MICP Results
Pore Throat Radius:
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At a capillary pressure of 10,000 Pa, the pore throat radius is calculated to be

approximately 73.5 μm.

This means that pore throats larger than 73.5 μm are accessible to mercury at
this pressure. Smaller pore throats require higher pressures for mercury to enter.

The radius value provides direct insight into the size of pathways available for
fluid flow within the rock.

Relationship Between Pressure and Pore Size:

Higher capillary pressures correspond to smaller pore throats, reflecting

tighter rock structures.

Lower capillary pressures correspond to larger pore throats, reflecting more

open and permeable structures.

This relationship is critical in differentiating between rocks with good reservoir

potential (larger pores) and those with sealing potential (smaller pores).
 SEAL ROCK

Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (MICP):

Hydrocarbon Migration Implications:
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Larger pore throats (like those at 73.5 μm) typically allow easier migration of
fluids, such as hydrocarbons, within the reservoir rock.

Smaller pore throats, which require higher pressures for mercury penetration,
indicate tight formations with limited fluid movement. Such formations may act as
seal rocks, trapping hydrocarbons within a reservoir.

Reservoir Quality:

The pore throat size distribution obtained from MICP helps assess reservoir
quality:

Rocks with larger pore throats generally have higher permeability and are
better reservoirs.

Rocks with a dominance of smaller pore throats may have lower

permeability, indicating poor fluid flow capacity but higher potential as seal
rocks.
 SEAL ROCK

Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (MICP):

Sealing Potential of Rocks:

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A smaller pore throat size implies higher capillary entry pressure, which is
essential for preventing the migration of hydrocarbons through seal rocks.

Seal rocks like shales and evaporites often exhibit very small pore throat radii (<1
μm) and require significantly higher pressures to breach.

Practical Applications in Exploration:

For hydrocarbon exploration, understanding the capillary entry pressure and

corresponding pore throat sizes is crucial to:

Identify effective reservoir rocks with good fluid flow capacity.

Ensure the presence of adequate seal rocks to trap hydrocarbons.

 H Y D R OCA R BON T RA P

Impermeable • Some rocks are permeable

and allow oil and gas to freely
pass through them
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• Other rocks are impermeable

and block the upward passage
of oil and gas

• Where oil and gas rises up and

Permeable capped by impermeable rocks
it can’t escape. This is one type
Permeable of an Oil Trap.
 H Y D R O C A R BO N T RA P S

i. Structural traps

Structural traps are caused by structural features. They are

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usually formed as a result of tectonics.

ii. Stratigraphic traps

Stratigraphic traps are usually caused by changes in rock

quality.

iii. Combination traps

Combination traps that combine more than one type of trap

are common in petroleum reservoirs.

Other types of traps (such as hydrodynamic traps) are usually

less common.
 Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
ii. Fault
i. Fold
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iii. Salt Dome

 Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
a) Anticlines and domes
An anticline is an example of rocks which are previously
flat, but have been bent into an arch. Oil that finds its way
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into a reservoir rock that has been bent into an arch will
flow to the crest of the arch, and get stuck.
Folds result in the physical bending of the rock units with-
out breaking.
The rock units undergo bending very slowly over a long
periods of geologic time. These types of traps are often
found adjacent to mountain ranges.
 Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
b)Fault trap
Fault traps are formed by the movement of rock along fault line.
In some cases, the reservoir rock has moved opposite a layer of im-
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permeable rock.
The impermeable rock thus prevents the oil from escaping.
In other cases, the fault itself can be a very effective trap, when a
fault affects incline
strata, a reservoir rock may be blocked off by an impervious shale
there by creatin
an oil trap.
 iii. Salt Dome
Petroleum trapped in top of dome

Rocks above salt

dome are bowed up
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Oil and gas

trapped on
sides of
impermeable
dome

Salt flows up as a weak mass

 Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps
The main trap- making element in a stratigraphic trap is some
variation in the
lithology or stratigraphy, or both of the reservoir rock.
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The variation may be facies change, variable porosity and

permeability or an
up-structure termination of the reservoir rock.
 Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps
 The following may be the setup to give rise to such traps.

i. A reservoir rock may be truncated by an unconformity or over-

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lapped.
ii.There may be changes along the bedding.
iii.The boundary between two kinds of rocks may favor the for-
mation of a reservoir. The boundary may be sharp or grada-
tional.
 The two classes of stratigraphic traps are,

a) Primary stratigraphic traps and

b) secondary stratigraphic traps
 Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps
a)Primary stratigraphic traps
Such traps are also known as ‘digenetic’ and ‘deposi-
tional’traps.
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Thus primary stratigraphic traps formed during deposition or

digenesis of the sediments.
b)Secondary stratigraphic traps
These are the result of some stratigraphic variation that de-
veloped after the
deposition and digenesis of the reservoir rock.

They are almost always associated with unconfirmities, they

may be called
unonformity traps.
 Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps
Stratigraphic hydrocarbon traps occur where reservoir
facies pinch into impervious rock such as shale, or
where they have been truncated by erosion and
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capped by impervious layers above an unconformity.

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

 Migration Pathways in Hydrocarbon Exploration
Hydrocarbon migration is the movement of oil and gas from source
rocks to reservoir rocks, where they accumulate in structural or
stratigraphic traps.

The process involves two main stages: primary migration (movement

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from source rock) and secondary migration (movement through carrier

beds).

Various geological and geophysical factors influence the efficiency of

this migration.
 Stages of Hydrocarbon Migration

Primary Migration
Hydrocarbons move from the organic-rich source rock into adjacent
permeable carrier beds. This process is driven by:
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Compaction Pressure: Overlying sediments compact source rocks,

forcing hydrocarbons out.

Hydrocarbon Generation: Thermal maturation generates

hydrocarbons, increasing pressure within source rocks.
 Secondary Migration
Hydrocarbons move through carrier beds (e.g., sandstone,
fractured carbonates) toward traps.

Key forces include: Buoyancy: Hydrocarbons are less dense than

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water, driving upward migration.

Pressure Gradients: Result from overlying sedimentary loads or

structural tilts.

Tertiary Migration—Migration to the surface, either from a reservoir or source

rock. Also called dismigration.

Remigration—Migration from one reservoir position through an intervening section

into another reservoir position in the same or a different reservoir.
 Key Factors Influencing Migration

1. Carrier Beds Permeability and Porosity: High

permeability
allows hydrocarbons to flow easily.
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Good porosity provides storage space.Rock Types:

Sandstones and carbonates often act as effective
carrier beds.

2.Faults and Fractures Serve as migration pathways but

may also act as barriers if sealed.

Effective sealing faults trap hydrocarbons; leaking

faults result in loss.

3. Capillary Pressure Controls movement of

hydrocarbons through small pore spaces.

Pore throat size determines the ease of hydrocarbon

 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS IN HYDROCAR-
BON EXPLORATION
Gravity Survey
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Involves measuring a field of

force in the earth that is not
generated by the observer.
Field instruments are designed
to measure differences in gravity.
Variation in gravity depend on
lateral changes in the density of
earths materials.
Most sedimentary rocks have
densities lower than basement
rocks, make possible to map
boundaries and determine
approximate depth distribution
of sedimentary basins
 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS IN HYDROCAR-
BON EXPLORATION
Bouguer Gravity Anomaly Map of Cauvery Basin
Geophysics PEGS2055

Madanam
horst
Ariyalur-Pondicherry Tranqueba
sub-basin r
Kumbakonam sub-basin
horst Karaikal
horst
Tanjore
sub-basin
Nagapattinam
sub-basin
Pattukottai
horst
Ramnad
sub-basin
Mandapam
horst
 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS IN HYDROCAR-
BON EXPLORATION
Magnetic Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055

Gives information to determine the

depth to basement rocks to locate
and define extent of sedimentary
basins.

Sedimentary rocks exert small

magnetic effects compared to
igneous rocks.

All variations in magnetic

intensity measurable at surface result
from topographic or
lithologic changes with associated or
basement igneous
intrusives
 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS IN HYDROCARBON
EXPLORATION
Seismic Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055
 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS IN HYDROCARBON
EXPLORATION
Seismic Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055

Seismic survey involves creation of seismic waves or

elastic waves generated artificially.
These waves are created by explosion in shallower
depth which transmits through the earth as seismic
waves and bounce back from reflecting surfaces and
are detected by geophones.
The reflecting surfaces are usually between two rock
beds having different lithology and density.
The main purpose is to know depth of subsurface
sedimentary beds and their alignment and structure like
horizontal beds, inclined beds, folds faulted beds etc.
 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS IN HYDROCARBON
EXPLORATION

The elastic waves (P-waves or primary waves) while propa-

Geophysics PEGS2055

gating through sedimentary beds, part of energy will bounce back

whenever they strike boundaries of rock beds having different den-
sities of hardness.
These reflections are received by geophones which record the ar-
rival of seismic waves
Contrasts in seismic behavior between a sandstone-shale contact
or a sandstone-carbonate contact produce reflection.

Magnitude and polarity of the reflection depend upon porosity, cemen-

tation, density and fluid content of the overlying and underlying
rock beds.
 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS IN HYDROCAR-
BON EXPLORATION
Seismic Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055

Energy of reflected waves decreases with increasing depth

resulting in decreasing resolution (poor reflection).
Acoustic impedance, the product of density and velocity.
Strength or amplitude of the reflection and its polarity depend
on the acoustical impedance of adjacent beds.

Positive reflection Negative reflection

(soft to hard rock) (hard to soft rock)
- shale to - carbonate to
carbonate shale
- shale to tight - tight sand to
sand shale
- gas sand to - shale to gas
shale sand
 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS IN HYDROCAR-
BON EXPLORATION
Seismic Survey
Geophysics PEGS2055

3D seismic surveys differs from 2D seismic in two essential

respects:
- 3D shoots a much tighter grid greatly increasing
the definition of the prospect.
- The analyst can view the prospect in any angle.

4D seismic surveys involves time as the fourth dimension. A

reservoir is re-shot on a regular basis to monitor recovery of
oil.
 Key Techniques in Exploration Geophysics

Magnetotellurics (MT)

Magnetotellurics (MT) is a passive geophysical method that

measures natural variations in the Earth’s magnetic and
Geophysics PEGS2055

electric fields to determine the electrical resistivity structure

of the subsurface.

It is widely used in exploration geophysics, tectonic studies,

and geothermal and hydrocarbon exploration due to its ability
to image structures from shallow depths to the mantle.
 Key Techniques in Exploration Geophysics

Well Logging
The systematic recording of rock properties and it’s fluid
contents in wells being drilled or produced to obtain various
petrophysical parameters and characteristics of down hole
Geophysics PEGS2055

sequences (G.E Archie 1950).

The measurement versus depth or time, or both, of one or more

physical properties in a well.

These methods are particularly good when surface outcrops are

not available, but a direct sample of the rock is needed to be
sure of the lithology.

A wide range of physical parameters can be measured.

In some cases, the measurements are not direct, it require

interpretation by analogy or by correlating values between two
or more logs run in the same hole.

Provide information on lithology, boundaries of formations and

stratigraphic correlation.
 Types of Well Logging
Logs can be classified into several types under
different category
Geophysics PEGS2055

Permeability and lithology Logs

• Gamma Ray log
• Self Potential [SP] log
• Caliber log

Porosity Logs
• Density log
• Sonic log
• Neutron log

Electrical Logs
• Resistivity Log
Geophysics PEGS2055
Geophysics PEGS2055
Geophysics PEGS2055
Geophysics PEGS2055
 Common Sources of Geophysical
Noise
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 Noise
Noise Sources and Their Impacts
Marine Noise:

Engine/Ship Noise:
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Generated by ships or boats during marine

geophysical surveys.

Affects seismic methods by introducing artificial

vibrations into the system.

Mitigation: Minimizing ship movement during

data acquisition.
Sea State:

Refers to the condition of the sea surface (e.g., waves, swells).

Causes interference in seismic data due to the movement of the water column.

Affects seismic and EM (Electromagnetic) surveys.

Breaking Waves:

Sound from waves breaking at the shoreline creates vibrations detectable by

geophones.

Affects seismic surveys.

 Noise
Environmental Noise:

Wind:
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Wind generates surface vibrations and airborne acoustic waves that

propagate through the ground and surrounding environment.

In areas with dense vegetation, wind causes swaying of trees,

branches, and foliage, which transfers vibrations to the ground.

These vibrations, though small, are detected by sensitive seismic

equipment such as geophones.

Heavy Rain:

Rainfall creates surface vibrations as raindrops impact the ground,

especially on hard or saturated surfaces.

Accumulated water alters the soil's electrical and acoustic properties,

leading to inconsistent geophysical measurements.
 Impact on Geophysical Methods:

Seismic Surveys: Surface vibrations from raindrops reduce the SNR,

making it harder to distinguish seismic reflections or refractions.

Water infiltration into the ground can dampen seismic signals, reducing
the amplitude of reflections.
Geophysics PEGS2055

Electrical Resistivity Surveys: Rain alters the moisture content of the

soil, significantly changing its resistivity.

Variations in soil conductivity lead to errors in resistivity measurements,

affecting the interpretation of subsurface features.

EM Surveys: Changes in ground conductivity caused by water

saturation can distort electromagnetic signals, making it difficult to
detect anomalies.

Mitigation Strategies:

Delay surveys until after rainfall to allow the ground to stabilize and dry.

Use waterproof equipment or rain shields to protect sensitive instruments.

Account for soil moisture changes in data interpretation by calibrating

 Noise
Human-Made Noise:

Vehicles:
Geophysics PEGS2055

Movement of vehicles generates ground vibrations.

Impacts seismic methods and reduces data clarity in field surveys.

Fences (Metal and Electric):

Metallic fences and electrical installations interfere with magnetic
and electromagnetic fields.

Affect magnetic, electrical, and EM surveys.

Power Lines:
Generate electromagnetic noise, especially 50/60 Hz signals.

Significantly impacts electrical and EM surveys.

 Noise
Natural Magnetic Noise:

Natural magnetic noise refers to variations in the Earth's

electromagnetic fields caused by natural phenomena such as
Geophysics PEGS2055

solar activity, lightning, and ionospheric disturbances.

Electric and Magnetic Storms:

Mechanism: Solar Activity: Electric and magnetic storms are

primarily caused by solar flares and coronal mass ejections
(CMEs) from the Sun.

These phenomena release high-energy charged particles that

interact with Earth's magnetosphere and ionosphere, leading to
rapid fluctuations in the geomagnetic field.

Auroras and Ionospheric Currents: Charged particles from solar

winds generate auroras, which are associated with strong
ionospheric currents.

These currents induce variations in the Earth's magnetic field

that can persist for hours or days, depending on storm intensity.
 Noise
Stone Walls with Magnetic Rocks

Mechanism: Stone walls made of naturally magnetized rocks, such as

basalt or granite, contain minerals like magnetite or hematite.
Geophysics PEGS2055

These minerals have remanent magnetization, which can create local

magnetic anomalies detectable by magnetic sensors.

The proximity of such walls to the survey area amplifies their effect,
making it challenging to differentiate between true subsurface
anomalies and noise from the wall.

Impact on Geophysical Methods:

Magnetic Surveys: Stone walls create magnetic anomalies that can mask
or mimic signals from subsurface features, leading to misinterpretation
of the data.

These effects are particularly problematic in archaeological and mineral

exploration surveys, where subtle anomalies are significant.

Electromagnetic (EM) Surveys: Magnetic materials in stone walls may

distort EM readings, causing deviations in conductivity maps.

Seismic Surveys: While the direct magnetic impact on seismic surveys is

 Noise
Mitigation Strategies:

Use high-resolution surveys to filter out anomalies caused by

surface features like walls.
Geophysics PEGS2055

Incorporate site-specific corrections or model the wall’s

magnetic effect to account for its contribution to the data.

Avoid conducting surveys in the immediate vicinity of stone

walls with magnetic rocks if possible.