210 CHAPTER3 DIODES

3.8.1 The Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD)

The Schottky-barrier diode (SBD) is formed by bringing metal into contact with a moder-
ately doped n-type semiconductor material. The resulting metal-semiconductor junction
behaves like a diode, conducting current in one direction (from the metal anode to the semi-
conductor cathode) and acting as an open-circuit in the other, and is known as the Schottky-
barrier diode or simply the Schottky diode. In fact, the current-voltage characteristic of the
SBD is remarkably similar to that of a pn-junction diode, with two important exceptions:

1. In the SBD, current is conducted by majority carriers (electrons). Thus the SBD does
not exhibit the minority-carrier charge-storage effects found in forward-biased pn
junctions. As a result, Schottky diodes can be switched from on to off, and vice versa,
much faster than is possible with pn-junction diodes.
2. The forward voltage drop of a conducting SBD is lower than that of a pn-junction diode.
For example, an SBD made of silicon exhibits a forward voltage drop of 0.3 V to 0.5 V,
compared to the 0.6 V to 0.8 V found in silicon pn-junction diodes. SBDs can also be
made of gallium arsenide (GaAs) and, in fact, play an important role in the design of
GaAs circuits.9 Gallium-arsenide SBDs exhibit forward voltage drops of about 0.7 V.

Apart from GaAs circuits, Schottky diodes find application in the design of a special form of
bipolar-transistor logic circuits, known as Schottky-TTL, where TTL stands for transistor-
transistor logic.
Before leaving the subject of Schottky-barrier diodes, it is important to note that not
every metal-semiconductor contact is a diode. In fact, metal is commonly deposited on the
semiconductor surface in order to make terminals for the semiconductor devices and to con-
nect different devices in an integrated-circuit chip. Such metal-semiconductor contacts are
known as ohmic contacts to distinguish them from the rectifying contacts that result in
SBDs. Ohmic contacts are usually made by depositing metal on very heavily doped (and
thus low-resistivity) semiconductor regions.

3.8.2 Varactors
Earlier, we learned that reverse-biased pn junctions exhibit a charge-storage effect that is
modeled with the depletion-layer or junction capacitance Cj' As Eq. (3.57) indicates, C, is a
function of the reverse-bias voltage VR. This dependence turns out to be useful in a number
of applications, such as the automatic tuning of radio receivers. Special diodes are therefore
fabricated to be used as voltage-variable capacitors known as varactors. These devices are
optimized to make the capacitance a strong function of voltage by arranging that the grading
coefficient m is 3 or 4.

3.8.3 Photodiodes
If a reverse-biased pn junction is illuminated-that is, exposed to incident light-the pho-
tons impacting the junction cause covalent bonds to break, and thus electron-hole pairs are
generated in the depletion layer. The electric field in the depletion region then sweeps the
liberated electrons to the n side and the holes to the p side, giving rise to a reverse current
across the junction. This current, known as photocurrent, is proportional to the intensity of

9 The CD accompanying the text and the text's website contain material on GaAs circuits.
 3.8 SPECIAL DIODE TYPES 211

the incident light. Such a diode, called a photodiode, can be used to convert light signals into
electrical signals.
Photodiodes are usually fabricated using a compound semiconductor'" such as gallium
arsenide. The photodiode is an important component of a growing family of circuits known
as optoelectronics or photonics. As the name implies, such circuits utilize an optimum
combination of electronics and optics for signal processing, storage, and transmission. Usu-
ally, electronics is the preferred means for signal processing, whereas optics is most suited
for transmission and storage. Examples include fiber-optic transmission of telephone and
television signals and the use of optical storage in CD-ROM computer disks. Optical trans-
mission provides very wide bandwidths and low signal attenuation. Optical storage allows
vast amounts of data to be stored reliably in a small space.
Finally, we should note that without reverse bias, the illuminated photodiode functions
as a solar cell. Usually fabri~ated from low-cost silicon, a solar cell converts light to electrical
energy.

3.8.4 light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

The light-emitting diode (LED) performs the inverse of the function of the photodiode; it
converts a forward current into light. The reader will recall that in a forward-biased pn junction,
minority carriers are injected across the junction and diffuse into the p and n regions. The
diffusing minority carriers then recombine with the majority carriers. Such recombination
can be made to give rise to light emission. This can be done by fabricating the pn junction
using a semiconductor of the type known as direct-bandgap materials. Gallium arsenide
belongs to this group and can thus be used to fabricate light-emitting diodes.
The light emitted by an LED is proportional to the number of recombinations that take
place, which in turn is proportional to the forward current in the diode.
LEDs are very popular devices. They find application in the design of numerous types of
displays, including the displays of laboratory instruments such as digital voltmeters. They
can be made to produce light in a variety of colors. Furthermore, LEDs can be designed so
as to produce coherent light with a very narrow bandwidth. The resulting device is a laser
diode. Laser diodes find application in optical communication systems and in CD players,
among other things.
Combining an LED with a photodiode in the same package results in a device known as
an optoisolator. The LED converts an electrical signal applied to the optoisolator into light,
which the photodiode detects and converts back to an electrical signal at the output of the
optoisolator. Use of the optoisolator provides complete electrical isolation between the elec-
trical circuit that is connected to the isolator's input and the circuit that is connected to its
output. Such isolation can be useful in reducing the effect of electrical interference on signal
transmission within a.system, and thus optoisolators are frequently employed in the design
of digital systems. They can also be used in the design of medical instruments to reduce the
risk of electrical shock to patients.
Note that the optical coupling between an LED and photodiode need not be accom-
plished inside a small package. Indeed, it can be implemented over a long distance using an
optical fiber, as is done in fiber-optic communication links.

10 Whereas an elemental semiconductor, such as silicon, uses an element from column N of the periodic
table, a compound semiconductor uses a combination of elements from columns III and V or II and
VI. For example, GaAs is formed of gallium (column III) and arsenic (column V) and is thus known
as a III-V compound.
212 CHAPTER 3 DIODES

3.9 TH E SPICE DIODE MODEL

AND SIMULATION EXAMPLES
We conclude this chapter with a description of the model that SPICE uses for the diode. We
will also illustrate the use of SPICE in the design of a dc power supply.

3.9.1 The Diode Model

To the designer, the value of simulation results is a direct function of the quality of the models
used for the devices. The more faithfully the model represents the various characteristics of
the device, the more accurately the simulation results will describe the operation of an actual
fabricated circuit. In other words, to see the effect of various imperfections in device opera-
tion on circuit performance, these imperfections must be included in the device model used
by the circuit simulator. These comments about device modeling obviously apply to all
devices and not just to diodes.
The large-signal SPICE model for the diode is shown in Fig. 3.51. The static behavior is
modeled by the exponential i-v relationship. The dynamic behavior is represented by the
nonlinear capacitor CD, which is the sum of the diffusion capacitance Cd and the junction
capacitance Cj" The series resistance Rs represents the total resistance of the p and n regions
On both sides of the junction. The value of this parasitic resistance is ideally zero, but it is
typically in the range of a few ohms for small-signal diodes. For small-signal analysis,
SPICE uses the diode incremental resistance rd and the incremental values of Cd and C;
Table 3.3 provides a partial listing of the diode-model parameters used by SPICE, all of
which should be familiar to the reader. But, having a good device model solves only half of
the modeling problem; the other half is to determine appropriate values for the model parame-
ters. This is by no means an easy task. The values of the model parameters are determined
using a combination of characterization of the device-fabrication process and specific mea-
surements performed on the actual manufactured devices. Semiconductor manufacturers
expend enormous effort and money to extract the values of the model parameters for their
devices. For discrete diodes, the values of the SPICE model parameters can be determined
from the diode data sheets, supplemented if needed by key measurements. Circuit simula-
tors (such as PSpice) include in their libraries the model parameters of some of the popular
off-the-self components. For instance, in Example 3.10, we will use the commercially avail-
able IN4148 pn-junction diode whose SPICE model parameters are available in PSpice.

iD = Is (eVD/nVt - 1)

CD = Cd + Cj = {j; Is eVD/nJT + CjO/( 1- ~r

FIGURE 3.51 The SPICE diode model.

 3.9 THE SPICE DIODE MODEL AND SIMULATION EXAMPLES 213

Book
SPICE
Symbol Description Units
Parameter
Is Saturation current A
IS
n Emission coefficient
N
RS Rs Ohmic resistance Q

VJ Vo Built-in potential V
CJO CjO Zero-bias depletion (junction) capacitance F
M m Grading coefficient
TT 'rT Transit time
BV VZK Breakdown voltage V
IBV IZK Reverse current at VZK A

FIGURE 3.52 Equivalent-circuitmodelused to simulate

the zener diodein SPICE.Diode D[ is ideal and can be
approximatedin SPICEby using a very smallvalue for n
(say n = 0.01).

3.9.2 The Zener Diode Model

The diode model above does not adequately describe the operation of the diode in the break-
down region. Hence, it does not provide a satisfactory model for zener diodes. However, the
equivalent-circuit model shown in Fig. 3.52 can be used to simulate a zener diode in SPICE.
Here, diode D, is an ideal diode which can be approximated in SPICE by using a very small
value for n (say n = 0.0l). Diode D2 is a regular diode that models the forward-bias region of
the zener (for most applications, the parameters of D2 are of little consequence).

DESIGN OF A DC POWER SUPPLY

In this example, we will design a dc power supply using the rectifier circuit whose Capture
schernatic v' is shown in Fig. 3.53. This circuit consists of a full-wave diode rectifier, a filter

11 The reader is reminded that the Capture schematics, and the corresponding PSpice simulation
files, of all SPICE examples in this book can be found on the text's CD as well as on its website
(www.sedrasmith.org). In these schematics (as shown in Fig. 3.53), we use variable parameters
to enter the values of the various circuit components. This allows one to investigate the effect of
changing component values by simply changing the corresponding parameter values.
214 CHAPTER 3 DIODES

PARAMETERS:
C = 520u
R = 191
Riso1ation = 100E6
Rload = 200
6 {R}
Rs = 0.5 7
{Rs}
{C}
Zener_diode {Rload}
VOFF= 0
VAMPL = 169
4
FREQ = 60
DIN4148
{Risolation}
-=0 -=0 -=0

FIGURE 3.53 Captureschematicof the 5-V de power supplyin Example3.10.

capacitor, and a zener voltage regulator. The only perhaps-puzzling component is Risolatioll' the 100-
MQ resistor between the secondary winding of the transformer and ground. This resistor is included
to provide dc continuity and thus "keep SPICE happy"; it has little effect on circuit operation.
Let it be required that the power supply (in Fig. 3.53) provide a nominal de voltage of 5 V
and be able to supply a load current I10ad as large as 25 mA; that is, Rjoad can be as low as 200 Q.
The power supply is fed from a 120-V (rms) 60-Hz ac line. Note that in the PSpice schematic
(Fig. 3.53), we use a sinusoidal voltage source with a 169-V peak amplitude to represent the 120-
V rms supply (as 120-V rms = 169-V peak). Assume the availability of a 5.1-V zener diode hav-
ing rz = 10 Q at Iz = 20 mA (and thus Vzo = 4.9 V), and that the required minimum current
through the zener diode is IZmin = 5 mA.
An approximate first-cut design can be obtained as follows: The 120-V (rms) supply is
stepped down to provide 12-V (peak) sinusoids across each of the secondary windings using a
14:1 turns ratio for the center-tapped transformer. The choice of 12 V is a reasonable compromise
between the need to allow for sufficient voltage (above the 5-V output) to operate the rectifier and
the regulator, while keeping the PIV ratings of the diodes reasonably low. To determine a value
for R, we can use the following expression:

R = VCmin - zo -
V r/Zmin

IZmin + ILmax

where an estimate for VCmill' the minimum voltage across the capacitor, can be obtained by sub-
tracting a diode drop (say, 0.8 V) from 12 V and allowing for a ripple voltage across the capacitor
of, say, Vr= 0.5 V. Thus, VSmin = 10.7 V.Furthermore, we note thathmax = 25 mA and I = 5 mA,
Zmin
and that Vzo = 4.9 V and rz = 10 Q. The result is that R= 191 Q.
Next, we determine C using a restatement of Eq. (3.33) with Vp/R replaced by the current
through the 191-Q resistor. This current can be estimated by noting;:that the voltage across C var-
ies from 10.7 to 11.2 V, and thus has an average value of 10.95 V. Furthermore, the desired volt-
age across the zener is 5 V. The result is C = 520 IlF.
Now, with an approximate design in hand, we can proceed with the SPICE simulation. For
the zener diode, we use the model of Fig. 3.52, and assume (arbitrarily) that D, has Is = 100 pA
 3.9 THE SPICE DIODE MODEL AND SIMULATION EXAMPLES 215

50m lOOm l50m 200m

o V (7, 4) <:> V (6, 4)
Time (s)

FIGURE 3.54 The voltage vc across the smoothing capacitor C and the voltage Vo across the load resistor
R10ad = 200 Q in the 5-V power supply of Example 3.10.

and n = 0.01 while Dz has Is = 100 pA and n = 1.7. For the rectifier diodes, we use the com-
mercially available lN4l48 type12 (with Is= 2.682 nA, n = 1.836, Rs= 0.5664 n, Vo= 0.5 V, CjO =
4 pF, m = 0.333, TT = 11.54 ns, VZK = 100 V, IZK = 100 flA).
In PSpice, we perform a transient analysis and plot the waveforms of both the voltage Vc across
the smoothing capacitor C and the voltage Vo across the load resistor R1oad' The simulation results
for R10ad = 200 n (Iload == 25 mA) are presented in Fig. 3.54. Observe that vc has an average of 10.85 V
and a ripple of ±O.2l v. Thus, Vr = 0.42 V, which is close to the 0.5- V value that we would expect
from the chosen value of C. The output voltage uo is very close to the required 5 V, with uo varying
between 4.957 V and 4.977 V for a ripple of only 20 m V. The variations of Vo with R10ad is
illustrated in Fig. 3.55 for R10ad = 500 n, 250 n, 200 n, and 150 n. Accordingly, voremains close to
the nominal value of 5 V for R10ad as low as 200 n (I1oad == 25 mA). For R10ad = 150 n (which implies
I10ad == 33.3 mA, greater than the maximum designed value), we see a significant drop in vo (to about
4.8 V), as well as a large increase in the ripple voltage at the output (to about 190 mY). This is
because the zener regulator is no longer operational; the zener has in fact cut off.
We conclude that the design meets the specifications, and we can stop here. Alternatively, we
may consider fine-tuning the design using further runs of PSpice to help with the task. For instance,
we could consider what happens if we use a lower value of C, and so on. We can also investigate
other properties of the present design; for instance, the maximum current through each diode and
ascertain whether this maximum is within the rating specified for the diode.

12 TheIN4l48 model is included in the evaluation (EVAL) library ofPSpice (OrCad 9.2 Lite Edition),
which is available on the CD accompanying this book.

7
216 CHAPTER 3 DIODES

5.25V
·1·· ;. •......
i •
i i
i ·······1·1· ·····1 ..•. ; . .. i
.) ..•..
..

'.'
'

..... 1. .r ..· :
:

..., : R - 5(10.Q
I
: !
. i ~"'"

'fi'
.... I J
oad =
5.00V
,
.
~i .: I

..... :
1

.
•.. !A
. RIO~d = 2000
:
,iJ :
= J,O
", : rfj~ ;
I
! tv:: L,
N r:

i
r ...•. :

4.75V - : I
i'\
: •....
i
~ ~
~ +

WL
!.
/.

...
'. :......
~ir.Ill, ,.
: ..

.
, ... ·1···•
, ..
i ..

........ r:1iJj::
4.50V
160
o
:
o
1

'V .or;
165
V (7, 4)
170
:

175
,r ! i
"
i

180
ffi 185
,,
.... ..

i ! r

190 195 200

Time (ms)

FIGURE 3.55 The output-voltage waveform from the 5-V power supply (in Example 3.10) for various load
resistances: R10ad = 500 n, 250 n, 200 n, and 150 n. The voltage regulation is lost at a load resistance of 150 n.
 SUMMARY 217

SUMMARY

11 In the forward direction, the ideal diode conducts any • The unidirectional-current-flow property makes the diode
current forced by the external circuit while displaying a useful in the design of rectifier circuits.
zero voltage drop. The ideal diode does not conduct in the
reverse direction; any applied voltage appears as reverse • The forward conduction of practical silicon diodes is ac-
bias across the diode. curately characterized by the relationship i = IsevlnVT.

z
 213 CHAPTER 3 DIODES

A silicon diode conducts a negligible current until the for-

ward voltage is at least 0.5 V. Then the current increases !I In p-type silicon there is an overabundance of holes (pos-
rapidly, with the voltage drop increasing by 60 mV to itively charged carriers), while in n-type silicon electrons
are abundant.
120 mV (depending on the value of n) for every decade
of current change.
!I A carrier-depletion region develops at the interface in apn
junction, with the n side positively charged and the p side
!Ill In the reverse direction, a silicon diode conducts a cur-
negatively charged. The voltage difference resulting is
rent on the order of 10-9 A. This current is much greater
called the barrier voltage.
than Is and increases with the magnitude of reverse
voltage. !I A diffusion current j., flows in the forward direction (car-
ried by holes from the p side and electrons from the
!I Beyond a certain value of reverse voltage (that depends
n side), and a currenr /, flows in the reverse direction (car-
on the diode) breakdown occurs, and current increases
ried by thermally generated minority carriers). In an open-
rapidly with a small corresponding increase in voltage.
circuited junction, ID =0 Is and the barrier voltage is denoted
!Ill Diodes designed to operate in the breakdown region are Vo· Vo is also called the junction built -in voltage.
called zener diodes. They are employed in the design 6f !I Applying a reverse-bias voltage IVI to a pn junction causes
voltage regulators whose function is to provide a constant the depletion region to widen, and the barrier voltage in-
dc voltage that varies little with variations in power supply creases to (Vo + I VI ). The diffusion current decreases and
voltage and/or load current. a net reverse current of (Is -ID) flows.

11 A hierarchy of diode models exists, with the selection of !Ill Applying a forward-bias voltage IVI to apn junction causes
an appropriate model dictated by the application. the depletion region to become narrower, and the barrier
voltage decreases to (Vo - IVI). The diffusion current in-
11 In many applications, a conducting diode is modeled as
creases, and a net forward current of (ID -Is) flows.
having a constant voltage drop, usually approximately
0.7V. !I For a summary of the diode models in the forward region,
refer to Table 3.1.
11 A diode biased to operate at a de current ID has a small-
signal resistance r d =0 n V T/ ID' !I For a summary of the relationships that govern the phys-
ical operation of the pn junction, refer to Table 3.2.
!Ill The silicon junction diode is basically a pn junction. Such
a junction is formed in a single silicon crystal.

PROBLEMS
SECTION 3.1: THE IDEAL DIODE
3.3 For the circuits shown in Fig. P3.3 usIhg ideal diodes,
3.1 An AA flashlight cell, whose Thevenin equivalent is find the values of the labeled voltages and currents.
a voltage SOurce of 1.5 V and a resistance of 1 0, is
connected to the terminals of an ideal diode. Describe 3.4 In each of the ideal-diode circuits shown in Fig. P3.4,
two possible situations that result. What are the diode VIis a l-kHz, 10-V peak sine wave. Sketch the waveform
current and terminal voltage when (a) the connection resulting at Vo· \\That are its positive and negative peak
values?
is between the diode cathode and the positive terminal of
the battery and (b) the anode and the positive terminal are
connected? 3.5 The circuit shown in Fig. P3.5 is a model for a battery
charger. Here VI is a 10-V peak sine wave, D, and Dz are ideal
3,2 For the circuits shown in Fig. P3.2 using ideal diodes, diodes, I is a lOO-mA current source, and B is a 4.5- V battery.
find the values of the voltages and currents indicated. Sketch and label the waveform of the battery current i • What
B
is its peak value? What is its average value? If the peak value