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Applied Mathematical Sciences

Franck Assous
Patrick Ciarlet
Simon Labrunie

Mathematical
Foundations of
Computational
Electromagnetism
Applied Mathematical Sciences

Volume 198

Editors
S.S. Antman, Institute for Physical Science and Technology, University of Maryland, College Park,
MD, USA
[email protected]
Leslie Greengard, Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, New York University, New York, NY,
USA
[email protected]
P.J. Holmes, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton,
NJ, USA
[email protected]

Advisors
J. Bell, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, Center for Computational Sciences and Engineering,
Berkeley, CA, USA
P. Constantin, Department of Mathematics, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
R. Durrett, Department of Mathematics, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
R. Kohn, Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, New York University, New York, NY, USA
R. Pego, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
L. Ryzhik, Department of Mathematics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
A. Singer, Department of Mathematics, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
A. Stevens, Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
S. Wright, Computer Sciences Department, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA

Founding Editors
Fritz John, Joseph P. LaSalle, Lawrence Sirovich
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/34
Franck Assous • Patrick Ciarlet • Simon Labrunie

Mathematical Foundations
of Computational
Electromagnetism

123
Franck Assous Patrick Ciarlet
Department of Mathematics ParisTech
Ariel University ENSTA
Ariel, Israel Palaiseau, France

Simon Labrunie
Université de Lorraine
Institut Élie Cartan de Lorraine
Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France

ISSN 0066-5452 ISSN 2196-968X (electronic)

Applied Mathematical Sciences
ISBN 978-3-319-70841-6 ISBN 978-3-319-70842-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70842-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018937591

Mathematics Subject Classification (2010): M13120, P21070, T11030, M12066, P19005, P24040

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
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Printed on acid-free paper

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of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Foreword

Our interest in the study and computation of electromagnetic fields started during
the 1990s. For Franck Assous, it originated from the need to compute precisely the
motion of charged particles for plasma physics applications. For Patrick Ciarlet, it
began with the study of the relations between the electromagnetic fields and their
potentials from a mathematical point of view. From both the numerical and the
theoretical points of view, it soon appeared that one had to be especially careful
when dealing with singular configurations. A typical example occurs when one has
to solve a seemingly elementary problem, namely the computation of the fields
in vacuum, around a perfectly conducting body, or inside a perfectly conducting
cavity or waveguide. Together with Simon Labrunie, we started to investigate this
problem for a class of such bodies that are invariant by rotation. Since then, we have
collaborated regularly on this topic and many others.
Going back to the example, when the interface between the body and vacuum
is piecewise smooth and when the computational domain is locally non-convex
near this interface, intense electromagnetic fields may occur. Pointwise values are
unbounded, and mathematically, the smoothness of the fields deteriorates. It turns
out that this common situation induces challenging problems, which we address
here. Though the contents of this monograph chiefly deal with theoretical issues,
most results are derived in order to solve problems numerically, using discretized
variational formulations (we do not address the issue of discretization in this book).
The focus of this monograph is clearly an applied mathematical one; however,
we begin by discussing the physical framework of electromagnetism and related
models. One of the main points of the book is the introduction of mathematical tools
to characterize electromagnetic fields precisely and, among others, the traces of
those fields on submanifolds of R3 . This issue is especially important on nonsmooth
submanifolds. Another important issue is the mathematical measure of those fields,
which can take several forms. Interestingly, this leads to very different categories
of discretized problems. A third main issue is the introduction and justification of
approximate models in a broad sense, such as, for instance static, quasi-static or
time-harmonic, and also of reduced models, namely 2D and 2 12 D models. The last

v
vi Foreword

important issue deals with the introduction and study of models that govern the
motion of charged particles interacting with electromagnetic fields.
The text is entirely self-contained: we only assume from the reader a bachelor-
level background in analysis, and we give all the necessary basic definitions.
Nevertheless, this monograph includes some original approaches and novel appli-
cations not covered, to our knowledge, in previous books. It is chiefly intended for
researchers in applied mathematics who work on Maxwell’s equations and their
approximate or coupled models. Much of its material may also serve as a basis for
master’s- or doctorate-level courses on mathematical electromagnetism.
We are indebted to a number of people who contributed, to various extents,
to the topics we address in this monograph. Let all of them be thanked: Régine
Barthelmé, Anne-Sophie Bonnet-BenDhia, Annalisa Buffa, Lucas Chesnel, Pierre
Degond, Emmanuelle Garcia, Erell Jamelot, Pierre-Arnaud Raviart, Jacques Segré,
Eric Sonnendrücker, Jun Zou and Carlo Maria Zwölf.
Finally, we gratefully acknowledge the help of the following readers of prelim-
inary versions of the manuscript: Lucas Chesnel, Lipeng Dai, Benjamin Goursaud
and Claire Scheid.

Ariel, Israel Franck Assous

Palaiseau, France Patrick Ciarlet
Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France Simon Labrunie
Contents

1 Physical Framework and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Basic Applied Functional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3 Complements of Applied Functional Analysis . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4 Abstract Mathematical Framework .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5 Analyses of Exact Problems: First-Order Models . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6 Analyses of Approximate Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7 Analyses of Exact Problems: Second-Order Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
8 Analyses of Time-Harmonic Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
9 Dimensionally Reduced Models: Derivation and Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
10 Analyses of Coupled Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

A Index of Function Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

References .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

Index . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

vii
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 “Pipe” domain .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Fig. 1.2 Adjustment of a sample diffraction problem . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Fig. 1.3 Adjustment of a sample interior problem . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Fig. 1.4 Basic geometrical steps for the construction of PMLs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Fig. 2.1 The “two sugarcubes” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Fig. 9.1 Example of an axisymmetric domain Ω and its meridian
section ω .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Fig. 9.2 Topological conditions for an axisymmetric domain Ω and
its meridian section ω . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

ix
Chapter 1
Physical Framework and Models

The aim of this first chapter is to present the physics framework of electromag-
netism, in relation to the main sets of equations, that is, Maxwell’s equations and
some related approximations. In that sense, it is neither a purely physical nor a
purely mathematical point of view. The term model might be more appropriate:
sometimes, it will be necessary to refer to specific applications in order to clarify our
purpose, presented in a selective and biased way, as it leans on the authors’ personal
view. This being stated, this chapter remains a fairly general introduction, including
the foremost models in electromagnetics. Although the choice of such applications
is guided by our own experience, the presentation follows a natural structure.
Consequently, in the first section, we introduce the electromagnetic fields and the
set of equations that governs them, namely Maxwell’s equations. Among others, we
present their integral and differential forms. Next, we define a class of constitutive
relations, which provide additional relations between electromagnetic fields and are
needed to close Maxwell’s equations. Then, we briefly review the solvability of
Maxwell’s equations, that is, the existence of electromagnetic fields, in the presence
of source terms. We then investigate how they can be reformulated as potential
problems. Finally, we relate some notions on conducting media.
In Sect. 1.2, we address the special case of stationary equations, which have time-
periodic solutions, the so-called time-harmonic fields. The useful notion of plane
waves is also introduced, as a particular case of the time-harmonic solutions.
Maxwell’s equations are related to electrically charged particles. Hence, there
exists a strong correlation between Maxwell’s equations and models that describe
the motion of particles. This correlation is at the core of most models in which
Maxwell’s equations are coupled with other sets of equations: two of them—the
Vlasov–Maxwell model and an example of a magnetohydrodynamics model (or
MHD)—will be detailed in Sect. 1.3.

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1

F. Assous et al., Mathematical Foundations of Computational
Electromagnetism, Applied Mathematical Sciences 198,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70842-3_1
2 1 Physical Framework and Models

We introduce in the next section approximate models of Maxwell’s equations,

ranging from the static to the time-dependent ones, in which one or all time deriva-
tives are neglected. We also consider a general way of deriving such approximate
models.
In Sect. 1.5, we recall the classification of partial differential equations, and check
that Maxwell’s equations are hyperbolic partial differential equations.
At an interface between two media, the electromagnetic fields fulfill some
conditions. In a similar way, when one of the media is considered as being exterior
to the domain of interest,1 interface conditions are then formulated as boundary
conditions on the boundary of the domain. Also, to reduce the overall computation
cost, one usually truncates the domain by introducing an artificial boundary, on
which (absorbing) boundary conditions are prescribed. Another possibility is to
introduce a thin, dissipative layer, in which the fields are damped. This constitutes
the first topic of Sect. 1.6. The second topic is the radiation condition, which is
required for problems set in unbounded domains to discriminate between outgoing
and incoming waves.
The aim of the last section is to recall the basic notions of energy in the context
of Maxwell’s equations. In particular, notions such as electromagnetic energy flow,
Poynting vector and energy conservation are defined.
We conclude this introductory chapter by providing a set of bibliographical
references.

1.1 Electromagnetic Fields and Maxwell’s Equations

We present the electromagnetic fields in their time-dependent form, as the solutions

to Maxwell’s equations. The various components of the electric and of the magnetic
fields are related to source terms by either a set of integral equations or a set of
first-order partial differential equations. Then, we study the constitutive relations,
which provide additional relations for the electromagnetic fields. With this set of
equations—differential Maxwell equations and constitutive relations—we can state
that, starting from a given configuration, the electromagnetic fields (exist and)
evolve in a unique way. We also expose another formulation, called the potential
formulation, with a reduced number of unknowns, which can be interpreted as
primitives of the electromagnetic fields. Finally, we conclude with a brief study
of conducting/insulating media.

1 Unless otherwise specified, in this chapter, a domain is an open region of space. Another meaning

is given for the mathematical studies, starting in Chap. 2.

1.1 Electromagnetic Fields and Maxwell’s Equations 3

1.1.1 Integral Maxwell Equations

The propagation of the electromagnetic fields in continuum media is described

using four space- and time-dependent functions. If we respectively denote by
x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and t the space and time variables, these four R3 -valued, or vector-
valued, functions defined in time-space R × R3 are
1. the electric field E,
2. the magnetic induction B,
3. the magnetic field 2 H ,
4. the electric displacement D.
These vector functions are governed by the integral Maxwell equations below. These
four equations are respectively called Ampère’s law, Faraday’s law, Gauss’s law and
the absence of magnetic monopoles. They read as (system of units SI)
   
d
D · dS − H · dl = − J · dS, (1.1)
dt S ∂S S
  
d
B · dS + E · dl = 0, (1.2)
dt S ∂S 
 
D · dS =  dV , (1.3)
∂V V

B · dS = 0. (1.4)
∂V 

Above, S, S  are any surface of R3 , and V , V  are any volume of R3 . One can write
elements dS and dl as dS = n dS and dl = τ dl, where n and τ are, respectively,
the unit outward normal vector to S and the unit tangent vector to the curve ∂S.
When S is the closed surface bounding a volume, then n is pointing outward from
the enclosed volume. Similarly, the unit tangent vector to ∂S is pointing in the
direction given by the right-hand rule.
There are two source terms, respectively,  and J .  is an R-valued, or scalar-
valued, function called the electrostatic charge density. It is a non-vanishing
function in the presence of electric charges. J is an R3 -valued function called
the current density. It is a non-vanishing function as soon as there exists a charge
displacement, or in other words, an electric current. Now, take the time-derivative
of Eq. (1.3) and consider S = ∂V in Eq. (1.1): by construction, S is a closed surface

2H is sometimes called the magnetizing field.

4 1 Physical Framework and Models

(∂S = ∅), so that these data satisfy the integral charge conservation equation
  
d
 dV + J · dS = 0 . (1.5)
dt V ∂V

Again, V is any volume of R3 .

1.1.2 Equivalent Reformulation of Maxwell’s Equations

Starting from the integral form of Maxwell’s equations (1.1–1.4), one can reformu-
late them in a differential form,3 with the help of Stokes and Ostrogradsky formulas
   
curl F · dS = F · dl and div F dV = F · dS.
S ∂S V ∂V

One easily derives the differential Maxwell equations (system of units SI):

∂D
− curl H = −J , (1.6)
∂t
∂B
+ curl E = 0, (1.7)
∂t
div D = , (1.8)
div B = 0. (1.9)

The differential charge conservation equation can be expressed as

∂
+ div J = 0 . (1.10)
∂t
However, the above set of equations is not equivalent to the integral set of equations.
As a matter of fact, two notions are missing.
The first one is related to the behavior of the fields across an interface between
two different media. Let Σ be such an interface.
Starting from the volumic integral equations (1.3)–(1.4), we consider thin
volumes V crossing the interface. As  goes to zero, their height goes to zero, and
so does the area of their top and bottom faces (parallel to the interface), with proper
scaling. The top and bottom faces are disks whose radius is proportional to , while
the height is proportional to  2 . As a consequence, the area of the lateral surface
is proportional to  3 and its contribution is negligible as  goes to zero. Passing to

3 The standard differential operators curl, div, grad, and Δ are mathematically defined in

Sect. 1.5.1.
1.1 Electromagnetic Fields and Maxwell’s Equations 5

the limit in Eqs. (1.3) and (1.4) then provides some information on the jump of the
normal (with respect to Σ) components of D and B:

[D · nΣ ]Σ = σΣ , [B · nΣ ]Σ = 0 . (1.11)

Above, [f ]Σ denotes the jump across the interface ft op −fbot t om, and nΣ is the unit
normal vector to Σ going from bottom to top. The right-hand side σΣ corresponds
to the idealized surface charge density on Σ: formally,  = σΣ δΣ .4
Starting from Eqs. (1.1)–(1.2), the reasoning is similar. For the tangential
components, one gets

[nΣ × E]Σ = 0, [nΣ × H ]Σ = j Σ , (1.12)

with j Σ the (idealized) surface current density on Σ (j Σ is tangential to Σ).

Finally, if divΣ denotes the surface divergence, or tangential divergence, opera-
tor, integral charge conservation equation (1.5) yields
∂σΣ
+ divΣ j Σ + [J · nΣ ]Σ = 0 .
∂t
The second notion is topological. For instance, one can consider that the domain
of interest is the exterior of a thick (resistive5 ) wire, or the exterior of a finite set
of (perfectly conducting5) spheres. In the first case, the domain is not topologically
trivial, and in the second one, its boundary is not connected. In both instances, a
finite number of relations—derived from homology theory—have to be added to
the differential equations (1.6)–(1.9) and the interface relations (1.11)–(1.12) (see
Chap. 3 for details). We assume that, by doing so, we obtain a framework that is
equivalent to the integral Maxwell equations (1.1)–(1.4).

1.1.3 Constitutive Relations

Maxwell’s equations are insufficient to characterize the electromagnetic fields

completely. The system has to be closed by adding relations that describe the
properties of the medium in which the electromagnetic fields propagate. These are
the so-called constitutive relations, relating, for instance, D and B to E and H ,
namely

D = D(E, H ) and B = B(E, H ) .

(We could also choose a priori to use such a relation as D = D(E, B), etc.)

 
4 By definition, δΣ is the surface Dirac mass on Σ, so one has v = Σ σΣ v|Σ dS for ad hoc
functions v.
5 See the end of the section.
6 1 Physical Framework and Models

These constitutive relations can be very complex. For this reason, we will make
a number of assumptions on the medium (listed below), which lead to generic
expressions of the constitutive relations. This will yield three main categories of
medium, which are, from the more general to the more specific:
1. the chiral medium, a linear and bi-anisotropic medium ;
2. the perfect medium, a chiral, non-dispersive and anisotropic medium ;
3. the inhomogeneous medium, a perfect and isotropic medium, and its sub-
category, the homogeneous medium, which is, in addition, spatially homoge-
neous.
In what follows, E(t) (or B(t), etc.) denotes the value of the electric field on R3 at
time t: x → E(t, x). Let us now list the assumptions about the medium.
• The medium is linear. This means that its response is linear with respect to
electromagnetic inputs (also called excitations later on). In addition, it is expected
that when the inputs are small, the response of the medium is also small.
• The medium satisfies a causality principle. In other words, the value of
(D(t), B(t)) depends only on the values of (E(s), H (s)) for s ≤ t.
• The medium satisfies a time-invariance principle. Let τ > 0 be given. If the
response to t → (E(t), H (t)) is t → (D(t), B(t)), then the response to t →
(E(t − τ ), H (t − τ )) is t → (D(t − τ ), B(t − τ )).
Note that the first assumption corresponds to a linear approximation of D =
D(E, H ): for electromagnetic fields, whose amplitude is not too large, a first-
order Taylor expansion is justified. Furthermore, the smallness requirement can
be viewed as a stability condition (with respect to the inputs). An immediate
consequence of the second assumption is that, if (E(s), H (s)) = 0 for all s ≤ t0 ,
then (D(t0 ), B(t0 )) = 0. Taking all those assumptions into account leads to the
constitutive relations

D = εE + ξH + εd E + ξd H
(1.13)
B = ζE + μH + ζd E + μd H .

Let us comment on expression (1.13).

The constitutive parameters ε, ξ, ζ and μ are 3 × 3 tensor real-valued functions
or distributions of the space variable x. Indeed, according to the time-invariance
principle, these quantities must be independent of t. Among them, ε is called the
dielectric tensor, while μ is called the tensor of magnetic permeability.
The constitutive parameters εd , ξd , ζd and μd are 3 × 3 tensor real-valued
functions of the time and space variables (t, x). The notation denotes the
convolution product, a priori with respect to the four variables (t, x):
 
(εd E) (t, x) = εd (s, y)E(t − s, x − y) dy ds, etc.
s∈R y∈R3
1.1 Electromagnetic Fields and Maxwell’s Equations 7

The causality principle implies εd (s) = ξd (s) = ζd (s) = μd (s) = 0, for all s < 0.
As a consequence, the convolution product reduces to
 ∞
(εd E) (t, x) = εd (s, y)E(t − s, x − y) dy ds, etc.
0 y∈R3

Often, the response depends very locally (in space) on the behavior of the input. So,
one assumes locality in space in the convolution product, or, in other words, that
the integral in y is taken over a “small” volume around the origin. Here, we further
restrict this dependence, as we consider that one can (formally) write6 εd (s, y) =
εd (s) ⊗ δ0 , etc. We finally reach the expression of the convolution product
 ∞
(εd E) (t, x) = εd (s)E(t − s, x) ds, etc. (1.14)
0

To summarize the above considerations, the constitutive parameters εd , ξd , ζd and

μd are 3 × 3 tensor real-valued functions of the time variable t which vanish
uniformly for strictly negative values of t, and as a consequence, the convolution
product is performed with respect to positive times only (cf. (1.14)).
To carry on with the comments on (1.13), we note that the right-hand side can be
divided into two parts:

εE + ξH
(1.15)
ζE + μH

is called the optical response. It is instantaneous, since the values of the input are
considered only at the current time. The other part,

εd E + ξd H ,
(1.16)
ζd E + μd H ,

is called the dispersive response, hence a notation with an index d . It is dispersive

in time, and as such, it models the memory of the medium.
The relations (1.13) with the convolution products as in (1.14) are linear and
bi-anisotropic; they model a linear and bi-anisotropic medium, also called a chiral
medium. Several simplifying assumptions can be made:
• The medium is non-dispersive when the dispersive response (1.16) vanishes. In
other words, the response of the medium is purely optical (1.15).
• The medium is anisotropic provided that ξ = ζ = 0.
• An anisotropic medium is isotropic when, additionally, the 3 × 3 tensors ε and μ
are proportional to the identity matrix: ε = εI3 and μ = μI3 .


6 By definition, δx 0 is the Dirac mass in x 0 , so one has 0 v = q0 v(x 0 ) for ad hoc functions v.
8 1 Physical Framework and Models

For an anisotropic medium, the constitutive parameters ε and μ are scalar real-
valued functions of x: ε and μ are respectively called the electric permittivity and
the magnetic permeability of the medium.
In this monograph, apart from the “general” case of a chiral medium, we shall
assume most of the time that the medium is perfect, that is, non-dispersive and
anisotropic, or inhomogeneous, that is, perfect and isotropic. In a perfect medium,
the constitutive relations read as

D(t, x) = ε(x) E(t, x) and B(t, x) = μ(x) H (t, x), ∀(t, x) ∈ R × R3 . (1.17)

In this case, the differential Maxwell equations (1.6–1.9) can be written with the
unknowns E and H . They read as

∂E
ε − curl H = −J , (1.18)
∂t
∂H
μ + curl E = 0, (1.19)
∂t
div (εE) = , (1.20)
div (μH ) = 0. (1.21)

To write down Eqs. (1.6–1.9) with the unknowns E and B, one has to note that μ is
necessarily invertible on R3 , since we assumed at the beginning that the constitutive
relations could also have been written as H = H (E, B). . . So, Eqs. (1.18–1.21) can
be equivalently recast as

∂E
ε − curl(μ−1 B) = −J , (1.22)
∂t
∂B
+ curl E = 0, (1.23)
∂t
div (εE) = , (1.24)
div B = 0. (1.25)

In an inhomogeneous medium, one simply replaces the tensor fields ε and μ with
the scalar fields ε and μ in Eqs. (1.18–1.21) or in Eqs. (1.22–1.25).
Finally, if the perfect medium is also isotropic and spatially homogeneous, we
say (for short) that it is a homogeneous medium. In a homogeneous medium, the
constitutive relations can finally be expressed as

D(t, x) = ε E(t, x) and B(t, x) = μ H (t, x), ∀(t, x) ∈ R × R3 .

Above, ε and μ are constant numbers. Remark that vacuum is a particular case of
a homogeneous medium, which will be often considered in this monograph. The
electric permittivity and the magnetic permeability are, in that case, denoted as ε0
1.1 Electromagnetic Fields and Maxwell’s Equations 9

(ε0 = (36π.109)−1 F m−1 ) and μ0 (μ0 = 4π.10−7H m−1 ), and we have the relation
c2 ε0 μ0 = 1, where c = 3.108m s−1 is the speed of light. The differential Maxwell
equations become, in this case,

∂E 1
− c2 curl B = − J , (1.26)
∂t ε0
∂B
+ curl E = 0, (1.27)
∂t
1
div E = , (1.28)
ε0
div B = 0. (1.29)

1.1.4 Solvability of Maxwell’s Equations

What about the proof of the existence of electromagnetic fields on R3 ?

To begin with, there exist many “experimental proofs” of the existence of elec-
tromagnetic fields! These experiments actually led to the definition of the equations
that govern electromagnetic phenomena, and of the related electromagnetic fields,
by Maxwell and many others during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. So,
it is safe to assume that these fields exist, the challenge being mathematical and
computational nowadays. . .
Where does the theory originate? Let us give a brief account of one of the more
elementary (mathematically speaking!) results on charged particles at rest (results
have also been obtained for circuits, involving currents).
The fundamental experimental results we report here were obtained by Charles
Augustin de Coulomb in 1785, when he studied repulsive or attractive forces
between charged bodies, small elder balls. In the air—a homogeneous medium
(ε = εa )—let us consider two charged particles, part1 and part, at rest. Their
respective positions are x 1 and x, whereas their respective electric charges are q1
and q. In short, Coulomb’s results (now known as Coulomb’s law) state that the two
particles interact electrically7 with one another, in the following way. The force F
acting on particle part and originating from particle part1 is such that:
• it is repulsive if q1 q > 0, and attractive if q1 q < 0 ;
• its direction is parallel to the line joining the two particles ;
• its modulus is proportional to |x − x 1 |−2 ;
• its modulus is also proportional to q1 and q .

7 Or: electrostatically.
10 1 Physical Framework and Models

If one sets the proportionality coefficient to (the modern) 1/4πεa , one finds that

q q1 (x − x 1 )
F (x) = .
4 π εa |x − x 1 |3

Now, define the electric field as the force per unit charge. One infers that

q1 (x − x 1 )
E(x) = .
4 π εa |x − x 1 |3

Interestingly, it turns out, after some elementary computations, that one has

1 q1
E = − gradx φ1 , with φ1 (x) = .
4 π εa |x − x 1 |

In particular, one gets that curl E = 0, which bears a striking resemblance to

Faraday’s law (1.27) for a system at rest. Moreover, after another series of simple
computations, one finds that div E = 1 /εa , where 1 is equal to 1 (x) = q1 δx 1 (x):
in other words, the charge density is created by the particle part1 , so Gauss’s
law (1.28) is satisfied too. . .
Furthermore, Coulomb proved that the total force produced by N charged
particles on an (N + 1)-th particle (all particles being at rest) is equal to the sum of
the individual two-particle forces, so the same conclusions can actually be drawn for
any discrete system
 of charged particles at rest! The formula for the charge density
is then N (x) = 1≤i≤N qi δx i (x), while

1  qi
E = − gradx φN , with φN (x) = . (1.30)
4 π εa |x − x i |
1≤i≤N

See Sects. 1.3 and 1.7 for continuations.

Now, we focus on the mathematical existence of electromagnetic fields. Evi-
dently, we note that one can devise by hand some solutions to Maxwell’s equations
for well-chosen right-hand sides (using, for instance, Fourier Transform or Green
functions, cf. Chapter 6 of [141]). However, one can also solve this set of equations
in more general and more systematic ways. We give two examples below.
The first one deals with the mathematical existence of the electromagnetic fields,
assuming a homogeneous medium in R3 . More precisely, one adds initial conditions
to Eqs. (1.26–1.29), which read as

E(0) = E 0 , B(0) = B 0 . (1.31)

(Above, we assume that the problem begins at time t = 0.)

The couple (E 0 , B 0 ) constitutes part of the data, the other part being t →
(J (t), (t)), for t ≥ 0. The set of equations (1.26–1.29) together with the initial
conditions (1.31) is called a Cauchy problem. Based on the semi-group theory,
1.1 Electromagnetic Fields and Maxwell’s Equations 11

one can prove that there exists one, and only one, solution t → (E(t), B(t)),
for t ≥ 0, to this Cauchy problem. Moreover, it depends continuously on the data
(the so-called stability condition). In a more compact way, whenever an existence,
uniqueness and continuous dependence with respect to the data result is achieved,
one says that the related problem is well-posed: in our case, the Cauchy problem
set in all space R3 made of a homogeneous medium is well-posed. Obviously, once
the existence and uniqueness of (E, B) is achieved, the same conclusion follows for
(D, H ) = (ε0 E, μ−1 0 B) (see Chap. 5 for more details).
Here, one has to be very careful, since the uniqueness and continuous dependence
of the solution require a (mathematical) measure of the electromagnetic fields and
of the data. To achieve these results, one uses the quantity Wvac (see below) as the
measure for the fields. In this case, it reads as

1 1
Wvac (t) = {ε0 |E(t, x)|2 + |B(t, x)|2 } dx. (1.32)
3 2 μ0
R

It turns out that Wvac defines the electromagnetic energy in this kind of medium.
For more details on energy-related matters, we refer the reader to the upcoming
Sect. 1.7.
The second result deals with the existence of the electromagnetic fields, assuming
now a general chiral medium in R3 . By using the same mathematical tools (in a more
involved way, see [140]), one can also derive a well-posedness result. To measure
the fields, one resorts to an integral similar to (1.32), namely

W2 (t) = {|E(t, x)|2 + |H (t, x)|2 } dx.
R3

Note that this measure is used to define the stability condition, which has been
previously mentioned. Once the existence and uniqueness of (E, H ) is achieved, the
same conclusion follows for (D, B), according to the constitutive relations (1.13).
Remark 1.1.1 In a bounded domain, one can derive similar results, with a variety
of mathematical tools. We refer the reader again to Chap. 5.

1.1.5 Potential Formulation of Maxwell’s Equations

Let us introduce another formulation of Maxwell’s equations. For the sake of

simplicity, we assume that we are in vacuum (in all space, R3 ), with Maxwell’s equa-
tions written in differential form as Eqs. (1.26–1.29). According to the divergence-
free property of the magnetic induction B, there exists a vector potential A such
that

B = curl A .
12 1 Physical Framework and Models

Plugging this into Faraday’s law (1.27), we obtain

∂A
curl( + E) = 0 .
∂t
Then, there exists a scalar potential φ such that

∂A
+ E = − grad φ . (1.33)
∂t
This allows us to introduce a formulation in the variables (A, φ) - the vector
potential and the scalar potential, respectively - since it holds there that

∂A
E = − grad φ − , (1.34)
∂t
B = curl A . (1.35)

This formulation requires only the four unknowns A and φ, instead of the six
unknowns for the E and B-field formulation. Moreover, any couple (E, B) defined
by Eqs. (1.34–1.35) automatically satisfies Faraday’s law and the absence of free
magnetic monopoles. From this (restrictive) point of view, the potentials A and φ are
independent of one another. Now, if one takes into account Ampère’s and Gauss’s
laws, constraints appear in the choice of A and φ (see Eqs (1.37–1.38) below).
Also, the vector potential A governed by Eq. (1.35) is determined up to a gradient
of a scalar function: there lies an indetermination that has to be removed. On the
other hand, for the scalar potential, the indetermination is up to a constant: it can be
removed simply by imposing a vanishing limit at infinity. Several approaches can
be used to overcome this difficulty. In what follows, two commonly used methods
are exposed. If one recalls the identity

curl curl − grad div ≡ −Δ, (1.36)

then Eqs. (1.26) and (1.28), with the electromagnetic fields expressed as in (1.34–
1.35), yield

∂ 2A ∂φ 1
2
− c2 ΔA + grad(c2 div A + )= J , (1.37)
∂t ∂t ε0
∂ 1
− (div A) − Δφ =  . (1.38)
∂t ε0

These equations suggest that one considers either one of the following two condi-
tions, each one of them helpful in its own way for removing the indetermination.
1.1 Electromagnetic Fields and Maxwell’s Equations 13

1.1.5.1 Lorentz Gauge

Let us take (A, φ) such that the gradient-term in Eq. (1.37) vanishes:

∂φ
c2 div A + =0.
∂t
Hence, Eqs. (1.37–1.38) are written within the Lorentz gauge framework as

∂ 2A 1
− c2 ΔA = J ,
∂t 2 ε0
∂ 2φ c2
2
− c2 Δφ =  .
∂t ε0

This gauge is often used for theoretical matters, since it amounts to solving two
wave equations, a vector one for A and a scalar one for φ. Remark as well that these
equations are independent of the coordinate system. This property is useful for many
instances, such as, for example, those originating from the theory of relativity.

1.1.5.2 Coulomb Gauge

This consists in setting the first term in Eq. (1.38) to zero. We thus consider A such
that

div A = 0 .

Equations (1.37–1.38) are now written as

∂ 2A 1 ∂φ
2
− c2 ΔA = J − grad( ) ,
∂t ε0 ∂t
1
Δφ = − .
ε0

Choosing such a gauge yields a potential φ, which is related to  by a static equation

(however, φ and  can be time-dependent). This model is often used when A is
irrelevant, because electrostatic phenomena dominate. This is usually the case in
plasma models (see, for instance, Sect. 1.4.5).
Remark 1.1.2 The calculations formally performed here are justified for problems
posed in all space. Actually, difficulties appear for the same problems posed in a
bounded domain. The first ones are due to the topological nature of the domain. The
other ones revolve around the definition of compatible boundary conditions on the
potentials (A, φ), with respect to those of the electromagnetic fields (E, B). For an
extended discussion, we refer the reader to Chap. 3.
14 1 Physical Framework and Models

1.1.6 Conducting and Insulating Media

For a medium that is also a conductor, we have to describe the property of the
medium in terms of conductivity. This leads to expression of the current density J
as a function of the electric field E

J = J (E) .

Assuming that the medium is linear, the current density J and the electric field E
are governed by Ohm’s law

J = σE + σd E,

where σ is a 3×3 tensor real-valued function of the space variable x, which is called
the tensor of conductivity. The quantity σd is also a 3×3 tensor real-valued function,
but of the time variable t. The convolution product is similar to (1.14): it is realized
in time, enforcing the causality principle. Similarly to the constitutive relations, we
shall usually restrict our studies to a perfect medium. In this case, Ohm’s law is
expressed as

J (t, x) = σ E(t, x) . (1.39)

If, in addition, the medium is inhomogeneous, σ = σ I3 and σ is called the

conductivity. In the particular case of a homogeneous medium, the conductivity
is independent of x. Alternatively, one could introduce the resistivity σ −1 of the
medium, together with the notion of a resistive medium.
In most cases, the current density can be divided into two parts,

J = J ext + J σ ,

where J ext denotes an externally imposed current density, and J σ is the current
density related to the conductivity σ of the medium by the relation (1.39). As a
consequence, one has to modify Ampère’s law (1.6), which can be read as

∂E
ε + σE − curl H = −J ext . (1.40)
∂t
On the one hand, if the medium is an insulator (σ = 0) there is no electrically
generated current in this medium. An insulator is also called a dielectric. So, one
has, in the absence of an externally imposed current, J = 0.
On the other hand, we will often deal with a perfectly conducting medium, that
is, a perfect conductor, in which the conductivity is assumed to be “infinite”: all
electromagnetic fields (and in particular, E and B) are uniformly equal to zero in
such a medium. This ideal situation is often used to model metals. Let us discuss the
validity of this statement, which is related to the skin depth δ inside a conducting
1.2 Stationary Equations 15

medium. This length is the characteristic scale on which the electromagnetic fields
vanish inside the conductor, provided its thickness is locally much larger than δ. The
fields decay exponentially relative to the depth (distance from the surface), and so
one can consider that they vanish uniformly at a depth larger than a few δ. Note that
this behavior is not contradictory to the accumulation of charges and/or currents at
the surface of the conductor, the so-called skin effect. The skin depth depends on the
frequency ν of the inputs and on the conductivity of the medium: δ is proportional to
(σ ν)−1/2 (see Sect. 1.2.3 for details). For radio signals in the 1–100 MHz frequency
range, δ varies from 7 to 70 10−6 m for copper. In the case of a perfect conductor,
we simply assume that the skin depth is equal to zero for all inputs. As we noted
above, one can have non-zero charge and/or current densities at the surface of a
perfect conductor: this is the infinite skin effect.

1.2 Stationary Equations

It can happen that one studies fields and sources for which the behavior in time
is explicitly known. For instance, time-periodic solutions to Maxwell’s equa-
tions, respectively called time-harmonic electromagnetic fields and time-harmonic
Maxwell equations. We first study the basic properties related to these fields and
equations. Next, we address the topic of electromagnetic plane waves, which are a
class of particular solutions, widely used in theoretical physics and in applications,
for instance, to assess numerical methods for the time-harmonic Maxwell equations,
or to build radiation conditions.

1.2.1 Time-Harmonic Maxwell Equations

We deal with time-periodic, or time-harmonic, solutions to Maxwell’s equations

in a perfect medium (here, R3 ), with a known time dependence exp(−ıωt), ω ∈
R. Basically, it is assumed that the time Fourier Transform of the complex-valued
fields, for instance,

 −1
Ê(ω , x) = (2π) E c (s, x) exp(ıω s) ds,
s∈R

is of the form Ê(ω , x) = δ(ω − ω) ⊗ e(x), so that taking the reverse time Fourier
Transform yields

E (t, x) =
c
Ê(η, x) exp(−ıηt) dη = e(x) exp(−ıωt).
η∈R
16 1 Physical Framework and Models

The real-valued (physical) solutions are then written as

E(t, x) = (e(x) exp(−ıωt)) , (1.41)

H (t, x) = (h(x) exp(−ıωt)) , (1.42)
D(t, x) = (d(x) exp(−ıωt)) , (1.43)
B(t, x) = (b(x) exp(−ıωt)) . (1.44)

Equivalently, one has E(t, x) = 12 {e(x) exp(−ıωt) + e(x) exp(ıωt))}, etc. As a

consequence, one can restrict the study of time-harmonic fields to positive values
of ω, which is called the pulsation. It is related to the frequency ν by the formula
ω = 2πν.
Remark 1.2.1 Formally, for a pulsation ω equal to zero, one gets static fields, in
the sense that they are independent of time. In this way, static fields are a “special
instance” among stationary fields.
The data (t, x) and J (t, x) are also time-harmonic:

(t, x) = (r(x) exp(−ıωt)) , (1.45)

J (t, x) = (j (x) exp(−ıωt)) . (1.46)

Evidently, the time dependence is identical between the data and the solution. Here,
we just used straightforward computations!
On the other hand, what happens when one only knows that the data are time-
harmonic (without any information on the fields)? In other words, how do the
fields, seen as the solution to Maxwell’s equations, behave? The answer, which
is much more subtle than the above-mentioned computations, is known as the
limiting amplitude principle. It is important to note that this principle can be
rigorously/mathematically justified, cf. [104]. It turns out that, provided the data
is compactly supported in space, the solution adopts a time-harmonic behavior as t
goes to infinity, in bounded regions (of R3 ). So, common sense proves true in this
case. Provided that  and J behave as in Eqs. (1.45–1.46), then the electromagnetic
fields behave as in Eqs. (1.41–1.44) when t → +∞, with the same pulsation ω.
The time-harmonic Maxwell equations are

ıωd + curl h = j , (1.47)

−ıωb + curl e = 0, (1.48)
div d = r, (1.49)
div b = 0, (1.50)

where the charge conservation equation (1.10) becomes

− ıωr + div j = 0 . (1.51)

1.2 Stationary Equations 17

Since the medium is perfect, we have

d(x) = ε(x)e(x) and b(x) = μ(x)h(x),

so that we can express the time-harmonic Maxwell equations in the electromagnetic

fields e and b, as

ıωεe + curl(μ−1 b) = j , (1.52)

−ıωb + curl e = 0, (1.53)
div εe = r, (1.54)
div b = 0. (1.55)

Clearly, one of the fields can be removed in (1.52) and (1.53) to give us

− ω2 εe + curl(μ−1 curl e) = ıωj , (1.56)

−ω2 b + curl(ε−1 curl(μ−1 b)) = curl(ε−1 j ). (1.57)

On the one hand, the set of equations (1.56–1.57) is often called a fixed frequency
problem. Given8 ω = 0 and non-vanishing data (j , r), find the solution (e, b).
The conditions (1.54) and (1.55) on the divergence of the electromagnetic fields
are contained in Eqs. (1.56–1.57): simply take their respective divergence, and use
the charge conservation equation (1.51) for the electric field, bearing in mind that
ω = 0.
On the other hand, one can assume that the current and charge densities vanish.
The equations read as

− ω2 εe + curl(μ−1 curl e) = 0, (1.58)

−1 −1
−ω b + curl(ε
2
(curl(μ b)) = 0, (1.59)
div (εe) = 0, (1.60)
div b = 0. (1.61)

As noted earlier, the condition on the divergence of the electromagnetic fields would
be implicit in Eqs. (1.58–1.59) under the condition ω = 0. However, one does not
make this assumption here. The set of equations (1.58–1.61) is usually called an
unknown frequency problem: find the triples (ω, e, b) with (e, b) = (0, 0) governed
by (1.58–1.61). The same set of equations can be considered as an eigenvalue
problem, also called an eigenproblem. Here, the pulsation ω is not the eigenvalue.
More precisely, its square ω2 is related to the eigenvalue. For that, it is useful (but

8 To deservethe label fixed frequency problem, one assumes a non-vanishing value of the pulsation.
Otherwise, one solves a static problem, cf. Sect. 1.4.1.
18 1 Physical Framework and Models

not mandatory, see Chap. 8) to assume that the medium is homogeneous, so that ε
and μ are constants, as, for instance, in vacuum.
Remark 1.2.2 The unknown frequency problem models free vibrations of the
electromagnetic fields. On the other hand, the fixed frequency problem models
sustained vibrations (via a periodic input) of the fields.
In a homogeneous medium, eliminating, as previously, the e-field or the b-field from
one of the above Eqs. (1.52–1.53) yields, with f e = ıωμj and f b = μ curl j as
the (possibly vanishing) right-hand sides,

curl curl e − λe = f e , curl curl b − λb = f b ,

where

λ = (εμ)ω2 . (1.62)

Using the identity (1.36) leads to, with f e = −f e + ε−1 grad r, f b = −f b ,

λe + Δe = f e , λb + Δb = f b .

From the point of view of the fixed frequency problem ((f e , f b ) = (0, 0)), this
means that each component of the vector fields e or b (here called ψ) is governed
by the scalar Helmholtz equation

Δψ + λψ = f . (1.63)

From the point of view of the eigenvalue problem, (λ, ψ) is simply a couple
eigenvalue–eigenvector of the Laplace operator: the pulsation ω is related to the
eigenvalue λ by the relation (1.62).
Remark 1.2.3 It is important to remark that the components are not independent of
one another. Indeed, the components are linked by the divergence-free conditions
div e = 0 and div b = 0. As we will see in Sect. 1.6, Eq. (1.63) plays an important
role in establishing the radiation condition, which is widely used in diffraction
problems.

1.2.2 Electromagnetic Plane Waves

Let us study a particular class of periodic solutions to Maxwell’s equations, the

plane waves solutions, in a homogeneous medium (again, R3 ).
1.2 Stationary Equations 19

Introduce the time-space Fourier Transform of complex-valued fields, for

instance,
 
  −4
Ẽ(ω , k ) = (2π) E c (s, y) exp(−ı(k  · y − ω s)) ds dy .
y∈R3 s∈R

The plane waves can be viewed as the reverse time-space Fourier transform of fields,
which possess the following form in the phase space (ω , k  ):

Ẽ(ω , k  ) = E 0 δ(ω − ω) ⊗ δ(k  − k), B̃(ω , k  ) = B 0 δ(ω − ω) ⊗ δ(k  − k) .

(E 0 and B 0 both belong to C3 , and k is a vector of R3 , called the wave vector).

From the above, we deduce that the complex-valued plane waves consist of
solutions of the form

E c (t, x) = E 0 exp(ı(k · x − ωt)), (1.64)

B c (t, x) = B 0 exp(ı(k · x − ωt)) . (1.65)

We keep the convention, according to which the physical electromagnetic fields are
obtained by taking the real part of (1.64–1.65): for instance,

1
{E 0 exp(ı(k · x − ωt)) + E 0 exp(−ı(k · x − ωt))}.
2
Again, the pulsation ω takes only positive values.
Remark 1.2.4 We will examine how the plane waves are involved in obtaining the
absorbing boundary conditions (cf. Sect. 1.6).
A plane wave propagates. To measure its velocity of propagation, one usually
considers the velocity at which a constant phase (a phase is the value of (E c , B c )
at a given time and position) travels. It is called the phase velocity and, according to
expressions (1.64–1.65), it is equal to
ω
vp (ω, |k|) = . (1.66)
|k|

So, k = 0. The quantity |k| is called the wave number, and λ = 2π/|k| is the
associated wavelength. If we let d ∈ S2 be the direction of k, i.e., k = |k|d, we can
further define the vector velocity of propagation, v p = vp d.
Let us consider that the medium is without sources (charge and current density),
so that the fields and pulsation solve the problem (1.52–1.55) with zero right-hand
sides, due to the explicit time-dependence of the plane waves. In addition, they have
a special form with respect to the space variable x, so one has curl E = ık × E and
20 1 Physical Framework and Models

div E = ık · E. The equations become, since ε, μ are constant numbers,

εμωE 0 + k × B 0 = 0, (1.67)
−ωB 0 + k × E 0 = 0, (1.68)
k · E 0 = 0, (1.69)
k · B0 = 0 . (1.70)

One can remove B 0 from the first two equations to obtain

k × (k × E 0 ) = −εμω2 E 0 .

This equation requires the vector k ×(k ×E 0 ) to be parallel to E 0 , which is possible

if and only if k · E 0 = 0, i.e., Eq. (1.69) precisely. This yields |k|2 = εμω2 , and
then k × (k × E 0 ) = −|k|2 E 0 . Finally, this allows one to characterize a plane wave
as a solution to the following system of equations:
√
|k| = εμ ω, (1.71)
k · E 0 = 0, (1.72)
1
B0 = k × E0 . (1.73)
ω
Expression (1.71), relating k to ω, is called the dispersion relation (see, for instance,
[151]). Additionally, the relations (1.72–1.73) prove that E 0 and B 0 are transverse
to the propagation direction of the plane waves, and orthogonal to one another.
√
From (1.66) and (1.71), one infers that vp = c, with c = 1/ εμ. Denoting
k = |k|, one may compute the group velocity defined by

dω
vg (k) = (k),
dk
which usually measures the velocity at which energy is conveyed by a wave. In a
homogeneous medium (see (1.71)), k → ω(k) is linear. Hence, the group velocity
is the same for all electromagnetic plane waves, and equal to the phase velocity:
vg = vp . These waves are non-dispersive, and in this sense, a homogeneous medium
itself is non-dispersive.
To conclude this series of elementary computations, we have established that, for
any wave vector k ∈ R3 \ {0}, there exists an electromagnetic complex-valued plane
wave, which reads as

E c (t, x) = E 0 exp(ı(k · x − c|k|t)),

B c (t, x) = B 0 exp(ı(k · x − c|k|t)),

with E 0 verifying (1.72) and related to B 0 as in (1.73).

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