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Module IV
COMPUTER BASICS

4.1 Definition

A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory that can accept data, process the data according to specified rules and produce results and store
the results for future use. You can use a computer to type documents, send email, and browse the internet.
You can also use it to handle spreadsheets, accounting, database management, presentations, games, and
more.
All computers are electronic as they are powered by electricity in one form or another. Computers
are programmable since they can be made to follow programs or sets of instructions for operation. There
are four basic operations involved:
1. Input – feeding data to the computer from the external environment;
2. Storage – recording of data involved in all operations;
3. Process - manipulating and transforming of data by arithmetic and logical instructions; and
4. Output – producing data by presenting results derived from processing.

Some consider networking as a fifth basic operation, owing to the rise of the Internet and the
so-called Net-Centric Computing, but strictly speaking, networking is just Input and output combined.

4.2 Some Computer Applications

Computers are not only used in the desktop of offices. Some have assumed other configurations
and are embedded even in modern home appliances. People see many automated systems as distinct
when in fact they are of the same class as the computers used in schools. Some specific examples are:

1. Financial and Transaction Processing Systems - Automated Teller Machine (ATM)

Application; Point-of-Sale (POS) Terminals.
2. Registration and Billing - Airline and Ship Ticketing, Hotel Reservation Systems, Enrolment,
Utilities (Light, Water and Cable Billing)
3. Forecasting and Simulation - Weather, Flight Simulation
4. Manufacturing Applications - Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) and Computer-Aided
Drawing (CAD), Robotics, Embedded Systems
5. Communication Applications - Cellular Phones, E-Mail, Internet Chat
6. Transportation - Auto-Pilot, Traffic Lights
7. Educational Applications - Computer-Aided Instruction, Presentation, Presswork, Statistics
8. Military and Law-Enforcement - SpeedTrap, GPRS, Remote Sensing (Satellites)
9. Recreation - Games, Movies, MP3, Deep Blue
10. Office Productivity - Word Processing, Presentation, Spreadsheet, Desktop Publishing,
Imaging
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4.3. Some Computer Advantages of Using Computers

1. Efficiency - because computers process information very fast, accurately and precisely, they
are more efficient than human beings in doing particular tasks.
a. Speed - a computer can process data in a very, very short time.
b. Consistency - a computer gives an expected output consistent with the given instructions
and data.
c. Reliability - computers can do complex and boring/dangerous tasks repeatedly without
resting.
2. Versatility - a computer is a universal machine since it can do anything given the proper
instructions.
3. Convenience - computer systems today have become very user-friendly, meaning they are
easy to learn, maintain and use.
4. Connectivity/ Communication – most computers today can be connected to other computers,
often wirelessly. Computers allow users to communicate with one another.
5. Storage – computer stores enormous amounts of data and make this data available for
processing anytime it is needed.

4.4 Some Disadvantages of Using Computers

1. Violation of Privacy – when computers where personal and confidential records stored were
not properly protected, individuals have found their privacy violated and identities stolen.
2. Public Safety – computers is now widely used by users to publicly share their photos, videos
journals, music and other personal information. Some of these unsuspecting, innocent
computer users have fallen victim to crimes committed by dangerous strangers.
3. Impact on Labor Force – although computers have improved productivity and created
industries that cater new jobs, the skills of millions of employees have been replaced by
computers. It is crucial that workers keep their education up-to-date.
4. Health Risks – prolonged or improper computer use can lead to health injuries or disorders. Two
behavioral health risks are computer addiction and technology overload. Computer addiction occurs
when someone becomes obsessed with using a computer. Individual suffering from technology
overload feel distressed when deprived of computers and mobile devices. See Module III for more
discussions.
5. Impact on Environment – computer manufacturing processes and computer waste are depleting
natural resources and polluting the environment. Green computing is a move that involves reduction
of electricity consumption and environmental waste generated when using a computer. Strategies of
such move include recycling, regulating manufacturing processes, extending the life of computers
and immediately donating or properly disposing of replaced computers.
6. Power interruption – computers are very dependent with electricity that when the latter is
interrupted that jeopardizes the day to day computer activities and even leads to loss of profit. Back-
up power generators are dire needed. This problem also leads to hardware failure and loss of data.
Back-up of the data is necessary.
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4.5 Classification of Computers

Computers are classified according to age and components, size (or capability to process and store
data) and power, function, architecture and design.

1. According to Age and Components

• Early Computers - Gears/Relays and Mechanical Systems
• First Generation - Vacuum Tubes and Monolithic Systems
• Second Generation - Transistors (Hardware) and Batch System (Software)
• Third Generation - Integrated Circuits (Hardware) and Multiprogramming Systems (Software)
• Fourth Generation - Microprocessor/VLSI and Personal Computing

2. According to Size and Power

• Supercomputer - the largest and the fastest computers. Was first developed for high-volume
computing tasks such as weather prediction. Supercomputers are being used by large corporation
when the tremendous volume of data would seriously delay processing on a mainframe computer. Today
supercomputers are typically one of a kind custom designs produced by traditional companies such as
Cray, IBM, and Hewlett-Packard

• Mainframe - also referred to as ―Big Iron‖. 1The term referred to the large cabinets that house the
CPU and the main memory of early computers. One mainframe computer performs processing tasks
for multiple users on terminals2. Mainframes provide centralized storage, processing and management
for large amounts of data. These are mainly used by large organizations: for critical applications, typically
bulk data processing such as census, industry and consumer statistics and enterprise resource planning
and financial transaction processing.

• Minicomputer - a class of multi-user computers that lies in the middle-ranged of the computing
spectrum. Its purpose was to offer a cost-efficient alternative to room-sized mainframe
computers. Minicomputers are used for scientific and engineering computations, business transaction
processing, file handling and database management, and now are often now referred to as small or
midsize servers.

• Microcomputer - computer with a microprocessor as its central processing unit (CPU). When
microcomputers are equipped with keyboard and screen for input and output purposes they are
generically termed as Personal Computers (PC’s). PC’s are computer typically used by a single user,
usually at home or at the office.

3. According to Design
• General-purpose
• Special-purpose

4. According to Function
• Server
• Workstation
• Terminal
• Stand- alone/ Personal
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5. According to Architecture
• Serial - Uniprocessor
• Parallel - Array/Vector Processor, Multiprocessor, Multicomputer (Cluster)

4.6 Different Types of Personal Computers

When most people hear the word "computer" they think of a personal computer such as a
desktop or laptop computer. However, computers come in many shapes and sizes, and they perform
many different functions in our daily lives. When you withdraw cash from an ATM, scan groceries
at the store, or use a calculator, you're using a type of computer.

Desktop Computers
Many people use desktop computers at work, home, school, or
the library. They can be small, medium, or large in style, and usually
sit on a desk. Once you add a monitor, mouse, and a keyboard, you
have what is typically known as a desktop computer.
Most desktop computers are easy to upgrade and expand, or add
new parts. Another benefit of desktop computers is the cost. If you
compare a desktop and a laptop with the same features, you will
most likely find that the desktop computer is priced lower.

Fig.1. A desktop computer

*Some desktop computers have a built-in monitor to save space. These are often called all-in-
one desktop computers.

Laptop Computer
The second type of computer that you may be familiar
with is a laptop computer or laptops as they are often referred to.
Laptops are battery or AC-powered personal computers that are
more portable than desktop computers, allowing you to use them
almost anywhere.
Since a laptop is smaller than a desktop, it's more difficult
to access the internal components. That means you may not be
able to upgrade them as much as a desktop. However, it's usually
possible to add more RAM or a bigger hard drive.

Fig.2. A laptop computer

*A laptop computer is sometimes called a notebook computer because of its size.

Other Types of Personal Computers

Today, there lots of everyday devices which are basically specialized computers, even
though we don't always think of them as computers. Here are a few common examples:
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• Tablet Computers: These use a touch-sensitive

screen for typing and navigation. Since they don't
require a keyboard or mouse, tablet computers are
even more portable than laptops. The iPad is an
example of a tablet computer.
• Mobile Phones: Many mobile phones can do a lot
of things a computer can do, such as browsing the
internet or playing games. These phones are often
called smartphones.
Fig.4. The iPad, a type of tablet computer
• Game Consoles: A game console is a specialized kind of computer that is used for playing video
games. Although they are not as fully-featured as a desktop computer, many newer consoles, such
as the Nintendo Wii, allow you to do non-gaming tasks like browsing the internet.

• TVs: Many TVs now include applications (or apps) that let you access various types of online
content. For example, you can view your Facebook news feed or watch streaming movies on
Netflix.

4.7 History of Computers

Computers and computer applications are on almost every aspect of our daily lives. As like many
ordinary objects around us, we may need clearer understanding of what they are. You may ask "What is
a computer?" or "What is a software", or "What is a programming language?" First, let's examine its
history. Here, we start the evolution, though not so detailed, from the time humans made easy counting
possible until we reach the computers being used now.

Early Computers: Gears/Relays and Mechanical Systems

2500 Abacus was probably invented in Mesopotamia. The Chinese abacus was developed in
BC about 200 AD. The word abacus derived from the Greek word abax, which means board
or calculating table. It is wooden rack holding parallel wires on which beads are strung.
It is used by the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Hindus and Chinese.
1642 Blaise Pascal in France, at age 14, develops the machine called Pascaline, the first
automatic mechanical calculator to help his father (a tax collector) in computing taxes. It
can add and subtract numbers. It was the first digital calculating machine using toothed
wheels or gears.
1671 Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz in Germany developed his Leibniz Calculating Machine
that used a stepped gear mechanism. This machine improved the work of Pascal. It can
add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers. It was the first general-purpose calculating
machine.
1804 Joseph-Marie Jacquard in France, was inspired by a punched paper barrel organ and
invented the punched card loom attachment that revolutionized the French waving
industry, the Jacquard Mechanical Loom (the first punched card machine). Although
not a computer, it strongly influenced the development of punched card as input and
output.
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1822 Charles Babbage (Father of Modern Computers) in England produced a small calculator
that could compute squares and quadratic functions. Encouraged by this success he
designed a far more elaborate machine, the Difference Engine, for the calculation of
navigational and other tables. With the financial help of the British government, the work
started in 1823. This machine was intended to work 20 places of decimal, with the results
being automatically produced as printed type, to eliminate the chance of human error.
Progress was correspondingly slow but by around 1830 Babbage had constructed enough
of the machine to prove the principles and had effectively completed the design. But
various problems delayed production and they led to work being stopped. One of these
problems is that the government was interested in economically produced tables, not the
engine itself.
1837 Another reason for abandoning the Difference Engine was that Babbage had developed
an even better concept, the Analytical Engine. Although mechanical, the machine was
far more advance and incorporated many of the features of the modern computers. It was
to operate under the control of program on punched card, with the arithmetic operations
carried out in a mill (or central processor), stored the data in the store and produced output
as printed type. This led to an improved “Difference Engine 2” design in between 1847
to 1849. Such improvement takes the advantage of ideas from the analytical engine to
make the new difference engine calculate more quickly while using fewer parts.
1843 Lady Ada Augusta Byron King, countess of Lovelace and the only legitimate child of a
poet Lord Byron, translated into English the description of analytical engine of Babbage
which was first describe in French by Luigi Menabrea, an Italian mathematician. She was
dubbed as the World's First Programmer.
1854 George S. Boole, an English logician, published the Boolean Algebra, what was to
become the foundation for the design of all logic circuits in computer.
1890 Herman Hollerith and James Power under the US Census Bureau developed the device
that punched into cards without human intervention known as the Punched Card
Machine. It shortened census tabulation from ten to three years.
1936 Alan M. Turing developed the Turing Machine (hypothetical machine) - the first general
model for logic machines and the first test for machine intelligence. It used ideas that
would influence the structure, feasibility, and limitations of future digital computers.

First Generation: Vacuum Tubes and Monolithic Systems

During the first generation, computers were built with
vacuum tubes - where electronic current flows used for processing or
creation of electric signals that were made of glass and were about
the size of light bulbs – they were very expensive to operate and
Vacuum Tubes (from IBM's Model 701)
taking up enormous space.

The vacuum tube ushered the progress of computers; its purpose was to act like an amplifier
(amplify electronic signals) and switch (stop and start the flow of electricity instantly) letting you control
current.
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1906 Lee de Forest, an American, invented the audion, the first three-element vacuum tube,
which is capable of detecting and amplifying radio signals from an antenna. In the late
1930s, the vacuum tube plays an important role in the development of computers.
1939 Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry built the Atanasoff- Berry Computer
(ABC), a prototype of the first electronic digital computer. It was the first machine to use
vacuum tubes for the logic circuits.
1941 Konrad Zuse along with Helmut Schreyer, built the Z3 Electromechanical Relay
Computer. Its program was entered on punched film.
1943 A team of experts, including Alan Turing, develops a machine called the Colossus for
cryptanalysis to break the code of the German code machine, the Enigma.
1944 IBM team led by Howard Hathaway Aiken developed the Harvard Mark I, also known
as Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC). Numbers are stored on registers
containing sets of wheels, and each wheel rotated according to its number and was
controlled by a telephone relay. It handled 23 – decimal place numbers (its numerical
word) and could perform all four arithmetic operations as well as trigonometric functions.
1944 The first bug was a moth, beaten to death by one of Mark II’s electromechanical relay
switches.
1945 John von Neumann undertook theoretical study of computation that demonstrated that the
computer could have very simple, fixed physical structure. He developed the idea referred
to as stored-program technique (the fundamental for the future generation).
1946 John W. Mauchly and John Presper Eckert Jr. with associates at the Moore School of
Electrical Engineering developed the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
(ENIAC). Its numerical word had the size of 10 decimal digits and it could multiply two
such numbers at the rate of 300 products per second. It computes trajectory tables for the
US Army during WWII. It was programmed by externally set plugs and switches, and
therefore was not considered a true stored- program computer.
1946 John W. Mauchly and John Presper Eckert Jr. with the aid of mathematician John von
Neumann began to work on its stored- program successor, the Electronic Discrete
Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC). It was an electronic serial vacuum tube
machine with mercury delay lines and magnetic wire secondary memory, but it was not
completed until 1952.
Other machines after EDVAC were Whirlwind of Massachusetts Institute of Technology
and Ferranti Mark I of University of Manchester.
1948 F.C. Williams and T. Kilburn at Manchester University invented a small-scale stored
program computer called Manchester Mark I to test the CRT memory tube that Williams
invented.
1949 John W. Mauchly and John Presper Eckert Jr. introduced the Binary Automatic
Computer (BINAC) which used a form of magnetic tape input and had internally stored
programs.
The Cambridge University lead by Maurice V. Wilkes developed the Electronic Delay
Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC). This electronic computer used mercury delay
lines, punched paper tape input, and teleprompter output. The first full-scale stored
program computer to operate.
1950 Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation (owned by John W. Mauchly and John Presper
Eckert Jr.) was acquired by Remington-Rand (who later merged with the Sperry
Corporation), when the company also produced its Universal Automatic Computer
(UNIVAC). It was specially designed for business applications and was first used by the
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U.S. Bureau of Census in 1951. It was the first commercially viable electronic digital
computer.
1954 The IBM Corporation developed the IBM 650, the first mass-produced computer, which
is a logical upgrade to existing punched-card machines.

Second Generation: Transistors (Hardware) and Batch System

(Software)
A transistor leads to second generation of computers - the
building blocks of digital revolutions, substituting vacuum tubes. It is
a small device that transfers electronic signals across a resistor.
Because transistors are much smaller, use less power, and create less
heat than vacuum tubes, the new computers were faster, smaller, and
more reliable than the first generation machines.

1947 John Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain invented the transistor.
1955 Bell Labs created TRADIC the first computer to use transistors.
1959 The BUNCH (Burroughs, UNIVAC, NCR, CDC and Honeywell) play the major role in the
2nd generation when they launched their Honeywell 400, a more powerful, more reliable, less
expensive and cooler to operate which used the transistors instead of the vacuum tubes.
The IBM Corporation launched two machines, the IBM 1401 and IBM 7094, which
introduced the batch system. The card will be read by the IBM 1401 onto the magnetic tape;
the tape will be passed to the IBM 7094 for computation then the system tape will be brought
to the IBM 1401 again for printing.

Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (Hardware) and Multiprogramming Systems (Software)

1958 Jack Kilby, an American Engineer working for Texas Instrument, Inc. designed the first true
integrated circuits in a computer.
1963 The Digital Equipment Corporation launched the PDP-8, the first successful minicomputer.
It was succeeded by PDP-11, the most popular minicomputer.
1964 The IBM Corporation came out with IBM 360; the first to use the concept of
multiprogramming (the processing of two or more programs at the same time). It was
succeeded by IBM 370, IBM 4300, IBM 3080 and IBM 3090. It is a hybrid of transistor and
ICs.
1968 BUNCH made B2500/B3500, the first computers to fully use ICs.

Fourth Generation: Microprocessor/VLSI and Personal Computing

1971 Marcian “Ted” Hoff designed the Intel 4004 microprocessor, combining all of the essential
elements of a computer’s CPU on a single silicon microchip.
1974 Ed Roberts of MITS built the first microcomputer called Altair 8800.
1975 Steven Jobs and Steve Wozniak under the Apple Corporation developed the Apple I, which
received a rags-to-riches success. Jobs were responsible for the production while Wozniak
was responsible for the machine.
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1977 Three mass-market personal computers emerged in one year: the APPLE II, Radio Shack
TRS-80 and Commodore PET.
1976 Seymour Cray made Cray I supercomputer, the fastest and most powerful computer of the
time.
1979 Software Arts came out with VisiCalc, the first business program for Personal Computers.
1981 The IBM Corporation developed the IBM PC with an estimated of 100,000 units were sold
during the first release. With this computers were the operating system, PC-DOS developed
by Microsoft founder William Henry “Bill” Gates III.
Adam Osbourne invented the Osbourne-I, the first portable computer that is small enough to
fit under an airline seat and was equipped with all the needed software. It was the ancestor of
modern-day laptops and palmtops.
1984- A period of success as well as the start of competition between Apple Inc. and Microsoft.
1985 During this period Apple was able to introduce the Macintosh Computer, with a unique easy-
to-use graphical user interface. Microsoft moreover presented to the public their version of a
graphical user interface – the Windows
1989 While working at CERN, Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web. In 1991, the World
Wide Web Consortium releases standards that describe a framework for linking documents
on different computers.

4.8 Major Components of a Computer

All types of computers consist of two basic parts:

• Hardware is any part of your computer that has a physical structure, such as the computer
monitor or keyboard.
• Software is any set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. It is what guides the
hardware and tells it how to accomplish each task. Some examples of software are web
browsers, games, and word processors such as Microsoft Word.

Microsoft Word (Software) A motherboard (hardware)

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A.5 Microphones
Microphones are a transducer 1 device that
0F

converts sound into electrical signal. A

complete microphone includes a housing,
some means of bringing the signal from the
element to other equipment and mostly an
electronic circuit to adapt the output of the
capsule.

A.6 Joystick
Is an input device which consists of a stick that pivots on a
base and reports its angle or direction to the device it is
controlling. Joysticks are commonly used in video games and
usually have one or more push buttons whose state can be read
by a computer. These are also the principal flight control of
most aircraft particularly in military fast jet.

A. OUTPUT Devices

Output is the result of processing data and is either visual or auditory; output devices show you
those results. The most commonly used output devices are:

B.1 Monitor
A monitor is the TV-like device that displays the output from a computer. Factors that influence
the quality of a monitor are screen size, resolution, and dot pitch. Screen size is the diagonal measurement
in inches from one corner of the screen to the other. Common measurements for today’s monitors are
14”, 15”, 17”, and 21”. The first microcomputer monitors and many terminals still in use today are
character-based. A character-based display divides the screen into a grid of rectangles, one for each
type’s character. A monitor that is capable of displaying graphics, called a graphics display, divides the
screen into a matrix of small dots called pixels. Resolution is the maximum number of pixels the monitor
can display. Standard resolutions are 640x480, 800x600, 1,024x768, 1,280x1, 024, and 1,600x1, 200.
The resolution you use depends on your monitor size. If your screen is small, 1,600x1, 200 resolutions
will make the objects on the screen too small to see clearly. Resolution is easy to adjust on most monitors.
Dot pitch measures the distance between pixels, so a smaller dot pitch means a sharper image. A .28 or
.26 dot pitch (dip) is typical for today’s monitor.
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Video adapter is a cable which is used to connect the monitor in the system unit. This is installed
in an expansion slot in the computer's motherboard. This system made the conversion of signal into text
and pictures possible and displays it in the monitor. If you plan to display a lot of images on the monitor,
you may also need a graphics accelerator card to speed up the computer’s ability to display them.

There are three common types of monitor present nowadays:

a. Cathode Ray Tube

Cathode ray tube (CRT) is a bottle-
shaped vacuum tube which is the “picture tube”
of the monitor. An “electron gun 2” contains
1F

negatively charged cathode shoots electrons at

the back of the positively charged screen that is
coated with phosphorous chemical. This excites
the phosphorous which cause them to glow as
dots. These dots are called pixels (picture
elements). If the distance between pixels is too
great, the picture will appear “fuzzy” or grainy.
The closer the pixels the sharper the picture will
appear. Couple of “electromagnets” (yokes)
bends the beam of the electrons which scans
from left to right and top to bottom, creating the
image line by line.
b. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
Liquid crystal display refers to the technology behind flat
Panel monitors. LCD monitors differ from traditional CRT monitor
for the latter is bulky and heavy. LCD's are widely used in laptop
before it had jumped to desktop monitors. It consists of five layers: a
backlight, sheet of polarized glass, mask of colored pixels, liquid crystal
solution, and a second sheet of polarized glass. Crystals act as tiny
shutters by manipulating its orientation through precise electrical
charges, which opens or close in response to its stimulus allowing light
to pass through specific colored pixels illuminating the screen, creating
the picture. An active matrix screen updates rapidly and provides
resolution similar to that of a monitor. If you want to display a lot of
images, especially video, on a notebook computer, it should have an
active matrix screen.
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c. Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) \

Organic Light Emitting Diode is considered as the screens of the future. Structure of an OLED
Organic refers to the organic material which is the basis of all organic
matter. Examples of this include sugar, wood and majority of plastics.
The nature of its technology is that, it has extremely thin and
lightweight design with the ability to use it in a variety of different
applications. Its organic material is sandwiched between two
conductors (anode and cathode) which in turn are sandwiched
between a glass top plate (seal) and a glass bottom plate (substrate).
When current is applied to the conductors, a bright, electro-
luminescent light is produced directly from the organic material.

B.2 Printer
A printer produces a paper copy of the text or graphics processed by the computer. A paper or
acetate transparency copy of computer output is called hard copy, because it is more tangible than the
electronic or magnetic copies found on a disk, in the computer memory, or on the monitor. There are
three popular categories of printers, and each has a special capabilities:

a. Laser printers
The most popular printers for business use are because
they use the same technology as duplicating machines. A
temporary laser image is transferred onto paper with a powdery
substance called toner. This produces high quality output quickly
and efficiently. The speed of laser printers is measured in pages
per minute (ppm). Color laser printers use several toner
cartridges to apply color to the page. Non-color laser printers are
less expensive than color laser printers.

b. Color Ink-jet Printer

Color ink-jet printers carefully spray ink onto paper to
create an image. The quality of the ink-jet output is almost
comparable to a laser printer’s output, but it is produced much
more slowly. Ink-jet printers, with and without color
capabilities, are very popular printers for home use. The
downside of ink-jet printers compared to laser printers is that,
though the first is much cheaper compared to laser printers Ink-jet
they are more expensive to maintain. Cartridges need to be
change frequently and the special coated paper required to
produce a high-quality output is expensive.
Cartridge
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ot matrix printer is an example of the oldest technology

rrently found on the computer market. These printer transfers
k to the paper by striking a ribbon with pins. Using more pins
ntrols the quality of the print, so a 24-pin dot matrix printer
oduces better quality print than a 9-pin. Dot matrix printers are
ost often used when a large number of pages need to be printed
rly quickly. The speed of dot matrix printers is measured in
aracters per second (cps). Some examples of their usefulness
e the printing of grade reports, bank statements, or payroll
ecks. Also, they are the only type of printer that can print on
ultipart forms, so they continue to be useful to all kinds of
sinesses.

d. Speakers
Speakers are external to the computer and have a low power internal
amplifier. A 3.5 mm stereo jack plug is the standard audio connection and
is often color-coded lime green for computer sound-cards. Nowadays, USB
speakers are already available which uses 5 volts at 500 milliamps provided
by the USB port. Common features of speakers are: volume control, LED
power indicator and headphone jack

B. INPUT/OUTPUT Devices

Alternatively referred to as an I/O device, an input/output device is a hardware device that

accepts inputted information and also has the capability of outputting that information. Good
examples of I/O devices are:

C.1 Touch Screen

Is a device embedded into the screen of the TV monitor, or system LCD monitor screens of
laptop computers. Users interact with the device by physically pressing items shown on the
screen, either with their fingers or some helping tool
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointing_device). The touch screen monitors eliminate the use of
mouse. It is also used to get input from the user by a touch or tap. In touch screen monitor, the
display screen is used to get the input and also to display the output. In these types of monitors,
the sensors are used to identify the touch in the surface and the respective signal is sent.
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Different types of touch screens have different feature, characteristics and differences.
These differences are resulted in different qualities of touch screen; some are long life others
are sensitive while some others are economic.

a. The resistive touch screen monitors are made up of three sheets:

Conductive, resistive, and protective layer. For making the touch
screen conductive and resistive layer are place together with a
space between. This space allows the current to pass through it
when finger press the screen. This current receive the
information is then processed into the desired action. The upper
layer on the glass is protection layer so that it protects the screen
from scratches in case of odd resistance. Figure III-19:

b. The capacitive touch screen panel consists of an insulator

such as glass, coated with a transparent conductor such as
indium tin oxide (ITO) which spreads charge on the screen.
When the screen is touched, the change in charge is captured
and respective signal is sent.

Figure III-20:

b.1 The surface acoustic wave touch screen monitors are the more
advanced types of touch screen. They are fast and have sharp
image. In this touch screen three sheets are used to perform the
action; sending transducer, receiving transducer, reflectors layer.
Both transducers are used in making of screen and these
transducers enable the screen to sense the outer touch and reflectors
help in giving the proper response. This whole mechanism works
through the wave transmission. When we touch the screen a wave Figure III-21:
produced and transfer from one transducer to the receiver where
reflectors get the message. This wave travels back to the specific Surface Acoustic Wave Touch
Technology
place and perform the action.
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b.2 In infrared type, the thermal signals are captured which are produced when
the screen is touched. As stated in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touchscreen, An infrared touchscreen uses an
array of X-Y infrared LED and photodetector pairs around the edges of the
screen to detect a disruption in the pattern of LED beams. These LED
beams cross each other in vertical and horizontal patterns. This helps the
sensors pick up the exact location of the touch. A major benefit of such a
system is that it can detect essentially any input including a finger, gloved
finger, stylus or pen. It is generally used in outdoor applications and point
Figure III-22:
of sale systems which can't rely on a conductor (such as a bare finger) to
activate the touchscreen. Unlike capacitive touchscreens, infrared Infrared Touch Technology

touchscreens do not require any patterning on the glass which increases

durability and optical clarity of the overall system.

C.2 Modem is a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data

over, for example, telephone or cable lines. Computer information is
stored digitally, whereas information transmitted over telephone lines
is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem converts between
these two forms. It is both input and output device because it converts
data from digital to analog and vice versa. Modem modulates an Figure III-23:
analog carrier signal to encode digital information, and also
KTX-Technology
demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted
information. Thus the name modulator demodulator. 56K Modem

C.3 Router is a device that interconnects two or more computer

networks, and selectively interchanges packets of data between
them. Each data packet contains address information that a router
can use to determine if the source and destination are on the same
network, or if the data packet must be transferred from one network Figure III-24: Router
to another.

C.4 Network hub is commonly used to connect segments of a Local Area

Network (LAN). A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives
at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the
LAN can see all packets. Figure III-25: Hub

C.5 Switches. A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together
within one local area network (LAN). Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data
Link Layer) of the OSI model. Network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but
a switch generally contains more intelligence (and a slightly higher price tag) than a hub. Unlike
hubs, network switches are capable of inspecting data packets as they are received, determining
the source and destination device of each packet, and forwarding them appropriately. By
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delivering messages only to the connected device intended, a network switch conserves network
bandwidth and offers generally better performance than a hub.

Figure III-27:
Figure III-26:
A network connection with router,

C. Processing Hardware

The most important function of the computer is processing of data. Data’s are processed according
to user’s commands and the instructions contained in the software. Processing changes the inputted data
such as moving text, sorting lists, or performing calculations. In order to understand this function, one
must first understand the hardware’s that execute it.

D.1 Motherboard
Crucial and important parts of computer which are
responsible for processing are being tied up in the
motherboard or the main circuit board. It also supplies
power and allows communication between its
components. Moreover, the motherboard provides slots
for expansion cards, memory modules, and the
processor.
Motherboard for a desktop The form factor (physical dimensions) of the
personal computer motherboard determines the requirements of the
geometry, dimensions, arrangement and the electrical
requirements of its components.

D.2 The Microprocessor

The microprocessor is an integrated circuit (an electronic component called a chip) which is
located on the main circuit board inside the computer and designed to manipulate data. Microprocessor
is also considered as the brain of any computer. The terms processor and central processing unit (CPU)
also refers to this device which contains the control unit and the arithmetic logic unit that is responsible
for executing instruction to process data.
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The speed of a microprocessor is determined by its clock speed, word size, and cache size.

e clock speed is the pulse of the processor. It is

asured in million of cycles per second, or
gahertz (MHz), a measurement of electrical
pulses. The microprocessor in the first IBM PC
dels operated at 4.77 MHz. Today
roprocessors are capable of speeds over 500 MHz.
Word size refers to the number of bits that are
rocessed at one time. A computer with a large
ord size can process faster than a computer with a
a. Intel Pentium 4 Microprocessor
mall word size. The earliest microcomputers had
n 8-bit word size, but now a 64-bit word size is
ommon

Cache, sometimes called RAM cache or cache memory, is

special high-speed memory reserved for the microprocessor’s
use. It speeds up the processing function by accessing data the
computer anticipates you will request soon, while you are still
working on something else.

b. AMD Athlon Microprocessor

D. 3 Memory
Computer memory is a set of storage locations on the main circuit board. Your computer has four
main types of memory: random access memory, virtual memory, read-only memory, and complementary
metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) memory.
 Page 32

a. Random access memory (RAM) is active during

the processing function. It consists of electronic
circuits on the motherboard that temporarily hold
programs and data while the computer is on. Each
circuit has an address that is used by the
microprocessor to transmit and store data.
RAM is constantly changing as long as the
computer is on. The microprocessor is constantly
using RAM to store and retrieve instruction and data
as they are needed. The term volatile is used to
describe this constantly changing state of RAM. Example of writable volatile random-
As you type, the characters are also stored in access memory: Synchronous Dynamic
RAM, along with the many fonts, special characters, RAM modules, primarily used as main
graphics, and other objects that you might use to memory in personal computers,
enhance the paper. How much you can include in your k d
paper depends on the RAM capacity of the computer
you are using.

b. A computer that has 128 MB of RAM has the capacity to temporarily store over 128 million
characters at any one time. Although, your paper might not be that long, the computer uses a lot
of that available memory for the programs and other data it needs to process your paper. The
notation “expandable to 512 MB” tell you that you can add more RAM to this computer.
Expandability is an important feature of any computer, you need to be able to change your
computer’s capability as your need change. You don’t have to worry about running out of RAM,
however. Today’s microprocessor software uses space on your computer’s storage devices to
stimulate RAM if more is needed. The extra memory is called virtual memory.
The disadvantage of using virtual memory is that it is much slower than RAM, so expanding
the RAM capacity of a microcomputer will improve its performance.

c. Read-only memory (ROM) is

another set of electronic circuits on the
motherboard inside the computer.
Although you can expand your RAM
capacity, you cannot add to ROM
capacity. In fact, the manufacturer of the
computer permanently installs ROM. It is
the permanent storage location for a set
of instructions that the computer uses
when you turn it on.
ROM chips for the Amiga 1200
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d. Complimentary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)

memory is another chip that is installed on the motherboard.
It is also activated during the boot process and contains
information about where the essential software is stored. A
small rechargeable battery powers CMOS so its contents
will be saved between computer uses. Unlike ROM, which
cannot be changed, CMOS must be changed every time you
add or remove hardware to your computer system.

D. Storage Devices and Media

A storage device is a hardware device that is capable of storing and retrieving of information in a
certain period of time.

Two methods of accessing information or data in a secondary storage device:

1. Sequential Access: Sequential access also known as serial access is a type

of method of retrieving data from a storage device. With sequential access,
the device must read or move through all information up to the point it is
attempting to read or write. A tape drive is an example of a sequential
access drive, where the drive must move the tape forward or backwards
until it reaches its destination.
2. Direct Access: A direct access storage device is one in which any
location in the device may be selected at random, access to the
information stored is direct i.e. no need of scanning a series of records Figure III 33: Direct/Random Access
and approximately equal access time is required for each location. Hard disk, optical disk are examples
of direct access storage device.

E.1. Magnetic storage devices

Magnetic storage devices use oxide-coated plastic storage media called Mylar. This storage also
uses different pattern of magnetization to store data and is one form of a non-volatile memory. This
technology is available in multiple forms such as a floppy drive, tape drive and a hard drive:
 Page 34

a. Floppy disks
Floppy disks, sometimes called diskettes, are flat
circles of iron oxide-coated plastic enclosed in a hard
plastic case. The most common size of floppy disk for
A Floppy Disk Drive microcomputers is 3.5”. The floppy disk of a high-density
has a storage capacity of 1.44 MB is a high density disks,
while in contrast, older low-density disks of the same
physical size can store only 720 KB.

b. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

Hard disk is the most common
magnetic storage device and has a hard
platter that holds the magnetic medium
which opposes to the plastic film use by
tapes and floppies. The magnetic medium in
hard disk can be easily erased and rewritten.
This drive contains several iron oxide-
covered metal platters that are usually
sealed inside the computer and access its
stored data in random order.

Hard disk storage has two advantages over floppy disk storage: speed and capacity.
The speed of a disk drive is measured by its access time, the time required to read or write
one record of data. Access time is measured in milliseconds (ms), one-thousandths of a second.
The storage capacity of disk drives nowadays have reached to 2TB (terabyte) and soon to be
3.5, too far compared to the storage capacity of floppies.

c. Tape drive
Another magnetic storage device is a tape drive that provides inexpensive archival storage
for large quantities of data. Tape storage is much too slow to be used for day-to-day computer
tasks; therefore, tapes are used to make backup copies of data stored on hard disks. If a hard disk
fails, data from the backup tape can be reloaded on a new hard disk with minimal interruption of
operations. Some microcomputers include a Zip drive, a special high capacity floppy disk drive
 Page 35

manufactured by Iomega Corporation; Zip drives can make copies of data, and transport large
amounts of data from one computer to another.

E.2. Optical storage

Optical storage is an engineering term which refers to those devices that uses an optical readable
medium to store data. These devices also use laser technology to read and write data on silver platters.
Optical drives are designed to work with several types of media: CDs ("compact disc"), DVDs (digital
versatile disc" or "digital video disc") and Blu-ray discs.
a. Compact disc (CD)
CD’s are originally developed to store and playback sound recording exclusively, but
later on, to encompass data storage it has expanded to: (CD-ROM), write-once audio and
data storage (CD-R), rewritable media (CD-RW), Video Compact Discs (VCD), Super
Video Compact Discs (SVCD), PhotoCD, PictureCD, CD-i, and Enhanced CD.
Standard CDs have a diameter of 120 millimeters (4.7 in) and can hold up to 80
minutes of uncompressed audio (700 MB of data). The Mini CD has various diameters
ranging from 60 to 80 millimeters (2.4 to 3.1 in); they are sometimes used for CD singles,
storing up to 24 minutes of audio or delivering device drivers.
The CD standard was proposed by Sony and Philips in 1980 and the technology was
introduced to the U.S. market in 1983.

b. Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

DVD is another optical storage device that which offers higher storage
capacity while having the same dimensions compared to compact disc.
The media format of DVD’s are invented and developed by Philips, Sony,
Toshiba and Panasonic in 1995.
Pre-recorded DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines that
physically stamp data onto the DVD. Such discs are known as DVD-
ROM, because data can only be read and not written nor erased. Blank
recordable DVDs (DVD-R and DVD+R) can be recorded once using a
DVD recorder and then function as a DVD-ROM. Rewritable DVDs
(DVD-RW, DVD+RW, and DVD-RAM) can be recorded and erased
multiple times.

E.3 Memory Storage Devices: Mass storage devices are storage systems, which use multiple units of
the storage media as a single secondary storage device. Memory storage devices are solid-state drive
(SSD). SSD is a storage device that stores nonvolatile data using solid-state memory. Solid-state memory
is composed of electronic components that are based entirely on semiconductors. Since these drives do
not have any moving parts they offer significantly reduced risk of mechanical failures resulting in
improved system reliability. They can also withstand extreme shock, high altitude and vibration, and
other harsh operation environments. Examples are:
 Page 36

a. Memory Card/Flash Card: A memory card (sometimes called a flash memory card or a
storage card) is an electronic storage medium used for storing digital information. They are
commonly used in many electronic devices, including digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop
computers, MP3 players, and video game consoles. They are small, re-recordable, and able to
retain data without power. Most of the current products use flash memory, although other
technologies are being developed. There are a number of memory cards on the market,
including the SD card (secure digital card), the CF card (CompactFlash card), the Smart
Media card, the Memory Stick, and the Multimedia Card (MMC). These cards are of varying
sizes, and each is available in a range of storage capacities that typically corresponds directly
to the price.
b. Flash Disk/Drive: Also referred to as USB Flash Drive, consists of a flash memory data
storage device integrated with a USB (Universal Serial Bus) interface. USB flash drives are
typically removable and rewritable, and physically much smaller than a floppy disk. Most
weigh less than 30 g (1 oz.). Storage capacities in 2010 can be as large as 256 GB with steady
improvements in size and price per capacity expected.

Communication Device

At one time, it was uncommon for a microcomputer system to communicate with other computer
systems. Now using communication devices, a microcomputer can communicate with other computer
systems located as near as the next office or as far as halfway around the world using the Internet. The
most widely used communication device is a modem, which modifies telephone communications into a
form that can be processed by a computer. Modems also modify computer output into a form that can be
transmitted across standard telephone lines
Before you can understand the hardware that stores data, you need to know how data is stored.
All data and programs are stored as files. A computer file is a named collection of related bits that exists
on a storage medium. There are two categories of files; executable files and data files. An executable
file contains the instructions that tell a computer how to perform a specific task. The files that are used
during the boot process, for instance, are executable. Users create data files, usually with software. For
instance, your paper that you write with a word processing program is data, and must be saved as a data
file if you want to use it again.

4.9 Computer Software

Software refers to the intangible components of a computer system, particularly the programs,
or list of instructions, that the computer needs to perform a specific task. It is the key to a computer’s
versatility. Sometimes the term software refers to a single program, but often the term refers to a
collection of programs and data that are packaged together. The software you use determines what type
of computer you can use and what you can do with the computer.
When your computer is using word processing software – for example, the Open Office Writer
program – you can type memos, letters, and reports. When your computer is using accounting software,
you can maintain information about what your customers owe you and display a graph showing the timing
of customer’s payments.
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Just as a tape player or DVD player is worthless without tapes or DVDs, computer hardware is
useless without software. Many people think the word software applies to any part of the computer system
that is not hardware, but that is not an accurate definition.
Software can be divided into two major categories: system software and application software.

4.9.1 SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software helps the computer carry out its basic operating tasks. It manages the
fundamental operations of the computer, such as loading programs and data into memory, executing
programs, saving data to disks, displaying information on the monitor, and transmitting data through a
port to a peripheral device. It enables the application software to interact with the computer hardware. In
addition, it is also referred to as “background software” as it helps computer in managing its own internal
resources.

System software is a collection of program including the following:

1. Operating System – programs that coordinate computer resources, provide an interface
between users and the computer, and run applications.
2. Utilities – perform specific tasks related to managing computer resources.
3. Device drivers – specialized programs designed to allow particular input or output devices
to communicate with the rest of the computer system
4. Programming languages

Operating Systems
An operating system (OS) is a set of programs containing instructions that coordinate all the
activities among computer hardware resources. In most cases, the operating system resides on the
computer’s hard disk. On smaller handheld computers, the operating system may reside on a ROM chip.
The following are the functions of an operating system:
a. Start up the computer
b. Administer security
c. Control a network
d. Provide user interface
e. Manage programs
f. Manage memory
g. Schedule hobs and configure devices
h. Access the web
i. Monitor performance and provide housekeeping services

Note:

Most operating systems support multitasking, or the ability to switch between

different applications stored in memory
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Basic Categories of OS:

1. Embedded operating systems are used for handheld computers and smaller devices like PDAs.
The entire operating system is stored within or embedded in the device

Example: Windows CE and Windows XP Embedded

2. Network Operating systems (NOS) are used to control and coordinate computers that are
networked or linked together. These are typically located on one of the connected computer’s
hard disk

Example: Windows NT Server, Windows XP Server, and UNIX

3. Stand-alone operating systems, also called desktop operating systems, control a single desktop
or notebook computer. These operating systems are located on the computer’s hard disk

Examples: Windows XP, Windows NT, SuSE, Red Hat, Ubuntu

4.9.2 Application Software

Application software is commonly described as end user software. It enables user to perform
specific computer tasks. In the business world, some examples of tasks that are accomplished with
application software are document production, spreadsheet, and database management. In addition,
businesses may sometimes use graphics and presentation software, including multimedia application.
Application software comes in four categories namely:

a. productivity/business (e.g. word processing, spreadsheet, presentation graphics,

database)
b. graphics design/multimedia (e.g. computer-aided design, desktop publishing,
multimedia authoring)
c. home/personal/educational (e.g. integrated software, educational, reference,
entertainment)
d. communication (e.g. e-mail, web browser, groupware, video conferencing)

4.9 Starting a Program

When a computer is first started, the hardware automatically loads the operating system
and starts it running. This process is called booting. The reason for this odd term is that the
operating system is itself involved in getting itself running—a process that is like someone
"pulling themselves up by their bootstraps". Once the operating system is running, it is used to
start up application programs.
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Here is a (simplified) list of what happens when the user (you) starts up an application.
Assume that the operating system (OS) is already running.

1. The user asks to run an application.

o This is done by clicking on an icon, making a menu choice, or by other means.
2. The OS determines the name of the application.
3. The OS finds the files on the hard disk where the application and its data are stored.
4. The OS finds an unused section of main memory that is large enough for the application.
5. The OS makes a copy of the application and its data in that section of main memory.
o The software on the hard disk is unchanged; main memory holds a copy of
what is on disk.
6. The OS sets up resources for the application.
7. Finally, the OS starts the application running.

As the application runs, the OS is there in the background managing resources,

doing input and output for the application, and keeping everything else running.