VNU-University of Engineering and Technology

Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications

Lecture #5
Operational Amplifier and
Application Circuits

 Mai Linh, PhD

 Email: [email protected] ; [email protected]

CHAPTER 2, S&S text book

1
 5.1. Introduction

Definition and Notation of Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)

• An Operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a

differential input and, usually, a single-ended output.
• An op-amp produces an output voltage that is typically hundreds of thousands times larger than
the voltage difference between its input terminals.
• Operational amplifiers are important building blocks for a wide range of electronic circuits.
They had their origins in analog computers where they were used in many linear, non-linear and
frequency-dependent circuits (summation, integration, …).
• Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of
consumer, industrial, and scientific devices.
• The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Op amps can be configured in many different
ways using resistors and other components.
• Most configurations use feedback.
Khuếch đại vi sai có hai chân lối vào và 1 lối ra. Đặc điểm, trrong khuếch đại vi sai không sử dụng tụ điện để ghép tầng vs nhau = . kích thước mạch nhỏ đơn giản. Từ khueechs đại vi sai
người ta phát trrieenr lên khuếch đại thuật toán 2
 Applications of Op Amps
◼ Amplifiers provide gains in voltage or current.
◼ Op amps can convert current to voltage.
◼ Op amps can provide a buffer between two circuits.
◼ Lowpass and bandpass filters.

3
 Definition: An operation amplifier OP-AMP is a differential input, DC coupled
amplifier with very large gain.
Circuit symbol

• vP : non-invert input The signal voltage developed at the output of amplifier is in

phase with the voltage applied to the + input terminal (P-input)
• vN : invert input and 180 out of phase with the signal applied to the – input
• v0 : output terminal (N-input).
• A : open-loop gain The vP and vN voltages are therefore referred to as the non-
Hệ số khuếch đại điện áp mạch hở inverting input and inverting input voltages, respectively.
vo = A (vP – vN)
4
Op Amp Terminals
Terminals of primary interest:
• inverting input
• noninverting input
• output
• positive power supply (+Vcc)
• negative power supply (-Vcc)

Offset null terminals may be used to

compensate for a degradation in
The circuit symbol for an op amp performance because of aging and
imperfections.

A simplified circuit symbol for an op amp 5

 (+) (+)
Differential and Common-mode Signals

• vid : the differential input voltage:

• vicm : the common-mode input voltage:

(-) (-)

• Rid : the input differential resistance

• R0 : the output resistance

6
 5.2. Ideal Operational Amplifier (used in circuit analysis)

Key Specifications

✓ Infinite voltage gain

✓ Infinite input impedance (does not load
the driving sources)
✓ Zero output impedance (drive any load)
✓ Infinite bandwidth (flat magnitude
response, zero phase shift)
✓ Zero input offset voltage.
Fig. Equivalent circuit of the ideal op amp.

✓ The output voltage depends only on the voltage difference vid and is
independent to source and load resistance. (Why?)
𝑣
𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑑 → 𝐴 = 𝑜 A is called the open-loop gain
𝑣𝑖𝑑

1. Input voltage difference is zero: vid = 0 → vP = vN

2. Input currents are zero: i+ = i- = 0
7
Practical Op-Amp

Real op-amps differ from the ideal model in various respects. In

addition to finite gain, bandwidth, and input impedance, they have
other limitations.

▪ Finite open loop gain.

▪ Finite input impedance.
▪ Non-zero output impedance.
▪ Input current.
▪ Input offset voltage.
▪ Temperature effects

8
 Terminal Voltages and Currents

Terminal voltage variables Terminal current variables

All voltages are considered All current reference directions

as voltages rises from the are into the terminal of the op-
common node. amp.

9
 Internal Circuit of 741 Type Op Amp
Schematic:

A component level diagram of the common 741 op-amp. Dotted lines outline: current mirrors
(red); differential amplifier (blue); class A gain stage (magenta); voltage level shifter (green);
output stage (cyan).
10
Input Signal modes
The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-mode or in
common-mode.

11
Signal modes
The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-mode or in
common-mode.
Common-mode signals are applied
to both sides with the same phase on
both.

Usually, common-mode signals are

from unwanted sources, and affect
both inputs in the same way. The
result is that they are essentially
cancelled at the output.

12
 Transfer Characteristic
The graph that relates the output voltage to the input voltage is called the voltage transfer
curve and is fundamental in designing and understanding amplifier circuits.

The terminal behavior of the op amp as

linear circuit element is characterized by
constraints on the input voltages and input
currents.

− VCC A(v p − vn )  − VCC


v0 =  A(v p − vn ) − VCC  A(v p − vn )  +VCC
+ V
 CC A(v p − vn )  +VCC
Fig.: Voltage transfer characteristic:

When the magnitude of the input voltage difference (|vp – vn|) is small, the op amp behaves as a linear
device, as the output voltage is a linear function of the input voltages (the output voltage is equal to
the difference in its input voltages times the gain, A.
13
 5.3. Two Configurations for Feedback Circuit Ideal op-amp

Inverting Configuration

𝑣𝑜
Closed-loop gain: G = = ?
𝑣𝐼
𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑜
Open-loop gain: A = → 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 = = 0 (because 𝐴 → ∞)
𝑣2 −𝑣1 𝐴
Due to 𝑉𝑃 = 0 (grounded) → 𝑉𝑁 = 𝑉𝑃 = 0: The N point is called the virtual ground

vI − v1 vI
i1 = =
R1 R1 vo R
G= =− 2
R2 v1 R1
vo = v1 − i1 R2 = − vI
R1
14
 5.3. Two Configurations for Feedback Circuit Ideal op-amp

Inverting Configuration

(A is finite)
𝑣𝑜
Case of A is finite → 𝑉𝑁 = −
𝐴
vI − (−vo / A) vI + vo / A
i1 = =
R1 R1 vo − R2 / R1 non-ideal
G= =
vo vI 1 + (1 + R2 / R1 ) / A gain
vo = − − i1 R2
A
(If 𝐴 → ∞ then 𝐺 = −𝑅2 Τ𝑅1 )

15
 5.3. Two Configurations for Feedback Circuit Ideal op-amp

Inverting Configuration

Input Resistance:
vI vI
Ri = = = R1
i1 vI / R1

Output Resistance:
𝑣𝑥
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑖𝑥
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑖2 𝑅2 + 𝑖1 𝑅1 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑖1
𝑖1 = 0 → 𝑣𝑥 = 0

𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0
16
 5.3. Two Configurations for Feedback Circuit Ideal op-amp

Inverting Configuration

closed-loop gain
G = -R2/R1

Figure: Analysis of the inverting configuration. The circled numbers

indicate the order of the analysis steps. 17
Example 1
Consider the inverting configuration with R1 =1 k and R2 =100 k, that is, having an ideal closed-
loop gain of −100.
(a) Find the closed-loop gain for the cases A = 103,104, and 105. In each case determine the
percentage error in the magnitude of G relative to the ideal value of R2/R1 (obtained with A = ∞).
Also determine the voltage v1 that appears at the inverting input terminal when vI = 0.1 V.
(b) If the open-loop gain A changes from 100,000 to 50,000 (i.e., drops by 50%), what is the
corresponding percentage change in the magnitude of the closed-loop gain G?

18
Example 1: Sol.
(a) Substituting the given values in Eq. (*)
vo − R2 / R1
G= = (*)
vI 1 + (1 + R2 / R1 ) / A
𝐺 − 𝑅2 Τ𝑅1
Percentage error 𝜖 is defined 𝜖≡ × 100
𝑅2 Τ𝑅1
The values of v1 are obtained from v1 = −vO/A = GvI /A with vI = −0.1 V.
A |G| 𝝐 v1
103 90.83 −9.17% −9.08 mV
104 99.00 −1.00% −0.99 mV
105 99.90 −0.10% −0.10 mV

(b) Using Eq. (*), we find that for A = 50,000, |G| = 99.80. Thus a −50% change in the open-loop
gain results in a change in |G| from 99.90 to 99.80, which is only −0.1%!

19
Example 2
Assuming the op amp to be ideal, derive an expression
for the closed-loop gain vO/vI of the circuit shown in
below Figure. Use this circuit to design an inverting
amplifier with a gain of 100 and an input resistance of
1 M. Assume that for practical reasons it is required
not to use resistors greater than 1 M. Compare your
design with that based on the inverting configuration
of Figure of example 1.

20
Example 2 – Sol.

21
 5.3. Two Configurations for Feedback Circuit Ideal op-amp

The Inverting Amplifier Circuit – an application

Transresistance Amplifier Circuit

Application of an inverting amplifier is that of a "transresistance amplifier" circuit. AKA. a

"transimpedance amplifier", is basically a current-to-voltage converter (Current "in" and
Voltage "out"). They can be used in low-power applications to convert a very small current
generated by a photo-diode or photo-detecting device etc, into a usable output voltage
which is proportional to the input current.

The output voltage is

proportional to the amount of
input current generated by the
photo-diode.

22
 5.3. Two Configurations for Feedback Circuit Ideal op-amp

Non-inverting Configuration

𝑉𝑁 = 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑣𝑖

G= (closed-loop gain)

23
 5.3. Two Configurations for Feedback Circuit Ideal op-amp

Non-inverting Configuration

𝑣𝑜
A is finite → 𝑉𝑁 = 𝑣𝐼 −
𝐴

𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑜 Τ𝐴
𝑖1 =
𝑅1
𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑖 − 𝑣𝑜 Τ𝐴
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑖 − + 𝑖1 𝑅2 = 𝑣𝑖 − + 𝑅2
𝐴 𝐴 𝑅1

24
 5.3. Two Configurations for Feedback Circuit Ideal op-amp

Non-inverting Configuration

25
 5.3. Two Configurations for Feedback Circuit Ideal op-amp

Non-inverting Configuration

Consider the effect of the finite op-amp

open-loop gain A on the gain of the
noninverting configuration.

vO 1 + ( R2 / R1 )
G =
vI 1 + ( R2 / R1 )
1+
A Voltage follower

𝐺≅1
What happens if
𝑹𝟏 = ∞ and 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟎?

26
 6.4. Some Application Circuits

Summing Amplifier (weighted summer )

 weighted summer - is a closed-loop

amplifier configuration which provides an
output voltage which is weighted sum of the
inputs.
v1 v2 vn
i1 = , i2 = , ..., in = i = i1 + i2 + ... + in
R1 R2 Rn
 Rf Rf Rf 
vO = 0 − iR f = −iR f vO = −  v1 + v2 + ... + vn  A weighted summer
 R1 R2 Rn 

Rf
If R1 = R2 = ….= Rn  R then v0 = − ( v1 + v2 + ... + vn )
R

27
 6.4. Some Application Circuits

Summing Amplifier

A weighted summer capable of implementing summing coefficients of both

signs (summing signals with opposite signs).

 Ra   Rc   Ra   Rc   Rc   Rc 
vO = v1     + v2     − v3   − v4  
 R1   Rb   R2   Rb   R3   R4 

28
 Summing Amplifier Applications
Summing Amplifier Audio Mixer
If the input resistances of a summing amplifier are connected to potentiometers the
individual input signals can be mixed together by varying amounts. For example,
measuring temperature, you could add a negative offset voltage to make the display
read "0" at the freezing point or produce an audio mixer for adding or mixing together
individual waveforms (sounds) from different source channels (vocals, instruments, etc)
before sending them combined to an audio amplifier.

29
 Summing Amplifier Applications
Digital to Analogue Converter (DAC summing amplifier circuit)

Another useful application of a Summing Amplifier is as a weighted sum digital-to-

analogue converter. If the input resistors, Rin of the summing amplifier double in value for
each input, for example, 1kΩ, 2kΩ, 4kΩ, 8kΩ, 16kΩ, etc, then a digital logical voltage, either
a logic level "0" or a logic level "1" on these inputs will produce an output which is the
weighted sum of the digital inputs. Consider the circuit below.

30
 Difference Amplifiers

 difference amplifier – is a closed-loop configuration which responds

to the difference between two signals applied at its input and ideally
rejects signals that are common to the two.
 Ideally, the amp will amplify only the differential signal (vdfi) and
reject completely the common-mode input signal (vcmi). However,
a practical circuit will behave as below…

common-mode gain common-mode input

differential input

differential gain

vOut = Avdfi + Acmvcmi

31
 Difference Amplifiers

vO = Ad vId + Acm vIcm

Fig.: Representing the input signals to a differential amplifier

in terms of their differential and common-mode components.

 Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) – is the degree to which a differential

amplifier “rejects” the common-mode input.
Ad
CMRR = 20 log
Acm
✓ Ideally, CMRR = infinity…
32
A Single Op-Amp Difference Amplifiers

𝑣𝐼2 = 0 Inverting amplifier

R2
vO1 = − vI 1
R1

𝑣𝐼1 = 0 Non inverting amplifier

R4  R2 
vO 2 = vI 2 1 + 
R4 + R3  R1 
We have to make the 2 gain magnitudes equal in order to reject common-mode signals
R4  R2  R2 R4 R2
𝑣𝐼1 ≠ 0 and 𝑣𝐼2 ≠ 0 1 +  =  =
R4 + R3  R1  R1 R4 + R3 R2 + R1

R4 R2
select: = (**)
R3 R1
33
 A Single Op-Amp Difference Amplifiers
To find vO in terms of vI1 and vI2: assume the circuit is linear, → we can use superposition.
Consider Fig. (a):
R2
vO1 = − vI 1
R1
Next, Fig. (b): as the noninverting
configuration with an additional voltage
divider, made up of R3 and R4, connected to
the input vI2 (where we have utilized Eq. **)
R4  R2  R2
vO 2 = vI 2 1 +  = vI 2
R4 + R3  R1  R1
R2 R
The superposition principle vO = ( vI 2 − vI 1 ) = 2 vId
R1 R1
R2
Thus, as expected, the circuit acts as a difference amplifier with a differential gain Ad of Ad =
R1

34
A Single Op-Amp Difference Amplifiers
If circuit with only Common – mode input signal

(note: 𝑖2 = 𝑖1 )

R4 R2 However, that any mismatch in the

if : = (**) 𝑣𝑜 = 0 → 𝐴𝑐𝑚 = 0 resistance ratios can make 𝑨𝒄𝒎
R3 R1
nonzero, and hence CMRR finite.

35
A Single Op-Amp Difference Amplifiers

Differential Input Resistance 𝑅𝑖𝑑

Note that if the amplifier is required to have a large

differential gain (R2/R1), then R1 of necessity will be
relatively small and the input resistance will be
correspondingly low, a drawback of this circuit

36
 Instrumentation Amplifier
Due to the input resistance of the difference amplifier is too low, the instrumentation
amplifier should be used. It is a combination between 2 non-invert amplifiers and a difference
amplifier so that this scheme becomes a high-qualified amplifier.
stage #1 Stage 1:
𝑣𝑜1 = 𝑅2
stage #2 𝑣𝑜1 = (1 + )𝑣𝐼1
𝑅1
𝑅2
𝑣𝑜2 = (1 + )𝑣𝐼2
𝑅1

𝑣𝑜2 =
37
Instrumentation Amplifier
Stage 2:
𝑣𝑜1 = 𝑅2
′
𝑣𝐼1 = (1 + )𝑣𝐼1
𝑅1
′
𝑅2
′
𝑣𝐼1 𝑣𝐼2 = (1 + )𝑣𝐼2
𝑅1
′ ′ ′
𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 𝑣𝐼2 − 𝑣𝐼1
′
𝑣𝐼2
′ 𝑅2
𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 1+ 𝑣𝐼2 − 𝑣𝐼1
𝑅1
′ 𝑅2
𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 1+ 𝑣𝑖𝑑
𝑣𝑜2 =
𝑅1

𝑅4 ′
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑖𝑑
𝑅3
38
Instrumentation Amplifier

Advantages:
✓ Very high (ideally infinite) input resistance
✓ High differential gain

Disadvantages:
✓ 𝒗𝑰𝒄𝒎 is amplified in 1st stage by a gain equal to that experienced by
𝑣𝐼𝑑 . This is a very serious issue, for it could result in the signals at
the outputs of A1 and A2 being of such large magnitudes that the
op amps saturate. But even if the op amps do not saturate, the
difference amplifier of the 2nd stage will now have to deal with much
larger common-mode signals, with the result that the CMRR of the
overall amplifier will inevitably be reduced.

39
Instrumentation Amplifier

Disadvantages (continued):
✓ The two amplifier channels in 1st stage have to be perfectly matched,
otherwise a spurious signal may appear between their two outputs.
Such a signal would get amplified by the difference amplifier in the
second stage.
✓ To vary the differential gain 𝐴𝑑 , two resistors 𝑅1 have to be varied
simultaneously. At each gain setting the two resistors have to be
perfectly matched: a difficult task.

40
Instrumentation Amplifier

41
Example 3
Design the instrumentation amplifier circuit in the above to
provide a gain that can be varied over the range of 2 to 1000
utilizing a 100k variable resistance (a potentiometer, or “pot” for
short).

42
43
Integrators and Differentiators

The inverting configuration with general impedances

Closed-loop transfer function

44
Integrators

Miller or Inverting Integrator

𝑖1 (𝑡) flows through the capacitor C,

causing charge to accumulate on C
𝑡
equal to‫׬‬0 𝑖1 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡.
 Capacitor voltage 𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) charges
1 𝑡
by ‫׬‬0 𝑖1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡.
𝐶

Output voltage
where 𝑉𝑐 is initial voltage on C

45
Integrators

Frequency response

For physical frequencies, 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔

Magnitude of integrator transfer function

And phase

Integrator frequency:

46
Integrators

Miller or Inverting Integrator with 𝑹𝑭

𝑣𝐼
𝑖1 =
𝑅
𝑅𝐹
𝑍 = 𝑅𝐹 ∥ 𝑠𝐶 =
1 + 𝑅𝐹 𝑠𝐶
𝑅𝐹 Τ𝑅
𝑣𝑜 = 0 − 𝑖1 𝑍=- 𝑣𝑖
1+𝑠𝑅𝐹 𝐶

47
Example 4
Find the output produced by a Miller integrator in response to an
input pulse of 1-V height and 1-ms width [below figure]. Let R=10k
and C = 10nF. The op amp is specified to saturate at ±13𝑉.

48
Differentiator

𝑑𝑣𝐼 (𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = 0 − 𝑖(𝑡)𝑅
𝑑𝑣𝐼 (𝑡)
→ 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) = −𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡

1
𝑧1 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 𝑠 = 𝑅
𝑠𝐶
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑧2 (𝑠) Frequency response
= = −𝑠𝐶𝑅
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑧1 (𝑠) with a time-constant CR

Differential transfer function

49
DC Imperfections

Offset voltage

50
Exercise
Use the model at before slide to sketch the transfer characteristic
𝑣𝑜 versus 𝑣𝐼𝑑 (𝑣𝑜 ≡ 𝑣3 and 𝑣𝐼𝑑 ≡ 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ) of an op amp having
an open-loop dc gain 𝐴𝑜 = 104 V/V, output saturation levels of
± 10𝑉 and 𝑣𝑜𝑠 of +5mV.

51
52
DC Imperfections

Offset voltage

Output DC voltage can have a large magnitude

The output dc offset voltage of an op

amp can be reduced to zero by
connecting a potentiometer to the
two offset-nulling terminals.

53
DC Imperfections

Offset voltage

One way to overcome the dc offset problem is by capacitively coupling the amplifier.

(a) Capacitively coupled inverting amplifier (b) Equivalent circuit for determining
its DC output offset voltage 𝑉𝑜

✓ Not required to amplify DC or very-low frequency signal

54
DC Imperfections

Input Bias and Offset Currents

✓ Input bias current

✓ Offset Currents

𝐼𝐵 = 100𝑛𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑜𝑠 = 10𝑛𝐴

55
DC Imperfections

Input Bias and Offset Currents

Reducing the effect of the input bias

currents by introducing a resistor R3

In case 𝐼𝐵1 = 𝐼𝐵2 = 𝐼𝐵

If Then 𝑉𝑜 = 0

The effect of the input bias currents is removed

Denote Minimize the effect of the

input bias currents 56
DC Imperfections

Input Bias and Offset Currents

R2 R2

C R1 C1 R1
- -
+ +
R3 = R2 C2 R2=R3

RC-coupled amplifier

57
Effect of 𝑽𝒐𝒔 and 𝑰𝒐𝒔 on the operation of the inverting integrator

t
1 VOS
Effect of 𝑽𝒐𝒔 VOS / R C vo = VOS +  dt
C0 R
VOS / R VOS
= VOS + t
- CR
R VOS
+ +
vo
VOS -

Effect of 𝑰𝒐𝒔

58
Frequency Dependence of the Open-Loop Gain

|A| (dB)
Ao
A(s) = 100 3(dB)
1 + s / b 80
Ao 60 -20dB/ decade hoặc
or
A(j  ) = 40 -6dB/ oct ave
1 + j  / b
20
0
where ω >> ωb 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 f(Hz)

Aob
A(j  ) = fb ft

 = Aob

59
Frequency Dependence of the Closed-Loop Gain

Closed – Loop Gain:

If 𝐴𝑜 ≫ 1 + 𝑅2 Τ𝑅1 Vo (s) −R2 / R1


V i (s) 1 + s
t / (1 + R2 / R1 )
t
3dB =
1 + R2 / R1
60
 Example 5
Consider an op amp with ft = 1 MHz. Find the 3-dB frequency
of closed-loop amplifiers with nominal gains of +1000, +100,
+10, +1, −1, −10, −100, and −1000. Sketch the magnitude
frequency response for the amplifiers with closed-loop gains of
+10 and –10.

t
3dB =
1 + R2 / R1

61
Frequency response of an
amplifier with a nominal
gain of +10 V/V.

Frequency response of an
amplifier with a nominal
gain of −10 V/V.

62
Large-Signal Operation of Op Amps

❑ Output Voltage Saturation

R2 = 9k v0
R1 = 1k 15V
- i0 iF 13V
v0
VP + iL 0
0 vI RL t
t
-13V
-15V
❑ Output Current Limits

63
 Example 6
Consider the noninverting amplifier circuit shown in
below figure. As shown, the circuit is designed for a
10𝑉
nominal gain (1+𝑅2 ൗ𝑅1 ) = . It is fed with a low-
𝑉
frequency sine-wave signal of peak voltage 𝑉𝑃 and is
connected to a load resistor 𝑅𝐿 . The op amp is
specified to have output saturation voltages of ±13𝑉
and output current limits of ±20𝑚𝐴.

(a) For 𝑉𝑃 = 1 V and 𝑅𝐿 = 1 k, specify the signal

resulting at the output of the amplifier.
(b) For 𝑉𝑃 = 1.5 V and 𝑅𝐿 = 1 k, specify the signal
resulting at the output of the amplifier.
(c) For 𝑅𝐿 = 1 k, what is the maximum value of 𝑉𝑃
for which an undistorted sinewave output is
obtained?
(d) For 𝑉𝑃 = 1 V, what is the lowest value of 𝑅𝐿 for
which an undistorted sinewave output is obtained?

64
 vI

Slew rate V
t
(b)
- vo
Maximum rate of + + ĐộSlew
dốc = SR
v0 rate
change possible at vI -
V
the output of a real
(a)
op amp t
(c)
dv vo
SR = o
dt
tV  SR
max
SlewĐộ
ratedốc =

V
t
(d)

65
Full-Power Bandwidth

Max: 𝜔𝑉෠𝑖

What happens if 𝜔𝑉෠𝑖 exceeds SR?

𝑓𝑀 : full-power bandwidth

𝑉𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑥 : Rated output voltage 66

Full-Power Bandwidth

Effect of slew-rate limiting on output sinusoidal waveforms

67
Some Nonlinear Electronic Circuits used OP-AMP

Logarithmic Amplifier

Anti-logarithmic Amplifier

68
 Analog Signal Comparator

Comparator indicates when a given signal exceeds a predetermined value. The simplest form
of comparator is a high-gain differential amplifier made with an op-amp. The op-amp goes
into positive or negative saturation according to the difference of the input voltages.

This simple comparator has the disadvantage. For a

very slowly varying input, the output swing can be
rather slow. If the input is noisy, the output may make
several transitions as the input passes through the
trigger point. This problem can be resolved by the use
of positive feedback called Schmitt-trigger.
69
Schmitt-trigger
Inverting

vs increases from below VREF = +Vcc

vs decreases from above Complete voltage transfer characteristic

VREF = - Vcc for the Schmitt trigger.

70