UNIT_1

1. Illustrate TCP/IP reference model with a neat diagram.

A. • The ARPANET was a research network sponsored by the DoD (U.S. Department of
Defense).

• It eventually connected hundreds of universities and government installations, using

leased telephone lines.

• When satellite and radio networks were added later, the existing protocols had trouble
interworking with them, so a new reference architecture was needed.

• Thus, from nearly the beginning, the ability to connect multiple networks in a
seamless way was one of the major design goals.

• This architecture later became known as the TCP/IP Reference Model.

• The DoD wanted connections to remain intact as long as the source and destination
machines were functioning, even if some of the machines or transmission lines in
between were suddenly put out of operation.

• Ranging from transferring files to real-time speech transmission, a flexible

architecture was needed.

• All these requirements led to the choice of a packet-switching network based on a

MKK connectionless layer that runs across different networks.

• TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. It was

developed by the DoD (Department of Defence) in the 1960s

• TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol.

• TCP/IP Protocol suite have 4 layers

1. The Link Layer

2. The Internet Layer

3. The Transport Layer

4. The Application Layer

1.The Link Layer

• It is also called a network interface layer or link layer. It can be considered as the
combination of physical layer and data link layer of the OSI model.

• It defines how bits are to be encoded into optical or electrical pulses.

• It accepts IP packets from the network layer and encapsulates them into frames.

• It is not really a layer at all, in the normal sense of the term, but rather an interface
between hosts and transmission links. Protocols used in this layer are:
ARPANET:-

• Advanced Research Project Agency Software

• It is world first packet switching Software & core Software came to compose the
global Internet.

SATNET:-

• SATNET, also known as satellite network that formed as an initial segment of the
Internet.

• It was implemented by BBN(Body-to-Body Network) Technologies under the direction

of the Advanced MKK Research Projects Agency.

Packet radio

• Packet radio is a digital radio communications mode used to send packets of data.

• Packet radio uses packet switching to transmit datagrams.

• Packet radio can be used to transmit data long distances.

2.The Internet Layer

The Internet layer is responsible for logical transmission of data packets over the
internet.

Main functions of the internet layer are –

• It transmits data packets to the link layer.

• It routes each of the data packets independently from the source to the destination,
using the optimal route.

• It reassembles the out-of-order packets when they reach the destination.

• It handles the error in transmission of data packets and fragmentation of data

packets.

The protocols used in this layer are –

• Internet Protocol, IP − It is a connectionless and unreliable protocol that provides a

best effort delivery service. It transports data packets called datagrams that travel over
different routes across multiple nodes.

• Address Resolution Protocol, ARP −This protocol maps the logical address or the
Internet address of a host to its physical address, as printed in the network interface
card.
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol, RARP − This is to find the Internet address of
a host when its physical address is known.

• Internet Control Message Protocol, ICMP − It monitors sending the queries as well
as the error messages.

• Internet Group Message Protocol, IGMP −It allows the transmission of a message to
a group of recipients MKK simultaneously.

3.The Transport Layer

• The transport layer is responsible for error-free, end-to-end delivery of data from the
source host to the destination host.

In Transport layer there are two protocols namely, TCP and UDP.

• Transmission Control Protocol, TCP − It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol

that transmits data from the source to the destination machine without any error. A
connection

• User Datagram Protocol, UDP − It is a message-oriented protocol that provides a

simple unreliable, connectionless, unacknowledged service. It is suitable for
applications that do not require TCP’s sequencing, error control or flow control. It is
used for transmitting a small amount of data where the speed of delivery is more
important than the accuracy of delivery.

• Stream Control Transmission Protocol, SCTP − It combines the features of both TCP
and UDP. It is message oriented like the UDP, which providing the reliable, connection-
oriented service like TCP. It is used for telephony over the Internet.

4.The Application Layer

• The application layer is the highest abstraction layer of the TCP/IP model that provides
the interfaces and protocols needed by the users. It combines the functionalities of the
session layer, the presentation layer and the application layer of the OSI model.

This layer uses a number of protocols, the main among which are as follows –

• Hyper Text Transfer Protocol, HTTP − It is the underlying protocol for world wide web.
It defines how hypermedia messages are formatted and transmitted.

• File Transfer Protocol, FTP − It is a client-server based protocol for transfer of files
between client and server over the network.

• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP − It lays down the rules and semantics for
sending and receiving electronic mails (e-mails).

• Domain Name System, DNS − It is a naming system for devices in networks. It

provides services for translating domain names to IP addresses.
• TELNET − It provides bi-directional text-oriented services for remote login to the hosts
over the network.

• Simple Network Management Protocol, SNMP − It is for managing, monitoring the

network MKK and for organizing information about the networked devices,

2. Write about network software & hardware.

A. Network Hardware:
Network Hardware can classify either by transmission technology or by scale

• There are two types of transmission technology that are in widespread use: broadcast
links and point-to-point links.

• Point-to-point transmission with exactly one sender and exactly one receiver is
sometimes called unicasting.

• In contrast, on a broadcast network, the communication channel is shared by all the

machines on the network; packets sent by any machine are received by all the others. An
address field within each packet specifies the intended recipient. Upon receiving a
packet, a machine checks the address field. If the packet is intended for the receiving
machine, that machine processes the packet; if the packet is intended for some other
machine, it is just ignored.

• Broadcast systems usually allow the possibility of addressing a packet to all

destinations by using a special code in the address field. This mode of operation is called
broadcasting.

• Some broadcast systems also support transmission to a subset of the machines, which
known as multicasting.

• An alternative criterion for classifying networks is by scale.

• Distance is important as a classification metric because different technologies are

used at different scales.
Personal Area Networks

• PANs (Personal Area Networks) let devices communicate over the range of a person. A
common example is a wireless network that connects a computer with its peripherals.

• Almost every computer has an attached monitor, keyboard, mouse, and printer.
Without using wireless, this connection must be done with cables.

• Also short-range wireless network called Bluetooth to connect these components

without wires. – Bluetooth networks use the master-slave paradigm

Local Area Networks

• A LAN is a privately owned network that operates within and nearby a single building
like a home, office or factory.

• When LANs are used by companies, they are called enterprise networks.

• Wireless LANs are very popular these days where it is too much trouble to install
cables.

• In these systems, every computer has a radio modem and an antenna that it uses to
communicate with other computers.
• This device, called an AP (Access Point), wireless router, or base station, relays
packets between the wireless computers and also between them and the Internet.

• There is a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, popularly known as WiFi.

• It runs at speeds anywhere from 11 to hundreds of Mbps.

• Wired LANs use a range of different transmission technologies like copper wires,
optical fiber etc., and LANs are restricted in size

• The topology of many wired LANs is built from point-to-point links. IEEE 802.3,
popularly called Ethernet

Features
• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.

• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a

communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network

adapters, and ethernet cables.

• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

• Local Area Network provides higher security.

Metropolitan Area Networks

A MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) covers a city.

• Design to extend over a large area.

• Connecting number of LAN's to form larger network, so that resources can be shared.
• Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km.
• Owned by organization or individual.

• Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN.

Example: Organization with different branches located in the city.

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.

• It can be used in a college within a city.

• It can also be used for communication in the military.

Wide Area Networks

• A WAN (Wide Area Network) spans a large geographical area, often a country or
continent

• The network that connects these hosts is then called the communication subnet, or
just subnet for short.

• The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host

• In most WANs, the subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission lines
and switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines.

• Switching elements, or just switches, are specialized computers that connect two or
more transmission lines.

– When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an
outgoing line on which to forward them.
– These switching computers have been called by the name router (Unfortunately, some
people pronounce it ‘‘rooter’’).

Originally subnet is the collection of routers and communication lines that moves
packets from the source host to the destination host.

• In a WAN, the hosts and subnet are owned and operated by different people.

• The WAN in Fig. is a network that connects offices in Perth, Melbourne, and Brisbane.
Each of these offices contains computers intended for running user (i.e., application)
programs.

Features of WAN
• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.

• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.

• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

NETWORK SOFTWARE
• The first computer networks were designed with the hardware as the main concern
and the software as an afterthought.

•This strategy no longer works. Network software is now highly structured.

Functions of Network Software

• Helps to set up and install computer networks

• Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner

• Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network

• Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that data

• Helps administrators and security system to protect the network from data breaches,
unauthorized access and attacks on a network

• Enables network virtualizations.

3. Explain about OSI layer in Computer Networks.

A. The OSI Reference Model
• This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards
Organization (ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of the protocols
used in the various layers

• The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model
because it deals with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for
communication with other systems. We will just call it the OSI model for short.

• The OSI model has seven layers.

OSI Reference Model principles:

• 1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

• 2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.

• 3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.

• 4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.

• 5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be
thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the
architecture does not become unwieldy.
The Physical Layer
• The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel.

The Data Link Layer

• The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a
line that appears free of undetected transmission errors.

• It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the input data into data
frames (typically a few hundred or a few thousand bytes) and transmit the frames
sequentially.

• If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending
back an acknowledgement frame.

• Another issue is how to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data.
Some traffic regulation mechanism like Flow control is needed

• Broadcast networks have an additional issue to control access to the shared channel.
A special sublayer of the data link layer, the medium access control sublayer, deals with
this problem.
The Network Layer
• The network layer controls the operation of the subnet.

• A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to destination.

• Handling congestion is also a responsibility of the network layer, in conjunction with

higher layers that adapt the load

• More generally, the quality of service provided (delay, transit time, jitter, etc.) is also a
network layer issue.

The Transport Layer

• The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above it, split it up into
smaller units call segments

• The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the session
layer

• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point

connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The Session Layer

• The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between
them.

• Sessions offer various services, including

• dialog control: keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit

• token management: preventing two parties from attempting the same critical
operation simultaneously

• Synchronization: checkpointing long transmissions to allow them to pick up from

where they left off in the event of a crash and subsequent recovery

The Presentation Layer

• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted.

The Application Layer

• The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by
users. One widely used application protocol is HTTP (HyperTextTransfer Protocol),
which is the basis for the World Wide Web.
• Other application protocols are used for file transfer (FTP), electronic mail(SMTP), and
so on.

4. Explain about Connection oriented and connectionless service.

A. Connection-Oriented Versus Connectionless Service
Connection-Oriented Service
A connection-oriented service is a network service that was designed and developed
after the telephone system. A connection-oriented service is used to create an end to
end connection between the sender and the receiver before transmitting the data over
the same or different networks. In connection-oriented service, packets are transmitted
to the receiver in the same order the sender has sent them. It uses a handshake method
that creates a connection between the user and sender for transmitting the data over
the network. Hence it is also known as a reliable network service.

Connectionless Service
A connection is similar to a postal system, in which each letter takes along different
route paths from the source to the destination address. Connectionless service is used in
the network system to transfer data from one end to another end without creating any
connection. So it does not require establishing a connection before sending the data
from the sender to the receiver. It is not a reliable network service because it does not
guarantee the transfer of data packets to the receiver, and data packets can be received
in any order to the receiver.

Service Primitives
• A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to user
processes to access the service.
• These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report on an action taken
by a peer entity.

• The set of primitives available depends on the nature of the service being provided.

• The primitives for connection-oriented service are different from those of

cconnectionless service.

The Relationship of Services to Protocols

Services and protocols are distinct concepts.

• A service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the layer above it.

– A service relates to an interface between two layers, with the lower layer being the
service provider and the upper layer being the service user.

• A protocol, in contrast, is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the
packets, or messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer.

service defines operations that can be performed on an object but does not specify how
these operations are implemented. In contrast, a protocol relates to the implementation
of the service.
5. Explain various network categories based on size of network and
physical structures.
A. Personal Area Networks
• PANs (Personal Area Networks) let devices communicate over the range of a person. A
common example is a wireless network that connects a computer with its peripherals.

• Almost every computer has an attached monitor, keyboard, mouse, and printer.
Without using wireless, this connection must be done with cables.

• Also short-range wireless network called Bluetooth to connect these components

without wires.

– Bluetooth networks use the master-slave paradigm

Local Area Networks

• A LAN is a privately owned network that operates within and nearby a single building
like a home, office or factory.

• When LANs are used by companies, they are called enterprise networks.

• Wireless LANs are very popular these days where it is too much trouble to install
cables.

• In these systems, every computer has a radio modem and an antenna that it uses to
communicate with other computers.

• This device, called an AP (Access Point), wireless router, or base station, relays packets
between the wireless computers and also between them and the Internet.

• There is a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11, popularly known as WiFi.

• It runs at speeds anywhere from 11 to hundreds of Mbps.

• Wired LANs use a range of different transmission technologies like copper wires,
optical fiber etc., and LANs are restricted in size

• The topology of many wired LANs is built from point-to-point links. IEEE 802.3,
popularly called Ethernet

Features
• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.

• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters,
and ethernet cables.

• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

• Local Area Network provides higher security.

Metropolitan Area Networks

A MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) covers a city.

• Design to extend over a large area.

• Connecting number of LAN's to form larger network, so that resources can be shared.

• Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km.

• Owned by organization or individual.

• Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN.

Example: Organization with different branches located in the city.

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.

• It can be used in a college within a city.

• It can also be used for communication in the military.

Wide Area Networks

• A WAN (Wide Area Network) spans a large geographical area, often a country or
continent

• The network that connects these hosts is then called the communication subnet, or
just subnet for short.

• The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host

• In most WANs, the subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission lines and
switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines.

• Switching elements, or just switches, are specialized computers that connect two or
more transmission lines.

– When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an outgoing
line on which to forward them.

– These switching computers have been called by the name router (Unfortunately, some
people pronounce it ‘‘rooter’’)

Originally subnet is the collection of routers and communication lines that moves
packets from the source host to the destination host.

• In a WAN, the hosts and subnet are owned and operated by different people.
• The WAN in Fig. is a network that connects offices in Perth, Melbourne, and Brisbane.
Each of these offices contains computers intended for running user (i.e., application)
programs.

Features of WAN

• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.

• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.

• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

6. With a neat diagram describe in detail about the Network

architecture.
A. Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the
software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say
that how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

Peer-To-Peer network

o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked

together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.

o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10

computers.

o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.

o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but
this can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.

o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.

o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system .
Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
 o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

Client/Server Network

o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called
clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer
known as Server.

o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the
network are called clients.

o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.

o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories,
printer, etc.

o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if
client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the
server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate
its communication with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back

up the data easily.

o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall

performance of the whole system.

o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the

shared resources.
 o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.

o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the

clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.

o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

7. Briefly explain about any five Networking- devices in computer

networks.
A. 1. Repeaters:
• Repeaters are network devices operating at physical layer of the OSI model that
amplify or regenerate an incoming signal before retransmitting it. They are
incorporated in networks to expand its coverage area. They are also known as signal
boosters.

• When an electrical signal is transmitted via a channel, it gets attenuated (loss of

transmission signal strength) depending upon the nature of the channel or the
technology. This poses a limitation upon the length of the LAN or coverage area of
cellular networks. This problem is alleviated by installing repeaters at certain intervals.

2.Bridges
• A bridge is a network device that connects multiple LANs (local area networks)
together to form a larger LAN. The process of aggregating networks is called network
bridging. A bridge connects the different components so that they appear as parts of a
single network. Bridges operate at the data link layer of the OSI model and hence also
referred as Layer 2 switches.

3.Routers
A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from one LAN to
another if both networks support the same set of protocols. So a router is typically
connected to at least two LANs and the internet service provider (ISP). It receives its
data in the form of packets, which are data frames with their destination address added.
Router also strengthens the signals before transmitting them. That is why sometimes it
is also called repeater.
4.Gateways
• Gateway is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar networks. A
gateway usually is a computer with multiple NICs(Network Interface Card) connected to
different networks. A gateway can also be configured completely using software. As
networks connect to a different network through gateways, these gateways are usually
hosts or end points of the network.

• Gateway uses packet switching technique to transmit data from one network to
another. In this way it is similar to a router, the only difference being router can transmit
data only over networks that use same protocols.
5.Hubs
• Hubs are networking devices operating at a physical layer of the OSI model that are
used to connect multiple devices in a network. They are generally used to connect
computers in a LAN.

• A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected to the network
is plugged in to one of these ports. When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to
every other port, without considering whether it is destined for a particular destination
device or not.
8. Explain the different types of Networks
A. Network Topologies
• Logical layout of wires and equipment is called topology.

Topology: Shape of the network

• The way in which devices are interconnected to form a network is called network
topology.

• Some of the factors that affect choice of topology for a network are

• Cost
• Scalability
• Flexibility
• Reliability
• Ease of installation
• Ease of maintenance

Bus Topology
• It is also called linear bus

• One wire connects all nodes

Advantages:

• Easy to setup

• Require less hardware

• Low cost
Disadvantages:

• Slow

• Easy to crash

• If one system effected remaining systems cannot communicate with each other

Star Topology
• A star topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which server is
connected to each node individually.

• Server is also called the central node.

• Any exchange of data between two nodes must take place through the server.
Advantages

• Failure of one node does not affect the network

• Troubleshooting is easy as faulty node can be detected from central node

immediately
Ring Topology
• In ring topology each terminal is connected to exactly two nodes, giving the
network a circular shape.

• Data travels in only one pre-determined direction.

Advantages:

• Very high transmission speeds possible

• Small cable segments are needed to connect two nodes

Disadvantages :

• Failure of single node brings down the whole network

• Troubleshooting is difficult as many nodes may have to be inspected before faulty

one is identified

• Difficult to remove one or more nodes while keeping the rest of the network intact.

Tree Topology
• Tree topology has a group of star networks connected to a linear bus backbone
cable.

• It incorporates features of both star and bus topologies.

• Tree topology is also called hierarchical topology.

Advantages

• Existing network can be easily expanded

• Easier installation and maintenance

• Well suited for temporary networks

Disadvantages

• Failure of backbone cable brings down entire network

• Insecure network

• Maintenance difficult for large networks

Mesh Topology
• In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.

• This topology has hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host

• It provides the most reliable network structure among all network topologies.
 Hybrid Topology
It is the combination of two or more different topologies.

Advantages:

• It is extremely flexible

• It is very reliable.

• Error detecting and troubleshooting are easy.

• Handles a large volume of traffic.

• It is used to create large networks.

Disadvantages:

• It is a type of network expensive.

• The design of a hybrid network is very complex.

• There is a change in the hardware to connect one topology with another topology.

9. Explain about transmission Media in detail.

A. Transmission Media
A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it
is the channel through which data is sent from one place to another. Transmission Media
is broadly classified into the following types:

1. Guided Media
Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
• High Speed

• Secure

• Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally,
several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely
used Transmission Media.

Twisted Pair is of two types:

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP consists of two insulated copper wires
twisted around one another. This type of cable has the ability to block
interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used
for telephonic applications.

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Least expensive

• Easy to install

• High-speed capacity

Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Susceptible to external interference

• Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

• Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a
copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in
fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
 Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

• Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

• Eliminates crosstalk

• Comparatively faster

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

• Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

• More expensive

• Bulky

Coaxial Cable

It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or

Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection
cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband
mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split
into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use
Coaxial cables.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables support high bandwidth.

 • It is easy to install coaxial cables.

• Coaxial cables have better cut-through resistance so they are more reliable and
durable.

• Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.

• Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cables are expensive.

• The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.

• As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.

• There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by

hackers, this compromises the security of the data.

Optical Fiber Cable

Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made
up of glass or plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic
covering called the cladding. It is used for the transmission of large volumes
of data. The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM
(Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional
and bidirectional mode.

Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

• Increased capacity and bandwidth

• Lightweight

• Less signal attenuation

• Immunity to electromagnetic interference

 • Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable

• Difficult to install and maintain

• High cost

• Fragile

2.Unguided Media

It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium

is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.

Features of Unguided Media

• The signal is broadcasted through air

• Less Secure

• Used for larger distances

There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

Radio Waves

Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM
radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.
Microwaves

It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. Micro
waves are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.

Infrared

Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer,
etc.
10. Explain about the Guided & Unguided transmission Media in
Computer Networks?
A. 1. Guided Media
Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:

• High Speed

• Secure

• Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally,
several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely
used Transmission Media.

Twisted Pair is of two types:

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP consists of two insulated copper wires
twisted around one another. This type of cable has the ability to block
interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used
for telephonic applications.

• Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

• Least expensive

• Easy to install

• High-speed capacity

• Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

• Susceptible to external interference

• Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

• Short distance transmission due to attenuation

 • Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a
copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in
fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

• Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

• Eliminates crosstalk

• Comparatively faster

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

• Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

• More expensive

• Bulky

Coaxial Cable

It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and
2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial
cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth)
and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and
analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables support high bandwidth.

• It is easy to install coaxial cables.

• Coaxial cables have better cut-through resistance so they are more reliable and
durable.

• Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.

• Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cables are expensive.

• The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.

• As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.

• There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by

hackers, this compromises the security of the data.

Optical Fiber Cable

Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of
glass or plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called
the cladding. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be
unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports
two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

• Increased capacity and bandwidth

• Lightweight

• Less signal attenuation

• Immunity to electromagnetic interference

• Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable

• Difficult to install and maintain

• High cost

• Fragile

2.Unguided Media

It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium

is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.

Features of Unguided Media

• The signal is broadcasted through air

• Less Secure

• Used for larger distances

There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

Radio Waves

Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM
radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.
Microwaves

It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be
properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly
proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. Micro
waves are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television distribution.

Infrared

Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer,
etc.