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August 6, 2021 by Griffin Brown

Audio dynamics 101: compressors, limiters,

expanders, and gates
Audio dynamics processing is a major part of mixing in music production. In this article, we discuss the basics of
dynamics in audio.

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In this article, we’ll demystify the compressor and other audio dynamics
processors. We’ll cover the four main types of plug-ins used to control
dynamics: limiters, compressors, expanders, and gates. We’ll discuss the
mathematical processes behind these tools, how they affect the sound,
and the best scenarios in which to use them.

Dynamics and dynamic range

Before we discuss audio dynamics processors, it’s important to
understand what dynamic range is.

Dynamic range is the difference between an audio signal's loudest and

quietest level. Audio dynamics processors are used to control this quality
 of a sound and for the most part, the names of these processors refer to
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feugiat, vestibulum mi nec, ultrices ipsum.how they're
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Nulla a sound's
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Want to follow along?

Get your copy of Music Production Suite and explore all this and
more in Ozone and Neutron .

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What is compression? | audio dynamics 101

What do compressors do?

 A compressor is used to reduce a signal's dynamic range—that is, to
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feugiat, vestibulum mi nec, ultrices ipsum.reduce the
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an audio signal.

Compression is commonly used to attenuate loud transient peaks (e.g.,

when a singer suddenly belts out a high note) to help maintain a
consistent level.

Compression essentially causes distortion in a signal, in that it changes

the original sound of the signal through its processing. The compressor
typically achieves this by emphasizing certain harmonics based on how
the compressor is hitting the incoming signal. It’s our job to make that
distortion feel transparent and to use our dynamics to create the best-
sounding performance we can.

In compression, the dynamic range becomes narrower — the highest

peaks and the quietest parts have fewer dB of level difference between
them.

Compressor parameters
We actually won’t dive too deep into parameters here, as we’ve actually
already covered compressor parameters in our Pro Audio Essentials
course.

The average compressor has six main parameters that are important to
understand: threshold, ratio, knee, attack time, release time, and makeup
 gain.
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Take a look at the compressor below, just one of useful modules for
channel processing and mixing found in Neutron .

Neutron compressor module

All of the parameters discussed above are clearly labeled at the center of
the screen. The horizontal line indicates the threshold level and its bright
glow indicates that the knee has been turned way up. Below that line, the
pop-up box has controls for attack, release, ratio, and makeup gain, all
neatly accessible. Here’s what all of the controls do.
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1/10 00:00 Threshold

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The threshold is the level at which dynamics processing begins. With

compression, the threshold sets the level (in dB) above which the
compressor acts upon the incoming signal.

Ratio
The amount of compression that occurs once the signal rises above the
threshold is controlled by the ratio. In a standard compressor, a ratio of
x:1 attenuates the signal to a level of 1 dB above the threshold for every x
dB it crosses.

The following figure illustrates a threshold of various ratios.

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Chart of a compression figure grid

In this example, the grey line represents the threshold. The red line shows
the response for 1:1 ratio, meaning no compression. As you can see, the
level in equals the level out.

The colored lines represent various compression ratios. The orange line
is a very gentle 1.5:1 ratio, where every 1.5 dB of input gain above the
 threshold results in only 1dB of gain at the output , so for example an
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increase of 6 dB. The yellow line shows a 2:1 ratio, so an input level of 9
dB above the threshold would only yield 4.5 dB of gain at the output.

The blue line shows a 9:1 compression ratio, which is on the edge of the
very aggressive level control known as limiting (for example, the purple
line illustrates a 20:1 ratio).

The green line shows a 3:1 ratio, where we have the line up and to the
right of the 0 dB threshold — for example, an input level of 6 dB yields an
output level of only 2 dB — the louder parts of the signal are now quieter.

With the threshold, ratio, and input level, we can determine the output
level using the equation below.

Output level equation

Knee
The knee affects how a compressor behaves with signals that are very
near the threshold. Think of it as a narrowing or widening of the threshold
point, smoothing out the transition between “not compressing at all”
below the threshold and “compressing at the chosen ratio” above it.
 In the figure drawn above, all the lines corner sharply when they get to the
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Often this sort of behavior is just fine, but sometimes it may sound abrupt
and unnatural.

For a smoother and more musical handling of compression, you can set a
soft knee, where compression turns on gradually as signals approach the
threshold and then pass it. Knee is often measured in decibels and
indicates the transition band between the regions of action and inaction.

Here is an example starting with a hard knee, moving to a soft knee.

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The choice of hard versus soft knee is usually made based on the sound
you want to achieve. A hard knee usually results in an 'edgier' tone due to
the compressor's rapid switching on and off that produces high frequency
 distortion. Usually this approach does a better job of preserving the sharp
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Check out this example from iZotope Ozone Dynamics module.

Ozone Dynamics module

As you can see, Ozone Dynamics has a lot going on. This display shows
controls for a separate Compressor and Limiter, to allow for two stages of
dynamics control. You can set these parameters for up to four frequency
ranges, so (for example) you can compress bass frequencies hard while
leaving highs alone. It’s a full-featured solution for mastering and other
fine audio work, and is just one of the many useful modules in Ozone .

Attack and Release Times

 Remember, we said that the threshold activates the compressor, not
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feugiat, vestibulum mi nec, ultrices ipsum.compression in general.
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the signal, and needs time to react as the signal bounces above and
below the threshold. Otherwise, if the signal crosses the threshold often,
the compressor will create unpleasant artifacts as it rapidly turns on and
off.

The attack time is the amount of time the compressor will go from zero
compression to full compression based on the ratio and threshold
settings.

The signal will eventually drop below the threshold, meaning

compression has to stop. The release time determines how long it takes
for the compressor to stop compression.
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Setting appropriate attack and release times can create useful musical
effects, as we’ll discuss below.

Makeup Gain
Because compression only impacts the sound while it’s crossed the
threshold, the loudest parts of the resulting signal become quieter. See
this in the guitar tracks shown below, where the upper waveform shows
the stereo signal before compression and the lower one shows it after
compression.
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Uncompressed vs. compressed

To compensate for this, we can use the makeup gain parameter to

amplify the output signal, “making up” for the lost gain.

However, when we do this, the entire signal is amplified, so the quieter

parts get amplified right along with the louder parts. The signal will have
a narrower dynamic range, but a higher RMS level (an average—see the
Pro Audio Essentials video here) — and if there is noticeable noise in the
background (the noise floor), it will be more audible.

It’s important to note that makeup gain is most commonly used to

achieve input RMS = output RMS.
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Why use a compressor?
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Power, presence, and tone color

The main reason to use compression is to reduce the contrast between
high and low amplitude signals and/or to alter the ADSR envelope and
change the character of the sound.

While compression may sound somewhat less natural or ‘hi-fi’ it can help
an element sit well in a mix and therefore the music may sound better.

Additionally, compressors can be used to add color to a sound. Each

compressor is unique, with different analog circuits and digital
algorithms being used. Some compressors have a particular “sound” that
engineers like for different types of instruments (e.g. the Teletronix LA-2A
compressor for vocals).

Teletronix LA-2A compressor

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Compressors are also important for controlling the dynamics of live-
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recorded instruments and vocals. These tend to vary quite widely in level
over the course of a performance, so some compression can help make
the level more consistent.

This can bring out a full and polished sound, more like the “professional”
sound of instruments in the mix. However, you can always opt to perform
less compression (or none at all) if you want to preserve a more dynamic
and “live” quality in the performance.

Transient Shaping
You can also use compressors to shape transients in sounds like drums.
A transient is the first part of any musical sound, where the instrument is
hit, bowed, blown into, plucked, etc., to get it to resonate and make
sound. Transients carry some of the essential information the human ear
needs to determine what the sound is, so playing with them can create a
wide variety of musical effects.

For example, lower (faster) attack times can be used to attenuate the
initial transient (like the crack of the snare or the beater snap of the kick
drum), making the tail of the drum hit more prominent.

More commonly, drum compression uses increased (slower) attack

times. A slow attack lets the initial transient slip through untouched
while the compressor is still getting started compressing. This will make
the transient pop out even more, making drums punchier.
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Neutron Transient Shaper module

Check out the “Compressor Attack” video to hear this in action:

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1/10 00:00 Compressor Attack | iZotope Pro Audio Essentials

Similarly, stretching out or tightening up the release time of a compressor

affects how notes trail away. Sometimes release times are set to match
the tempo of a track, causing a rhythmic “pumping” or “breathing” effect;
other times, release times are set very long (even over one second) to
smooth out the dynamic control of busier parts. In the screenshot above,
the release time of roughly 100 ms allows the compression to ease back
to zero in a very musical way before the next hit.

Parallel and Sidechain Compression

There are two other techniques worth mentioning where compression is
concerned. The first is parallel compression, which has become more
common in recent years. Parallel Compression is a technique that
 involves mixing a lightly compressed signal with a heavily compressed
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allows for a smoother result, with crisp and level sound in the high end
without any loud peaks or squashed transients. If you go back and look at
all the iZotope plug-ins that include compressors, you’ll see a Mix slider
in Neutron and Nectar, and a Parallel slider in Ozone—that’s what they’re
for!

Finally, there’s sidechain compression. This form of compression uses

one instrument’s level over a threshold to activate the gain reduction
(compression) on another instrument. For example, inserting a
compressor on a bass track that reacts to the kick drum will compress
the bass every time the kick drum is hit. This method will ‘tame’ the bass
track and ‘duck’ it out of the way each time the kick is hit, while still
maintaining its overall level in the mix.

Another great example of sidechaining is an effect called a de-esser. In a

de-esser, a vocal is run through a compressor, and the sidechain input
controlling it is the exact same vocal — after being run through an EQ to
isolate the hissy, essy parts of vocal sounds that we call sibilance. This
way, sibilance causes the vocal to compress a bit and makes the
sibilance itself less audible. The sibilance teaches the compressor how
to remove itself.

Nectar has a dedicated De-esser module in its signal chain, that looks
like this:
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Nectar De-esser module

The vertical line sets the lowest frequency that’s fed into the sidechain,
and the Listen meter shows how much audio in this range is being gain-
reduced in real time. Note how this module doesn’t have many of the
controls we’ve discussed, as its sidechain routing is handled internally
behind the scenes in order to make the process easier — but at its heart,
it’s still a compressor.

Limiters
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1/10 00:00 What Is a Limiter? | Audio Dynamics 101

What do limiters do?

Just as a compressor “compresses” the dynamic range, a limiter limits it.
The limiter serves as a ceiling which signal cannot pass. If the signal hits
this ceiling, it will be harshly compressed so that it does not pass above.

You may be wondering if a limiter attenuates the loudest parts of a signal,

how is it any different from a compressor? Essentially, a limiter is just a
compressor with a very high ratio.

As a compressor’s ratio increases, so will the amount of compression.

Eventually, that compression amounts to an impermeable ceiling.
 For example, let’s say that we have a compressor with a ratio of 2:1 (not
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dB over the threshold.

With this ratio, the compressor would output signals at levels of 1 dB, 2
dB, and 4 dB over the threshold. Closer to each other in level, but still not
so consistent.

However, if we turned the ratio up to 8:1 (quite high), the compressor

would output signals at levels of 0.25 dB, 0.5 dB, and 1 dB over the
threshold. These signals are now much closer to each other and much
closer to the threshold level itself.

Eventually, as the ratio increases, the signal will not be allowed to cross
the threshold, which becomes a sort of “ceiling.”

The exact number you’ll hear changes from source to source, but any
compression with a ratio of around 12:1 or higher could be considered
limiting.
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Ozone Vintage Limiter module

Limiter parameters
Every limiter will have at least one parameter: gain. This is used to boost
signal until it hits the ceiling and is compressed.

Some limiters will have an adjustable threshold level, which is also often
referred to as the ceiling.

If your limiter does not have this capability, you can always compensate
for the added gain with a dedicated gain plug-in or at the channel fader.
However, as limiters are mostly used in mastering as a means to bring
the signal to unity gain, you’ll rarely need this.
 Most limiters will have a release time parameter as well. This functions
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take to return to zero compression.

Not all limiters will have an adjustable attack time, however. Some, like
the Vintage Limiter in Ozone, have connected attack and release
parameters (set with the “Character” parameter).

Now that we know a limiter is essentially a compressor with a high ratio,

take a look at our compression output level equation again:

Output level equation

As the ratio increases, that fraction will approach 0. Therefore, the

equation will eventually become this:

As expected, as the ratio increases, the output level for a signal that
crosses the threshold will become closer and closer to the threshold
itself. The signal cannot pass it.
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Why use a limiter?
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The main use, and really only use, of a limiter, is in mastering. The
compression that they offer is so extreme that they’re rarely used on the
channel level. Instead, limiters are often used on the master to bring the
track up to a commercial level, and through compression commercial
“loudness.” This final stage of compression can glue the elements of the
track together and make the track louder at the same level.

Remembering that our ears naturally prefer louder music, limiters provide
mastering engineers a big advantage in making a track sound
professional. Just be sure not to overdo limiter settings, as the added
compression and eventual distortion can suck the life out of a dynamic
mix.

Another use for limiters is in a live sound setting, as a fail-safe

precaution. If a loud sound occurs (one that would blow everybody’s ears
out), this limiter will make sure to control it. Again, these limiters are
usually placed on the master channel.

Be sure to check out our “Introduction to Limiters” article for a bunch

more information on uses and parameters for different types of limiters.

Expanders
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1/10 00:00 What Is an Expander? | Audio Dynamics 101

What do expanders do?

Again, like a compressor “compresses” and a limiter “limits” the dynamic
range, an expander expands it. Louder and quieter parts become
relatively louder and quieter respectively. As such, it’s essentially the
opposite of a compressor.

“Upward expanders” amplify the level of signal that passes the threshold,
rather than attenuate it like a “downward compressor.” A “downward
expander” attenuates signal that drops below the threshold, rather than
amplify it like an “upward compressor.”
 Be sure to check this article out for more information on upward and
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Most expanders are upward expanders (like the expansion featured

in Ozone when setting the compressor/limiter ratio to a negative
number), but you’ll find plenty of downward expanders too. Downward
expanders act similarly to gates, which we’ll get to in a second.

Expander parameters
The parameters found in an expander are and function mostly the same
as those in a compressor.

The threshold once again determines the input level at which the
expander will activate. This happens when the signal is loud enough to
cross this threshold level (upward expansion) or quiet enough to fall
below it (downward expansion).

Ratio, however, acts a bit differently. In a standard expander (which is

upward), an expansion ratio of 1:x amplifies the signal to a level of x dB
above the threshold for every 1 dB it crosses.

Again, let’s look at an example. Say we had an upward expander with a

ratio of 1:3 and a threshold set at 0 dB. If the incoming signal were at 1 dB
(1 dB above the threshold), the signal would be amplified to 3 dB at the
output. If the signal were at 2 dB (2 dB above the threshold), the signal
 would be amplified to 6 dB at the output. The louder parts of the signal
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In a downward expander, a ratio of x:1 attenuates signal to a level of x dB

below the threshold for every 1 dB it drops below the threshold.

Say we had a downward expander with a ratio of 1:3 and a threshold set
at 0 dB. If the incoming signal were at -1 dB (1 dB below the threshold),
the signal would be attenuated to -3 dB at the output. If the signal were at
-2 dB (2 dB below the threshold), the signal would be attenuated to -6 dB
at the output. The quieter parts of the signal are now quieter.

With the threshold, ratio, and input level, we can determine the output
level using this equation (this works for downward and upward
expansion):

Knee, attack time, and release time for expanders would all work the
same as in compressors.

Makeup gain is only really necessary for upward expansion. As louder

parts become louder, the signal will be louder after the expander than
before, which can eventually lead to distortion of your gain-staging is off.
 The makeup gain can be used to attenuate the signal, returning the
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Downward expansion does not require makeup gain, as the quiet parts
will simply be quieter.

Why use an expander?

An expander can be used to achieve the opposite result of a compressor,
expanding the dynamic range rather than compressing it. Therefore,
expanders are best used when you want to have a wider dynamic range.

Expanders can be used to make instrumental or vocal performances a bit

more varied in volume. This can be very useful if you want a more organic
sound. This can, however, reduce presence in the mix. It can also
potentially cause unnatural pumping, as these expansions in dynamic
range are caused by mathematical processes ignorant to musical
phrasing.

One of the main uses of expanders is in mixing a recorded drum kit. Each
drum is individually mic'd, allowing each to have a separate channel on
the mixer. However, total isolation is difficult, and bits of the other drums
are bound to bleed through into other microphones.

An expander can be used, for example, to decrease the volume of the hat
in the snare mic. As the hat will be further away from the mic than the
 snare, it will be quieter than the snare when picked up by the snare mic.
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With the same logic, you can use expanders to remove reverb from
drums. The reverb signal will be lower than the threshold, causing it to be
attenuated in between the drum hits. Listen to the example below:

Drums - With Reverb

00:07

Drums - Without Reverb After Expansion

00:07

The reason this works with drums is that, after each drum hit, there is
space for the signal to drop below the threshold level. With a low release
time, it’s possible to mostly cut out the reverb tail. In a more sustained
instrument, like a vocal or keys, this wouldn’t work because the dry
 instrument will still keep the overall signal above the threshold, allowing
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Lastly, expanders can be used like compressors for sidechaining

purposes. With sidechain expansion, a signal (“Sound A”) is attenuated
by an expander, which is triggered by the fluctuating level of a different
signal (“Sound B”). As a result, Sound A will be attenuated when Sound B
drops below the expander’s threshold.

This is interesting, as it can cause an element to play more loudly while

another element is playing. This has the effect of blending the two
sounds like they’re one sound.

Check out this example of sidechain compression in action. The first

audio file is a drum loop. The second is a sample of vinyl static.

Dry Drums

00:07

Vinyl Static
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1/10 00:00 00:07

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I’ve placed an expander on the static‘s channel and triggered it with the
drum loop. Hear how the static pumps with the drum groove when it’s
soloed. And hear the added layer of texture it gives to the drums when
both are played together.

Vinyl Static Pumping

00:11

Drums and Static

00:07
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Gates
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What Is a Noise Gate? | Audio Dynamics 101

What do gates do?

Our last dynamics processor is a gate, which is essentially the extreme
version of a downward expander. Gates provide a floor level which signal
must cross to get through the gate. If the signal is too quiet to reach this
floor, it will be attenuated to silence.

Let’s see how a gate simply acts as an expander with a high ratio.
 For example, let’s say that we have an expander with a ratio of 1:2 (not
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dB below the threshold.

With this ratio, the expander would output signals at levels of 4 dB, 8 dB,
and 16 dB below the threshold. The signals’ levels are further apart but
are all still relatively close.

However, if we turned the ratio up to 1:4 (very high), the expander would
output signals at levels of 8 dB, 16 dB, and 32 dB below the threshold.
These signals are now much further apart and much closer to being
inaudible.

Eventually, as the ratio increases, any signal will be greatly attenuated,

and all signal that passes through the gate will have to cross this floor
level.
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Neutron Gate module

Gate parameters
Every gate will have at least three parameters: threshold, attack
time, and release time. These all function the same as in compressors
and expanders.

Some gates will also have a hold parameter, causing the gate to remain
open for a period of time (in ms) after the signal has dropped below the
threshold and before the release phase begins.
 Some gates will also offer the ability to have the gate close at a different
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parameter is often called the close or return level.

And just like the fact that some limiters have an adjustable ceiling, some
gates will have an adjustable floor level. This is the level that signal will
remain at while the gate is closed, and can be increased up from -∞ dB.

Now that we know a gate is essentially an expander with a high ratio,

take a look at our expansion output level equation again:

As the ratio increases, that total fraction will become larger and larger.
Therefore, the equation will eventually become this:

As expected, as the ratio increases, the output level for a signal that falls
below the threshold will become quieter and quieter. Eventually, the
signal will not be able to pass if it is below the threshold—a gate.