MODULE 5

LESSON 8
DETERMINANTS
Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Understand the concept of the determinant of a matrix and its properties, and
2. Apply the concept of the determinant to solve systems of linear algebraic equations.

The determinant of a matrix exists only for an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix or a square matrix. Symbolically, we
write the determinant of matrix 𝑨 by using verical bars as illustrated below.
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
⋮ ] and
𝑨=[ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
det 𝑨 = | ⋮ ⋮ |
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛

Determinant of a 𝟐 𝒙 𝟐 matrix.
𝑎11 𝑎12
The determinant of 𝑨 = [𝑎 𝑎22 ] is given by
21

𝑎11 𝑎12
det 𝑨 = |𝑎 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 𝑎21
21

(multiply) (multiply)
𝑎11 𝑎12
This is illustrated as: |𝑎 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 𝑎21
21
(subtract the products)
Determinant of a 𝟑 𝒙 𝟑 matrix.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
The determinant of 𝑨 = [ 21
𝑎 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] is given by
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎
det 𝑨 = | 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
= (𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 + 𝑎12 𝑎23 𝑎31 + 𝑎13 𝑎21 𝑎32 ) −
(𝑎13 𝑎22 𝑎31 + 𝑎11 𝑎23 𝑎32 + 𝑎12 𝑎21 𝑎33 )

This is illustrated as:

(copy the first 2 columns)
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12
𝑎
| 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32

= (𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 + 𝑎12 𝑎23 𝑎31 + 𝑎13 𝑎21 𝑎32 ) −

(𝑎13 𝑎22 𝑎31 + 𝑎11 𝑎23 𝑎32 + 𝑎12 𝑎21 𝑎33 )

The above technique is sometimes called the basketweave method for determinants, which is applicable
only for 2 𝑥 2 and 3 𝑥 3 matrices.

Determinant of an 𝒏 𝒙 𝒏 matrix using Laplace expansion.

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎
Consider a 3 𝑥 3 matrix 𝑨 = [ 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]. Getting the determinant of 𝑨 by expansion on
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
the first row gives
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
det 𝑨 = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
= 𝑎11 |𝑎 𝑎33 | − 𝑎12 |𝑎31 𝑎33 | + 𝑎13 |𝑎31 𝑎32 |
32

= 𝑎11 𝐶11 − 𝑎12 𝐶12 + 𝑎13 𝐶13

where 𝐶11 is the cofactor of 𝑎11 , 𝐶12 is the cofactor of 𝑎12 and 𝐶13 is the cofactor of 𝑎13 .
In general, the cofactor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is the determinant

𝐶𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗

where 𝑀𝑖𝑗 is the determinant of the submatrix obtained by deleting the 𝑖th row and the 𝑗th column of 𝑨.
The determinant 𝑀𝑖𝑗 is called the minor determinant.
Note that a cofactor is a signed minor determinant. Given an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix, the sign factor pattern for the
cofator is given below. This means that the first entry 𝐶11 is always positive while taking an alternate sign
pattern across the row and down a column.
 + − + − + …
− + − + − …
+ − + − + …
− + − + − …
+ − + − + …
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮

Laplace expansion is also known as the cofactor expansion. You can expand on any row or any column to
evaluate the determinant.

Example 8.1. Find the determinant.

2 3
1. 𝑨 = [ ]
4 1
2 3
det 𝑨 = | | (Use basketweave method)
4 1
= 2(1) − 3(4)
= 2 − 12
= −10

2 1 2
2. 𝑨 = [3 4 7]
8 1 −5
2 1 2
det 𝑨 = |3 4 7| (Copy the first 2 columns)
8 1 −5
2 1 2 2 1
= |3 4 7 3 4|
8 1 −5 8 1
(Use basketweave method)
= [2(4)(−5) + 1(7)(8) + 2(3)(1)] −
[2(4)(8) + 2(7)(1) + 1(3)(−5)]
= (−40 + 56 + 6) − (64 + 14 − 15)
= 22 − 63
= −41
3. Solve Example 2 using Laplace expansion expanding on (a) Row 1 and
(b) Column 2.

2 1 2
𝑨 = [3 4 7]
8 1 −5
2 1 2
det 𝑨 = |3 4 7|
8 1 −5

(a) Expanding on Row 1 and taking in consideration the sign factor

pattern:
+ − +
2 1 2
det 𝑨 = | 3 4 7 |
8 1 −5
4 7 3 7 3 4
= (+)2 | | + (−)1 | | + (+)2 | |
1 −5 8 −5 8 1
= 2[4(−5) − 7(1)] − 1[3(−5) − 7(8)] + 2[3(1) − 4(8)]

= 2(−20 − 7) − (−15 − 56) + 2(3 − 32)

= 2(−27) − (−71) + 2(−29)
= −54 + 71 − 58
= −41

(b) Expanding on Column 2 and taking in consideration the sign factor

pattern:
−
+
−
2 1 2
det 𝑨 = | 3 4 7 |
8 1 −5
3 7 2 2 2 2
= (−)1 | | + (+)4 | | + (−)1 | |
8 −5 8 −5 3 7
= −1[3(−5) − 7(8)] + 4[2(−5) − 2(8)] −
1[2(7) − 2(3)]
= −1(−15 − 56) + 4(−10 − 16) −
 1(14 − 6)
= −(−71) + 4(−26) − (8)
= 71 − 104 − 8
= −41

2 4 −1 1
4. 𝑨 = [3 1 6 1]
8 2 1 4
9 2 3 −1

Use Laplace expansion. We can expand at any row or column.

Say, we expand on Row 4.

2 4 −1 1
det 𝑨 = [ 3 1 6 1 ]
8 2 1 4
9 2 3 −1
− + − +

4 −1 1 2 −1 1
= (−)9 |1 6 1| + (+)2 |3 6 1| +
2 1 4 8 1 4
2 4 1 2 4 −1
(−)3 |3 1 1| + (+)(−1) |3 1 6|
8 2 4 8 2 1
4 −1 1 2 −1 1
= −9 |1 6 1| + 2 |3 6 1| −
2 1 4 8 1 4
2 4 1 2 4 −1
3 |3 1 1| − |3 1 6 |
8 2 4 8 2 1

Use Laplace expansion again on every 3 𝑥 3 submatrices, expanding

on the first row.

6 1 1 1 1 6
= −9 (4 | | — 1) | | + 1| |+
1 4 2 4 2 1
6 1 3 1 3 6
2 (2 | | − (−1) | |+ 1| |) −
1 4 8 4 8 1
1 1 3 1 3 1
3 (2 | | −4| | + 1| |) −
2 4 8 4 8 2
1 6 3 6 3 1
(2 | |− 4| | + (−1) | |)
2 1 8 1 8 2
 = −9{4[6(4) − 1(1)] − (−1)[1(4) − 1(2)] + 1[1(1) −
6(2)]} + 2{2[6(4) − 1(1)] − (−1)[3(4) − 1(8)] + 1[3(1) −
6(8)]} − 3{2[1(4) − 1(2)] − 4[3(4) − 1(8)] + 1[3(2) − 1(8)]} −
{2[1(1) − 6(2)] − 4[3(1) − 6(8)] + (−1)[3(2) − 1(8)]}

= −9{4(24 − 1) + 1(4 − 2) + 1(1 − 12)} +

2{2(24 − 1) + 1(12 − 8) + 1(3 − 48)} −
3{2(4 − 2) − 4(12 − 8) + 1(6 − 8)} −
{2(1 − 12) − 4(3 − 48) − 1(6 − 8)}

= −9{4(23) + 1(2) + 1(−11)} +

2{2(23) + 1(4) + 1(−45)} −
3{2(2) − 4(4) + 1(−2)} −
{2(−11) − 4(−45) − 1(−2)}
= −9{92 + 2 − 11} + 2{46 + 4 − 45} −
3{4 − 16 − 2} − {−22 + 180 + 2}
= −9{83} + 2{5} − 3{−14} − {160}
= −747 + 10 + 42 − 160
= −855

Example 8.2. Find the minor of element 7 and 2 and the cofactor of element 7 and 2 in
the matrix below.

−2 1 3 5
𝑨=[ 2 7 8 1]
3 −5 5 1
8 1 9 −4

(a) Minor of element 7

Element 7 is element 𝑎22 of matrix 𝑨.

−2 1 3 5
𝑨=[ 2 7 8 1]
3 −5 5 1
8 1 9 −4
−2 3 5
𝑀22 = | 3 5 1 |
8 9 −4
(Evaluate the determinant by expanding in Row 1.)
5 1 3 1 3 5
= −2 | | − 3| | + 5| |
9 −4 8 −4 8 9
= −2[5(−4) − 1(9)] − 3[3(−4) − 1(8)] +
 5[3(9) − 5(8)]
= −2[−20 − 9] − 3[−12 − 8] + 5[27 − 40]
= −2(−29) − 3(−20) + 5(−13)
= 58 + 60 − 65
= 53

Cofactor of element 7

𝐶𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗

𝐶22 = (−1)2+2 𝑀22
= (−1)4 (53)
= 53

(b) Minor of element 2

Element 2 is element 𝑎21 of matrix 𝑨.

−2 1 3 5
𝑨=[ 2 7 8 1]
3 −5 5 1
8 1 9 −4
1 3 5
𝑀21 = |−5 5 1 |
1 9 −4
(Evaluate the determinant by expanding in Row 1.)
5 1 −5 1 −5 5
= 1| | − 3| | + 5| |
9 −4 1 −4 1 9
= 1[5(−4) − 1(9)] − 3[−5(−4) − 1(1)] +
5[−5(9) − 5(1)]
= 1[−20 − 9] − 3[20 − 1] + 5[−45 − 5]
= 1(−29) − 3(19) + 5(−50)
= −29 − 57 − 250
= −336

Cofactor of element 2

𝐶𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗

𝐶21 = (−1)2+1 𝑀22
= (−1)3 (−336)
= 336
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

1. Determinant of a Transpose.
If 𝑨𝑇 is the transpose of an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨, then det 𝑨𝑇 = det 𝑨.

2. Two Identical Rows (Columns).

If any two rows (columns) of an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨 are the same, then det 𝑨 = 0.

3. Zero Row (Column).

If all entries in a row (column) of an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨 are zero, then det 𝑨 = 0.

4. Interchanging Rows (Columns).

If 𝑩 is the matrix obtained by interchanging any two rows (columns) of an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨,
then det 𝑩 = − det 𝑨.

5. Constant Multiple of a Row (Column).

If 𝑩 is the matrix obtained from an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨 by multiplying a row (column) by a
nonzero real number 𝑘, then det 𝑩 = 𝑘(det 𝑨).

6. Determinant of a Matrix Product.

If 𝑨 and 𝑩 are both 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrices, then det 𝑨𝑩 = det 𝑨 ∙ det 𝑩.

7. Determinant is Unchanged.
Suppose 𝑩 is the matrix obtained from an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨 by multiplying the entries in a
row (column) by a nonzero real number 𝑘 and adding the result to the corresponding entries
in another row (column). Then det 𝑩 = det 𝑨.

8. Determinant of a Triangular Matrix.

Suppose 𝑨 is an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix (upper or lower). Then, det 𝑨 = 𝑎11 𝑎22 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 , where
𝑎11 𝑎22 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 are the entries on the main diagonal of 𝑨.
Example 8.3. Determine the determinant by applying the properties of determinant.
 2 3 1 5
1. 𝑨 = [ 7 1 −1 2]
1 3 2 1
−5 2 3 4

Apply elementary matrix operations first to obtain an equivalent matrix

and see if we can use any of the properties discussed above.

2 3 1 5
[ 7 1 −1 2]
1 3 2 1
−5 2 3 4

𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅3
(Apply property No. 4: det 𝑩 = − det 𝑨)
2 3 1 5 1 3 2 1
[ 7 1 −1 2] → [ 7 1 −1 2 ]
1 3 2 1 2 3 1 5
−5 2 3 4 −5 2 3 4

𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 7𝑅1
(Apply property No. 7)
1 3 2 1 𝑎21 = 7 − 7(1) = 0
𝑎22 = 1 − 7(3) = −20
[ 7 1 −1 2 ] ∶
2 3 1 5 𝑎23 = −1 − 7(2) = −15
−5 2 3 4 𝑎24 = 2 − 7(1) = −5

1 3 2 1 1 3 2 1
[ 7 1 −1 2 ] → [ 0 −20 −15 −5]
2 3 1 5 2 3 1 5
−5 2 3 4 −5 2 3 4

𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1
(Apply property No. 7)

1 3 2 1 𝑎31 = 2 − 2(1) = 0
[ 0 −20 −15 −5] ∶ 𝑎32 = 3 − 2(3) = −3
2 3 1 5 𝑎23 = 1 − 2(2) = −3
−5 2 3 4 𝑎24 = 5 − 2(1) = 3
1 3 2 1 1 3 2 1
[ 0 −20 −15 −5 ] → [ 0 −20 −15 −5 ]
2 3 1 5 0 −3 −3 3
−5 2 3 4 −5 2 3 4

𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 5𝑅1
(Apply property No. 7)
𝑎41 = −5 + 5(1) = 0
𝑎32 = 2 + 5(3) = 17
𝑎23 = 3 + 5(2) = 13
𝑎24 = 4 + 5(1) = 9
 1 3 2 1
[ 0 −20 −15 −5] ∶
0 −3 −3 3
−5 2 3 4
1 3 2 1 1 3 2 1
[ 0 −20 −15 −5 ] → [ 0 −20 −15 −5 ]
0 −3 −3 3 0 −3 −3 3
−5 2 3 4 0 17 13 9

Use Laplace expansion, expanding on Column 1 and applying the sign

factor pattern.

1 3 2 1
(Note that we used
𝑨 = [ 0 −20 −15 −5]
0 −3 −3 3 Property No. 4 above.)
0 17 13 9

The negative sign here is because of using Property No. 4.

−20 −15 −5 3 2 1
det 𝑨 = − {1 | −3 −3 3 | − 0 |−3 −3 3| +
17 13 9 17 13 9
3 2 1 3 2 1
0 |−20 −15 −5| − 0 |−20 −15 −5|}
17 13 9 17 13 9
−20 −15 −5
= − {1 | −3 −3 3 | − 0 + 0 − 0}
17 13 9
−20 −15 −5
= − | −3 −3 3 | (Apply property No. 5)
17 13 9
−5(4) −5(3) −5(1)
= − |3(−1) 3(−1) 3(1) | (Factor out the common
multiple in Row 1 and Row 2)
17 13 9
4 3 1
= −(−5)(3) |−1 −1 1|
17 13 9

Apply Laplace expansion, expanding on Row 3 and using the sign

factor pattern.

3 1 4 1
17 | | − 13 | |+
= −(−5)(3) { −1 1 −1 1 }
4 3
9| |
−1 −1
 4(1) −
17[3(1) − 1(−1)] − 13 [ ]+
= −(−5)(3) { 1(−1) }
9[4(−1) − 3(−1)]
= −(−5)(3){17(3 + 1) − 13(4 + 1) + 9(−4 + 3)}
= −(−5)(3){17(4) − 13(5) + 9(−1)}
= −(−5)(3)(68 − 65 − 9)
= −(−5)(3)(−6)
= −90

6 2 7
2. 𝑨 = [−4 −3 2]
2 4 8

We will demonstrate property No. 8.

6 2 7
det 𝑨 = |−4 −3 2|
2 4 8
6 2 7
= | −4 −3 2 | (Property No. 5)
2(1) 2(2) 2(4)
6 2 7
= 2 |−4 −3 2| (𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅3 : Property No. 4)
1 2 4
1 2 4
(𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 + 4𝑅1 :
= −2 |−4 −3 2| Property No. 7)
6 2 7
1 2 4 𝑎21 = −4 + 4(1) = 0
= −2 |0 5 18| 𝑎22 = −3 + 4(2) = 5
𝑎23 = 2 + 4(4) = 18
6 2 7
1 2 4 (𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 6𝑅1 :
= −2 |0 5 18| Property No. 7)
6 2 7
1 2 4 𝑎31 = 6 − 6(1) = 0
= −2 |0 5 18 | 𝑎22 = 2 − 6(2) = −10
0 −10 −17 𝑎23 = 7 − 6(4) = −17

1 2 4
(𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 2𝑅2 :
= −2 |0 5 18 | Property No. 7)
0 −10 −17
𝑎31 = 0 + 2(0) = 0
𝑎32 = −10 + 2(5) = 0
𝑎33 = −17 + 2(18) = 19
 1 2 4
= −2 |0 5 18|
0 0 19

We now have an upper triangular matrix. Using property No. 8,

1 2 4
det 𝑨 = −2 |0 5 18|
0 0 19
= −2(1)(5)(19)
= −190

Example 8.4. Without expanding, show that

𝑎2 −𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑐
1. |−𝑎𝑏 𝑏2 −𝑏𝑐 | = 0
𝑎𝑐 −𝑏𝑐 𝑐2

Solving the determinant of a given matrix without expanding means that

we are not allowed to use Laplace expansion. We can only use the
properties of determinants.

𝑎2 −𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑐
|−𝑎𝑏 𝑏2 −𝑏𝑐| = 0
𝑎𝑐 −𝑏𝑐 𝑐2
𝑎2 −𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑐 𝑎(𝑎) 𝑎(−𝑏) 𝑎(𝑐)
|−𝑎𝑏 𝑏2 −𝑏𝑐| = |𝑏(−𝑎) 𝑏(𝑏) 𝑏(−𝑐)|
𝑎𝑐 −𝑏𝑐 𝑐2 𝑐(𝑎) 𝑐(−𝑏) 𝑐(𝑐)
(Use property No. 5)
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑐
= 𝑎(𝑏)(𝑐) |−𝑎 𝑏 −𝑐 |
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑐

Since Row 1 and Row 2 are identical rows, by property No. 2,

𝑎2 −𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑐
|−𝑎𝑏 𝑏 2 −𝑏𝑐| = 0.
𝑎𝑐 −𝑏𝑐 𝑐 2
 1 𝑎 𝑎3
2. |1 𝑏 𝑏 3 | = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑏 − 𝑐)(𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
1 𝑐 𝑐3

1 𝑎 𝑎3
|1 𝑏 𝑏 3 | = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑏 − 𝑐 )(𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 )
1 𝑐 𝑐3
(Use property No. 7.)
𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 and 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 𝑅1
1 𝑎 𝑎3 1 𝑎 𝑎3
3| = |
|1 𝑏 𝑏 0 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏 3 − 𝑎3 |
1 𝑐 𝑐3 0 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐 3 − 𝑎3
(Use property No. 5.)
𝑏−𝑎
𝑅2 ∗ = (𝑏−𝑎) 𝑅2

1 𝑎 𝑎3
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
= |(𝑏−𝑎) 0 (𝑏−𝑎) 𝑏 − 𝑎 (𝑏−𝑎) 𝑏 3 − 𝑎3 |
0 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐 3 − 𝑎3
1 𝑎 𝑎3
0 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏3 −𝑎 3
= |(𝑏 − 𝑎) (𝑏 − 𝑎) (𝑏 − 𝑎) |
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
0 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐3 − 𝑎 3

1 𝑎 𝑎3
0 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏 3 −𝑎3
= (𝑏 − 𝑎) | |
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
3 3
0 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐 −𝑎
1 𝑎 𝑎3
0 𝑏−𝑎 (𝑏−𝑎)(𝑏2 +𝑎𝑏+𝑎2 )
= (𝑏 − 𝑎) | |
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
3 3
0 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐 −𝑎
1 𝑎 𝑎3
= (𝑏 − 𝑎) |0 1 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 |
2

0 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐 3 − 𝑎3
(Use property No. 7.)
𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − (𝑐 − 𝑎)𝑅2
 1 𝑎 𝑎3
= (𝑏 − 𝑎) |0 1 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2
2 |
0 0 (𝑐 − 𝑎 ) − (𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 )
3 3

= (𝑏 − 𝑎) ∗
1 𝑎 𝑎3
|0 1 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2
2 |
0 0 (𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑐 + 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎2 ) − (𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 )
2

= (𝑏 − 𝑎)*
1 𝑎 𝑎3
|0 1 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2
2
|
0 0 (𝑐 − 𝑎)[(𝑐 + 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎2 ) − (𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 )]
2

1 𝑎 𝑎3
(𝑏
= − 𝑎) |0 1 𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 |
0 0 (𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑐 2 + 𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑎𝑏)

Since we already have an upper triangular matrix, we can use property

No. 8.

= (𝑏 − 𝑎)(1)(1)(𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑐 2 + 𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑎𝑏)

= (𝑏 − 𝑎)(𝑐 − 𝑎)[(𝑐 2 − 𝑏 2 ) + (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑎𝑏)]
= (𝑏 − 𝑎)(𝑐 − 𝑎)[(𝑐 − 𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑏) + 𝑎(𝑐 − 𝑏)]
= (𝑏 − 𝑎)(𝑐 − 𝑎)[(𝑐 − 𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑏 + 𝑎)]
= (−(𝑎 − 𝑏))(𝑐 − 𝑎)(−(𝑏 − 𝑐))(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
= (−1)(𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑐 − 𝑎)(−1)(𝑏 − 𝑐)(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
= (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑏 − 𝑐)(𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)

Using Determinants to Solve Systems of Equations: The Cramer’s Rule

For a system of 𝑛 linear equations in 𝑛 variables given below

 𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛

we can define a matrix of the form

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑘−1 𝑏1 𝑎1𝑘+1 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑘−1 𝑏2 𝑎2𝑘+1 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝑨𝑘 = [ ⋮ ]
⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑘−1 𝑏𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑘+1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛

𝑘th column

This means that matrix 𝑨𝑘 is the same as matrix 𝑨 except that the 𝑘th column of 𝑨 has been
replaced by the entries of the column matrix

𝑏1
𝑏2
𝑩=[ ]
⋮
𝑏𝑛

In general, Cramer’s Rule states that given the coefficient matrix of an 𝑛 equations with 𝑛
unknowns system of linear equations, and that det 𝑨 ≠ 0, the solution of the systems of equations
is

det 𝑨1 det 𝑨2 det 𝑨𝑛

𝑥1 = , 𝑥2 = ,… , 𝑥𝑛 =
det 𝑨 det 𝑨 det 𝑨

where 𝑨𝑘 , 𝑘 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛 is the matrix defined above.

Example 8.5. Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the following systems of linear equations.

1. 3𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 5𝑐 − 𝑑 = 10
2𝑎 + 𝑏 + 5𝑐 − 4𝑑 = 3
3𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑐 + 𝑑 = 6
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 9𝑑 = 42

The augmented matrix [𝑨|𝑩] is given below.

 3 −2 5 −1 10
[ 2 1 5 −4 3 ]
3 1 −1 1 6
1 1 1 9 42

Get the determinant of 𝑨.

3 −2 5 −1
det 𝑨 = |2 1 5 −4|
3 1 −1 1
1 1 1 9

Property No. 4: 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅4
1 1 1 9
= −| 2 1 5 −4 |
3 1 −1 1
3 −2 5 −1

Property No. 7: 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 ,

𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 , and 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 2𝑅1
1 1 1 9
= − |0 −1 3 −22 |
0 −2 −4 −26
0 −5 2 −28

Property No. 5: Factor out (−1) from Row 2.

1 1 1 9
= −(−1) | 0 1 −3 22 |
0 −2 −4 −26
0 −5 2 −28
1 1 1 9
= |0 1 −3 22 |
0 −2 −4 −26
0 −5 2 −28

Property No. 7: 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 2𝑅2 and

𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 5𝑅2
1 1 1 9
= |0 1 −3 22 |
0 0 −10 18
0 0 −13 82

Property No. 5: Factor out (−10) from Row 3.

 1 1 1 9
0 1 −3 22
= −10 |
− 10|
18
0 0 1
0 0 −13 82

Property No. 7: 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 13𝑅3

1 1 1 9
0 1 −3 22
= −10 || 18 |
1 − 10 |
0 0
0 0 293
0 5

Property No. 8.
293
= −10(1)(1)(1) ( )
5

= −586

To solve for 𝑎, get the matrix 𝑨1 where Column 1 is replaced by 𝑩.

Then solve the determinant of 𝑨1 .

10 −2 5 −1
𝑨1 = [ 3 1 5 −4]
6 1 −1 1
42 1 1 9

Get the determinant of 𝑨1 .

10 −2 5 −1
det 𝑨1 = | 3 1 5 −4|
6 1 −1 1
42 1 1 9

Property No. 5: Factor out (10) from Row 1.

2 5 1
1 − 10 − 10
10
= 10 | 3 1 5 −4 |
6 1 −1 1
42 1 1 9
1 1 1
1 −5 − 10
2
= 10 | 3 1 5 −4 |
6 1 −1 1
42 1 1 9

Property No. 7: 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 ,

𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 6𝑅1 , and 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 42𝑅1
 1 1 1
1 −5 − 10
2
|0 8 7 37
− 10 |
5 2
= 10 11 8
|0 5
−4 5|
47 66
0 −20
5 5

8
Property No. 5: Factor out (5) from Row 2.
1 1
1
1
−5 − 10
2
|0 35 37
8 1 − |
16 16
= 10 (5) 11 8
|0 −4
5 5 |
47 66
0 −20
5 5
1 1
1 −5
1 − 10
2
|0 35 37
1 − 16|
16
= 16 11 8
|0 −4
5 5 |
47 66
0 −20
5 5

11
Property No. 7: 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 and
5
47
𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 𝑅2
5
1 1
1 −5
1 − 10
2
|0 35 37
1 − 16|
16
= 16 141 107
|0 −
0 16 16 |
0 0 649 559
− 16 16

141
Property No. 5: Factor out (− ) from Row 3.
16
1 1
1 −5
1 − 10
2
|0 35 37
141 1 − 16 |
16
= 16 (− ) 107
16
|0 0 1 − 141|
0 0 649 559
− 16 16
 1 1
1 −5
1 − 10
2
|0 35 37
1 − 16 |
16
= −141 107
|0 0 1 − 141|
0 0 649 559
− 16 16

649
Property No. 7: 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 𝑅3
16
1 1
1 −5
1 − 10
2
|0 35 37
1 − 16 |
16
= −141 107
|0 0 1 − 141|
0 0 586
0 141

Property No. 8.
586
= −141(1)(1)(1) (141)
= −586

Solve for 𝑎:

det 𝑨1 −586
𝑎= = −586
det 𝑨

𝑎=1

To solve for 𝑏, get the matrix 𝑨2 where Column 2 is replaced by 𝑩.

Then solve the determinant of 𝑨2 .

3 10 5 −1
𝑨2 = [2 3 5 −4]
3 6 −1 1
1 42 1 9

Get the determinant of 𝑨2 .

3 10 5 −1
det 𝑨2 = |2 3 5 −4|
3 6 −1 1
1 42 1 9

Property No. 4: 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅4
 1 42 1 9
= − |2 3 5 −4 |
3 6 −1 1
3 10 5 −1

Property No. 7: 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 ,

𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 , and 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 3𝑅1
1 42 1 9
= − | 0 −81 3 −22 |
0 −120 −4 −26
0 −116 2 −28

Property No. 5: Factor out (−81) from Row 2.

1 42 1 9
3 22
− 81
= −(−81) |0 1 81|
0 −120 −4 −26
0 −116 2 −28
1 42 1 9
1 22
= 81 |0 1 − 27 81|
0 −120 −4 −26
0 −116 2 −28

Property No. 7: 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 120𝑅2 and

𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 116𝑅2
1 42 1 9
1 22
− 27
|0 1 81|
= 81 −
76 178
|0 0 9 27 |
0 0 62 284
− 27 81

76
Property No. 5: Factor out (− 9 ) from Row 3.

1 42 1 9
1 22
− 27
76 |0 1 81 |
= 81 (− 9 ) 1
89
− 114|
|0 0
0 0 62 284
− 27 81

1 42 1 9
1 22
− 27
|0 1 81 |
= −684 1
89
− 114|
|0 0
0 0 62 284
− 27 81
 62
Property No. 7: 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 27 𝑅3

1 42 1 9
1 22
|0 1 − 27 81|
= −684 1
89
− 114 |
|0 0
0 0 293
0 171

Property No. 8.
293
= −684(1)(1)(1) (171)
= −1172

Solve for 𝑏:

det 𝑨2 −1172
𝑏= =
det 𝑨 −586

𝑏=2

To solve for 𝑐, get the matrix 𝑨3 where Column 3 is replaced by 𝑩.

Then solve the determinant of 𝑨3 .

3 −2 10 −1
𝑨3 = [2 1 3 −4]
3 1 6 1
1 1 42 9

Get the determinant of 𝑨3 .

3 −2 10 −1
det 𝑨3 = |2 1 3 −4|
3 1 6 1
1 1 42 9

Property No. 4: 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅4
1 1 42 9
= −| 2 1 3 −4|
3 1 6 1
3 −2 10 −1

Property No. 7: 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 ,

𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 , and 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 3𝑅1
 1 1 42 9
= −|0 −1 −81 −22|
0 −2 −120 −26
0 −5 −116 −28

Property No. 5: Factor out (−1) from Row 2.

1 1 42 9
= −(−1) | 0 1 81 22 |
0 −2 −120 −26
0 −5 −116 −28
1 1 42 9
=| 0 1 81 22 |
0 −2 −120 −26
0 −5 −116 −28

Property No. 7: 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 2𝑅2 and

𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 5𝑅2
1 1 42 9
= |0 1 81 22 |
0 0 42 18
0 0 289 82

Property No. 5: Factor out (42) from Row 3.

1 1 42 9
0 1 81 22
= 42 | 18 |
0 0 1
42
0 0 289 82
1 1 42 9
0 1 81 22
= 42 | 3 |
0 0 1
7
0 0 289 82

Property No. 7: 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 289𝑅3

1 1 42 9
0 1 81 22
= 42 || 3 |
0 0 1 7 |
0 0 0 − 293
7

Property No. 8.
293
= 42(1)(1)(1) (− )
7

= −1758
Solve for 𝑐:

det 𝑨3 −1758
𝑐= =
det 𝑨 −586

𝑐=3
To solve for 𝑑, get the matrix 𝑨4 where Column 4 is replaced by
𝑩. Then solve the determinant of 𝑨4 .

3 −2 5 10
𝑨4 = [2 1 5 3]
3 1 −1 6
1 1 1 42

Get the determinant of 𝑨4 .

3 −2 5 10
det 𝑨4 = |2 1 5 3|
3 1 −1 6
1 1 1 42

Property No. 4: 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅4
1 1 1 42
= −| 2 1 5 3|
3 1 −1 6
3 −2 5 10

Property No. 7: 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 ,

𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 , and 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 3𝑅1
1 1 1 42
= −|0 −1 3 −81 |
0 −2 −4 −120
0 −5 2 −116

Property No. 5: Factor out (−1) from Row 2.

1 1 1 42
= −(−1) | 0 1 −3 81 |
0 −2 −4 −120
0 −5 2 −116
1 1 1 42
=| 0 1 −3 81 |
0 −2 −4 −120
0 −5 2 −116
 Property No. 7: 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 2𝑅2 and
𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 5𝑅2
1 1 1 42
= |0 1 −3 81 |
0 0 −10 42
0 0 −13 289

Property No. 5: Factor out (−10) from Row 3.

1 1 1 42
0 1 −3 81
= −10 |
− 10|
42
0 0 1
0 0 −13 289
1 1 1 42
0 1 −3 81
= −10 |
1 − 5|
21
0 0
0 0 −13 289

Property No. 7: 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 13𝑅3

1 1 1 42
0 1 −3 81
= −10 || 21 |
1 − 5|
0 0
0 0 1172
0
5

Property No. 8.
1172
= −10(1)(1)(1) ( )
5

= −2344

Solve for 𝑑:

det 𝑨4 −2344
𝑑= =
det 𝑨 −586

𝑑=4

2. Find the value of 𝑧.

4𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3
3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = −9
4𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 7𝑧 = 8
The augmented matrix [𝑨|𝑩] is given below.

4 −5 2 3
[3 −1 5 −9 ]
4 3 −7 8

Get the determinant of 𝑨.

4 −5 2
det 𝑨 = |3 −1 5|
4 3 −7

Property No. 5: Factor out (4) from Row 1.

5 2
1 −
4 4
= 4 |3 −1 5|
4 3 −7
5 1
1 −4 2
= 4 |3 −1 5|
4 3 −7

Property No. 7: 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , and 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 4𝑅1 .

5 1
1 −
4 2
= 4 |0 11 7 |
4 2
0 8 −9
11
Property No. 5: Factor out ( 4 ) from Row 2.
5 1
1 −4 2
11
= 4 ( 4 ) |0 1
14 |
11
0 8 −9
5 1
1 −4 2
= 11 |0 1
14 |
11
0 8 −9

Property No. 7: 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 8𝑅2 .

5 1
1 −4 2
14
= 11 ||0 1 11 |
|
211
0 0 − 11
Property No. 8.
211
= 11(1)(1) (− )
11

= −211

To solve for 𝑧, get the matrix 𝑨3 where Column 3 is replaced by 𝑩.

Then solve the determinant of 𝑨3 .

4 −5 3
𝑨3 = [3 −1 −9]
4 3 8

Get the determinant of 𝑨3 .

4 −5 3
det 𝑨3 = |3 −1 −9|
4 3 8

Property No. 5: Factor out (4) from Row 1.

5 3
1 −4 4
= 4 |3 −1 −9|
4 3 8

Property No. 7: 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , and

𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 4𝑅1 .
5 3
1 −4 4
= 4 |0 11
−
45|
4 4
0 8 5
11
Property No. 5: Factor out ( 4 ) from Row 2.
5 3
1 −4 4
11
= 4 ( 4 ) |0 1
45|
− 11
0 8 5
5 3
1 −4 4
= 11 |0 1 − 11
45|

0 8 5

Property No. 7: 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 8𝑅2 .

 5 3
1 −4 4
45|
= 11 ||0 1 − 11|
415
0 0 11

Property No. 8.
415
= 11(1)(1) ( 11 )
= 415

Solve for 𝑧:

det 𝑨3 415
𝑧= = −211
det 𝑨
415
𝑧 = − 211