COLONIALISM AND THE COUNTRYSIDE

EXPLORING THE ARCHIVES.

BRITISH RULE/RAJ

1757 {East India Company} 1857 {Direct rule from England} 1947
(Battle of Plassey) (Revolt) (Independence)
Colonialism is the control of political, social, economic, and cultural domination over people by a foreign
power/country. When a country dominates another country.
• The policy of acquiring full political control over another country, occupying it with settlers and
exploiting it economically.
• The long control exercised by the British Empire over America, Africa and India is an example of
colonial domination.
- Oppressed -Oppressor -Oppression
(Indian) (British) (Policy/Rule)
Colonized Colonizer Colonisation

Introduction:
→ The Battle of Plassey, 23 June 1757.
→ Fought between English East India Company under the leadership of Robert Clive and Nawab of
Bengal Siraj-ud Daula joined with French troops.
→ Victory of English East India Company.
→ The Battle of Plassey marked the beginning of the British rule.
BENGAL AND THE ZAMINDAR:
→ The colonial rule was first established in Bengal.
→ The earliest attempts were made to reorder the rural society and established a new regime/rule of land
rights and a new revenue system.

THE PROBLEM OF UNPAID REVENUE.

→ By 1770s, the rural economy in Bengal was in crisis because of frequent famines and declining
agricultural outputs.
→ Since the conquest of Bengal, the company officials had been facing a lot of problems. They hoped to
resolve this problem through the introduction of Permanent Settlement.
→ Officials felt that agriculture, trade and the revenue resources of the state could all be developed by
encouraging investment in agriculture.
→ This could be done by securing the right of property and permanently fixing the rates of revenue
demand.
→ If the revenue demand of the state was fixed, then the Company could look forward to a regular flow
revenue.
→ Officials hoped, this process would lead to develop a class of farmers and rich landowners who would
improve agriculture.
 Role of Zamindar:
i. The Permanent Settlement was made with the Rajas and Taluqdars, they were referred to as
Zamindars.
ii. The Zamindars was not a landowner rather they were a revenue collector of the state. They had to pay
the revenue to the Company which was fixed. The Company fixed the revenue demand and that
zamindar had to pay.
iii. There were several villages under them. The villages within one zamindari formed one revenue estate.
iv. The Zamindar collected rent from the different villages, paid the revenue to the Company, and
retained the extra money as his income.
v. He was expected to pay the revenue on time to the Company, failing which his estate or property
would be confiscated and could be auctioned in public.
PERMANENT SETTLEMENT
WHO – Lord Cornwallis (Governor-general 1785-1793)
WHEN - 1793
WHERE - Bengal
WHAT AND HOW – Under this act, Raja and Taluqdars were recognised as Zamindar. They were asked
to collect the rent from the peasants and pay the revenue to Company. The amount to be paid was fixed
permanently.
WHY – Investment in land had to be encourage and agriculture had to be improved for more revenue.

AN AUCTION IN BURDWAN.
→ In 1797, there was an action in Burdwan (Bengal). It was a public event. The estate of those who
failed to pay the revenue were to be auctioned to recover the revenue.
→ Large number of people came to the auction, and the estate was sold to the highest bidder.
→ Many of the purchasers turned out to be the servants of the zamindars, who had bought lands on
behalf of their master.
→ About 95% of the auctions were fake. Although the property of the zamindars had been sold publicly
but he remained control his estate.

WHY ZAMINDARS DEFAULTED ON PAYMENTS.

Zamindars failed to pay the revenue, because
➢ Firstly: the initial revenue demand was fixed at very high rates. Because it was felt that the Company
would not be able to claim again when the production and the income from the land increases.
Therefore, to minimise this loss, the Company fixed the revenue demand high.
➢ Secondly: this high demand was imposed in the 1790s, when the prices of agricultural produce were
depressed (low), making it difficult for the ryots to pay their dues to the zamindar.
➢ Thirdly, the revenue was invariable, regardless of the harvest and had to be paid punctually. The
Sunset Law was imposed, if the payment did not come in by sunset of the specified date, then the
zamindari was likely to be auctioned.
➢ Fourthly, the Permanent Settlement had limited the power of the Zamindar to collect rent from the
ryot and manage his zamindari.

HOW DID THE COMPANY CONTROL or LIMIT THE POWER of ZAMINDARS

i. The Company recognised the importance of zamindar, so they try to control them by reducing its
authority and autonomy.
 ii. The Zamindar’s troops were disbanded and lost most of his power.
iii. The zamindar’s court (cutcheries) was brought under the supervision of a Collector appointed by the
Company. Over time, the collector enjoyed authority, restricting what the zamindar could do.
iv. In one case, when a zamindar failed to pay the revenue, a Company official was speedily appointed to
his zamindari to take charge and destroy all his influence and authority.

THE RISE OF JOTEDARS.

→ While many zamindars were facing problems at the end of the eighteenth century, a group of rich
peasants were consolidating their position in the villages of Northern Bengal.
→ These rich peasants were known as JOTEDARS. By the early 19th century, they possessed vast areas
of land under their name.
→ They exercised immense power over the poorer cultivators of the villages, as they controlled local
trade and moneylending.
→ Their land was cultivated by sharecropper (adiyars or bargadars) who brought their own ploughs,
Laboured in the field, handed over half of their agricultural produce to Jotedars.

Relation between Zamindar and Jotedars:

1. Within the village, the Jotedars were more powerful than the zamindar. Unlike zamindar, who lives in
urban areas, Jotedars live in the village and exercised direct control over large number of poor
villagers/peasants.
2. The effort of the zamindar to increase the revenue (jama) were resisted by the jotedars. As they
mobilised the ryots who were dependent on them, and deliberately delayed the payment of revenue to
zamindar.
3. Whenever the zamindar’s estate was being auctioned for the failure to pay the revenue, jotedars were
the amongst the purchaser.
4. The jotedars were most powerful in the North Bengal, they were also known as halodars, gantidars
and mandals. Their rise automatically weakened the power of the zamindars.
5. The rent collection was very difficult and problematic for zamindars. Sometimes, bad harvest makes it
difficult for the ryot to pay. Sometimes, peasants deliberately delayed payment. Rich ryot and village
headmen (jotedars and mandals) were happy to see the zamindar in trouble.

HOW ZAMINDAR RESISTED OR MAINTAINED THEIR PROPERTY/ZAMINDARI

→ The authority of the zamindars in rural areas however was not affected because new circumstances
produced new strategies.
→ Transferring zamindari to women. For example; Raja of Burdwan transferred some of his zamindari to
his mother. As the company had made a law that property of a women would not be taken over.
→ Fictitious sale was one such Strategy. It involves a series of planning and manipulation. His agents
manipulated the auction. When a estate was auctioned, zamindar’s men bought the property but they
refuse to pay the purchase money. So the estate had to be resold. Again it was bought by the
zamindar’s agents, and again the purchase money was not paid. So this process was repeated
continuously, the Company and other bidder at auction becomes exhausted. At last the estate was sold
at a low price back to the zamindar.
→ When people from outside the zamindari bought an estate, they could not always take possession.
They would be attacked by lathyals of the former zamindar. • Even the ryots resisted the entry of
outsiders. They felt bound to their zamindar through a sense of loyalty and perceived him as their
authority and themselves as his proja (subjects).
→ The sale of zamindari affects their sense of identity and their pride. Therefore, the zamindars cannot
be displace easily.
→ In the early 19th century, the depression in price was over. Rules of revenue payments were also made
flexible. Hence the zamindars power over the villagers became stronger.

THE FIFTH REPORT

➢ The changes that took place in the East India Company were recorded in report, which was submitted
to the British parliament in 1813.
➢ It was called fifth report because it was fifth in series of report on the administration and activities of
East India Company.
➢ It contained 1002 pages of which about 800 pages were appendices. It includes 1) petitions of
Zamindars and Ryots. 2) Reports of different collectors from different districts, 3) Notes on the
revenue and administration of Bengal and Madras.

What are the causes of the Fifth Report

➢ Since from the establishment of East India Company’s rule in Bengal, their activities were closely
watched and debated in England.
➢ Many groups in Britain were opposed to its monopoly over trade with India and China. They wanted a
revocation of the Royal Charter = that gave the Company this monopoly over India.
➢ Many private traders and industrialist wanted to do business in India. Many political groups argued
that conquest of Bengal was benefitting only East India Company but not England as a whole.
➢ Information about Companies misrule, maladministration, corruption was hotly debated and widely
publicised in the press.
➢ British Parliament passed a series of Acts in late 18th century to regulate and control Company rule in
India. – It forced Company to produce regular reports and appointed committees to look after the
affairs of the East India Company.
About the information from Fifth Report
➢ The fifth report has shaped our understanding of what happened in rural Bengal in the late 18th
century.
➢ Evidence contained in the Fifth Report are very useful but this type of report has to be checked very
carefully. We should know who wrote them and why they were written.
➢ Many recent scholars believe that the evidence offered by the fifth report cannot be accepted
uncritically (need to examine carefully). Many researchers have carefully examined the archives of
Bengal.

HOE AND THE PLOUGH.

→ Hoe represents Paharias because they practice shifting agriculture and Plough represents Santhals
(settled agriculture).
→ The people living around the Rajmahal hills were known as Paharias. They were dependent on the
forest produce. They practised shifting cultivation.
→ The undergrowth grasses provided pasture for cattles. The process of shifting cultivation was:
o They cleared the patches of forest by cutting bushes and burning the undergrowth. They
scratch the ground lightly with hoes.
o Cultivated on the cleared land for few years and move to a new area. The reason was if the
land was left fallow for few years than it could recover its fertility.
→ They grew a variety of pulses and millets for consumption. (Dal, chana, rajma).
→ From the Forest, they collected: Mahua (flower) for food, Silk cocoon Resin for sale, Wood for
charcoal production.

LIFE OF PAHARIAS:
→ The paharias lived in a hut. They do shifting agriculture and also depended on the forest produces.
→ For them, the entire region was their land and home. It was the basis of their identity as well as
survival.
→ They had their chiefs who maintained the unity of the people, settle down disputes and led the tribe in
battles with other tribes and plain people.
→ The paharias used to raid the plains where settled agriculturist lived. These raids were necessary for
survival. These raids were also a way of asserting their power over settled communities.
→ The zamindars paid some money to the hill chiefs for peace settlement. The traders also gave small
amount to the hill chief to use the passes controlled by them. This was a kind of a tax to the chief, in
return for the safety/protection of the traders.
British Policies To Control Paharias
• The British tried to control and subdue Paharias.
o In 1770s, British followed or adopted a policy of extermination, hunting down and killing the
Paharias.
o By 1780s, Augustus Cleveland introduced a policy of pacification, in which Paharia’s chiefs
given money for the proper conduct of their men. They were expected to maintain order and
discipline.
• Many Paharia chiefs refused to accept the money, while those who accepted had lost their power
within the community. As they came to be seen as the employee of the Britisher.
• Impact of the British Policies:
o With the policy of pacification, the Paharias have moved deep into the forest/mountain and
carry out war with outsiders.
o Their perception towards British Government had changed. Every white men was seen as
destructor of their way of life.
o They even viewed Francis Buchanan with suspicion when he travelled into their region in
1810-11.
SANTHAL: PIONEER SETTLERS
→ The Santhal came to Bengal in the 1780s.
o They were hired by zamindars to reclaim land and expand cultivation.
o The Britisher invited them settle in the Rajmahal Hill as they failed to change the Paharias into
settled agriculturalist.
→ For Britishers, Santhals appeared to be perfect settlers who cleared forest and ploughed the land with
hard work. They cultivated a range of commercial crops for the market and deals with the traders.
Expansion of Santhal Settlements and Effect on Paharias:
→ A large area of land was provided to Santhals by 1832 in Rajmahal hills which came to be known as
Damin-i-koh. The Santhals practised settled agriculture with the use of plough.
→ The Santhals were asked to clear the forest and cultivate one-tenth of the area within the first ten
years.
→ The demarcation of Damin-i-koh resulted in the expansion of Santhal settlement and increase in
population which leads to expansion in cultivation and increasing revenue for the Company.
→ With the coming of Santhal in the Raj Mahal hill, the Paharias were forced to move deeper into the
hills and it had a huge effect on the lives of Paharias as they were depended on this forest and they
considered it as their home.
Santhal Revolt
→ The Santhals realised that the land they had cultivated was slipping away from their hands.
→ The company was asking for huge tax for the land they had worked hard for. ® Moneylenders were
charging high rate of interest and the zamindars started controlling the Damin area if they fail to pay
the debt.
→ Due to these conditions, Santhals decided to revolt in 1855-56 against zamindars, moneylenders and
Britishers.
THE ACCOUNT OF BUCHANAN
• Francis Buchanan Hamilton was a physician who came to India and served in Bengal Medical
Service.
• He was an employee of British East India Company. The company asked him to do the survey of
Bengal.
• The Company had borne all the cost of his travel as they needed information collected by Buchanan.
• His duty was to observe and write about the resources available in Bengal. He describe the landscape
and even about how to increase its productivity.
A REVOLT IN THE COUNTRYSIDE: THE BOMBAY DECCAN
→ Peasants in various parts of India rose in revolt against the injustice of British, moneylenders and
traders through the 19th century. One such revolt occurred in 1875 in the Deccan.
→ British tried to understand the causes their anger to introduce new policies accordingly.

Account Books are Burnt.

→ The peasant movement began at Supa, a large village in Poona (Pune), which was a market centre
where moneylenders and shopkeepers lived.
→ A large number of ryots gathered on 12th May, 1875 and attacked the shopkeepers and demanded their
account books (bahi khatas) and debt bond. They burnt the khatas and looted the house of Sahukars.
→ More than 30 villages were affected by the revolt. The Sahukars left the villages, leaving their
property and belongings behind.
→ The British officials were threatened by the revolt spreading so fast. Therefore, British established
police-post in villages to control rebellion peasants. It took several months to bring down the
countryside under control.
Sahukar acted as a moneylender and trader.
A NEW REVENUE SYSTEM
→ As the British rule expanded from Bengal to other parts of India, new system of revenue was
introduced. The Permanent Settlement of Bengal was not applied to another region.
→ The reason behind this was rise in agricultural prices after 1810, which increased the value of harvest
produce. As the revenue demand was fixed under the Permanent Settlement, the company was not
able to claim more when the income of the peasants increases. British wanted to maximise its land
revenue.
→ The policies adopted by the officials were shaped by the popular economic theory of that time. For
example: In 1820, David Ricardo’s ideas were very popular and his ideas were taught in colleges in
England. Ricardian idea was that the landowner should claim only the average rent and when there is
surplus, the state should tax them.
→ Therefore, a new system of revenue called Ryotwari Settlement was introduced in Bombay Deccan.
o Under the Ryotwari settlement, the revenue was directly settled with the ryot.
o The revenue was collected according to the income and revenue paying capacity of the ryot.
o Under this Ryotwari settlement, the revenue demand was no longer permanent. Lands were
resurveyed every 30 years and increase revenue.
REVENUE DEMAND AND PEASANT DEBT
→ The revenue settlement in the Bombay was made in the 1820s for the first time. But the demand was
kept so high that it was impossible for peasants to pay it. Therefore, they deserted their village and
migrated to some other places.
→ Revenue collectors just to make their officers (Britisher) happy, they kept pressurising the peasants to
pay, even when the peasants face difficulty due to less rainfall and poor harvest. When a peasant fails
to pay then his field was seized and fined them.
→ After 1832, the price of agriculture products fell and led to decline in the income of the peasants.
→ Between 1832-34, one-third of cattle and half the population of countryside died due to famine. It led
to increase in unpaid revenue.
Peasant’s Debt :-
→ To survive, peasants borrowed money from moneylenders. They needed loans to pay revenue and to
buy their everyday needs and also meet their production expenditure.
→ Once the loan was taken, the peasants found it difficult to pay back the loans, and peasants
dependence on moneylenders increased.
→ By the mid-1840s, British came to realised that revenue demand was high and it was harsh for
peasants. Therefore, the revenue demand was decreased to encourage the peasants.
→ After 1845, the agricultural recovered and price and fields were extended. Peasants were still
depended on the moneylenders to buy plough, cattle, seeds and lands.
COTTON BOOM IN INDIA:
→ Before 1860s, Britain was buying its cotton from America. They were depended on American. British
cotton manufacturers were worried about their dependence on America.
→ Therefore, Britain was looking for other source of cotton supply. In 1857, the Cotton Supply
Association was founded in Britain and the Manchester Cotton Company was formed in 1859. Their
main purpose was to encourage cotton production in every parts of the world.
→ India was seen as a country that could supply cotton to Britain if American supply stops. India
possesses suitable soil, cheap labour and a climatic condition favourable for cotton cultiuvation.
→ But in 1861, America was going through difficult times due to its Civil War. It led to rapid decrease in
the supply of cotton from America.
→ With the increase in demand for Indian cotton. Cotton merchants in Bombay encouraged its
cultivation.
→ When there was boom in the market, credit flows easily, for those who give loans feel secure about
recovering their money.
→ Moneylender also provided advance and loans to peasants for cotton cultivation and they were hoping
to make huge profit from cotton export.
→ By 1862, over 90% of cotton in Britain imported from India. Somehow, with the increase in the
demand of cotton, the debt of peasants also increased to cultivate cotton.
CREDIT DRIES UP:
• By 1865, American civil war ended and their cotton supply to Britain revived. The demand for Indian
cotton declined.
• Export merchants and Sahukars in Bombay stopped giving credits to peasants. They felt peasants will
not be able to give back the loans.
• While credit dried up, the revenue demand increased drastically from 50-100 percent. Again, peasants
had to depend on moneylenders but moneylenders refuse to give loans to peasants.
THE EXPERIENCE OF INJUSTICE:
→ Peasants became very angry when moneylenders refused to give loans because they were dependent
on moneylenders to survive.
→ Even before the coming of British, moneylending was widespread in India. According to the local
custom, the interest charge was also not more than the principal (not very high).
→ But under the colonial rule, the custom was not followed. They started charging more. In some cases,
the moneylenders had charged Rs 2000 as interest for a loan of Rs 100.
→ The ryot (peasants) came to see the moneylenders as greedy and filed numbers of complaints against
them.
→ In 1859, British passed a Limitation Law, which says the loan bond or contract signed between
moneylenders and ryots would have validity for only three years.
→ This law supposed to check the collection of interest within three years but moneylenders forcefully
made the ryot sign a new bond every three years.
→ Bond and contract became a symbol of new oppressive system. Peasants were made to sign and put
their thumb impression on documents, but they did not even know what they were signing.
→ But they had no choice because to survive they needed loans and moneylenders would not give loans
without legal bonds.
→ All these information comes from the investigation of Deccan Riots Commission.
THE DECCAN RIOTS COMMISSION:
→ When the peasants in Bombay revolted, the Government of Bombay was forced to set up a
commission to investigate the causes of revolt/riots. The commission came to be known as Deccan
Riots Commission.
→ The commission submitted its report to the British Parliament in 1878, it collected many significant
information through:
o Investigating riot-affected areas.
o Recorded the statement of ryots, sahukars and eyewitnesses.
o Recorded statistical data on revenue rates, prices and interest rates in different regions,
o Reports of district collectors.
→ This report reflected the official thinking of the colonial government. The commission was asked to
judge whether the government revenue demand was the cause of the revolt.
→ It came to the conclusion that peasants were angered by moneylenders, but not by the revenue demand
of the company.
→ It also shows that colonial government (British) were unwilling to accept that popular discontent
(dissatisfaction) was against the government’s action.
→ Official reports are invaluable source of understanding the history but it need to compare with other
evidence as well.