1.

Discuss about a) Computer applications

b) Features of LAN, MAN, WAN

a) Computer Applications:
Computer applications, also known as software applications or simply apps, are programs designed to perform
specific tasks or functions on a computer or any other electronic device. These applications can range from simple
tools like text editors and calculators to complex software suites used for graphic design, accounting, or video
editing. Here are some common types of computer applications:

Word Processing: Word processors like Microsoft Word or Google Docs are used for creating, editing, and
formatting text documents.
Spreadsheet Software: Applications like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets are used for organizing data into rows
and columns, performing calculations, and creating charts and graphs.
Presentation Software: Tools like Microsoft PowerPoint or Prezi are used for creating slideshows and
presentations for business meetings, academic lectures, or other purposes
 • MAN (Metropolitan Area Network):
LAN (Local Area Network):
Scope: LANs typically cover a small geographic area, such as a • Scope: MANs cover a larger geographic area
single building, office, or campus. than LANs but smaller than WANs, typically
Ownership: LANs are often privately owned and maintained by spanning a city or metropolitan area.
a single organization or individual. • Ownership: MANs may be owned and
Connection: LANs usually connect computers and other devices operated by a single organization, a
within a relatively close proximity using wired (Ethernet) or consortium of organizations, or a
wireless (Wi-Fi) connections. telecommunications provider.
Speed: LANs typically offer high data transfer speeds, making • Connection: MANs use a combination of
them suitable for tasks that require fast communication and file technologies, including fiber optics, to
sharing within a local environment. interconnect LANs and other network
Security: LANs can be secured using various measures such as infrastructure within the metropolitan area.
firewalls, encryption, and access control to protect against • Speed: MANs offer moderate to high data
unauthorized access and data breaches. transfer speeds, suitable for connecting
multiple LANs and supporting services such
as internet access, video conferencing, and
cloud computing.
• Security: MANs employ security measures
similar to LANs to protect against
unauthorized access and ensure data privacy
and integrity.
WAN (Wide Area Network):
Scope: WANs cover a wide geographic area, such as a country, continent, or even the entire globe.
Ownership: WANs are often owned and operated by telecommunications companies or internet service
providers (ISPs) and may involve multiple interconnected networks owned by different entities.
Connection: WANs use a variety of technologies, including leased lines, satellites, and the internet, to
connect geographically dispersed LANs, MANs, and other network infrastructure.
Speed: WANs offer variable data transfer speeds depending on the technologies and infrastructure involved,
ranging from relatively slow dial-up connections to high-speed fiber optic links.
Security: WANs face greater security challenges due to their expansive nature and reliance on public
networks like the internet. Security measures such as encryption, virtual private networks (VPNs), and
intrusion detection systems (IDS) are employed to protect data transmission and ensure network security.
2. Compare Connection oriented and connectionless
service

Reliability: Connection-oriented services offer reliable data delivery with guaranteed

sequencing and error checking, while connectionless services provide best-effort delivery
without guarantees.
Overhead: Connection-oriented services have higher overhead due to connection setup,
teardown, and maintenance, whereas connectionless services have lower overhead since
they do not require pre-established connections.
Efficiency: Connectionless services are more efficient for transmitting small, time-sensitive
packets and are often used in real-time applications, while connection-oriented services
are better suited for reliable data transmission over unreliable networks.
3.Explain the functions and protocols and
services of each layer?
Physical Layer (Layer 1):
Function: The physical layer deals with the transmission of raw data bits over a physical medium, such as cables or
wireless signals.
Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, DSL (Digital Subscriber Line), Bluetooth.
Services: Bit synchronization, encoding, and signaling.
Data Link Layer (Layer 2):
Function: The data link layer organizes raw bits from the physical layer into frames, performs error detection, and
manages access to the physical medium.
Protocols: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol).
Services: Framing, error detection (e.g., CRC), MAC (Media Access Control) addressing, and flow control.
Network Layer (Layer 3):
Function: The network layer is responsible for routing packets between different networks, addressing, and
determining the best path for data transmission.
Protocols: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).
Services: Logical addressing (e.g., IPv4, IPv6), routing, packet forwarding, fragmentation, and error handling.
Transport Layer (Layer 4):
Function: The transport layer ensures reliable data delivery between end systems, handles segmentation and
reassembly of data, and provides flow control and error recovery.
Protocols: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol), SCTP (Stream Control Transmission
Protocol).
Services: Connection-oriented (TCP) or connectionless (UDP) communication, segmentation, multiplexing, flow
control, and error detection/retransmission.
Session Layer (Layer 5):
Function: The session layer establishes, maintains, and terminates connections between applications, synchronizes
data exchange, and manages session checkpoints.
Protocols: Not commonly used as a distinct layer in modern networking architectures, but concepts like RPC (Remote
Procedure Call) and NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) can be associated with session management.
Services: Session establishment, maintenance, and termination, synchronization, and checkpointing.
Presentation Layer (Layer 6):
Function: The presentation layer is responsible for data translation, encryption, compression, and formatting to ensure
compatibility between different systems.
Protocols: SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security), MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions).
Services: Data encryption, compression, and formatting, syntax conversion, and data translation.
Application Layer (Layer 7):
Function: The application layer provides network services directly to end-users and applications, including
email, file transfer, web browsing, and remote access.
Protocols: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol), DNS (Domain Name System).
Services: Application-specific services such as file transfer, email exchange, remote login, and web browsing.
4.Explain about the Guided transmission
Medias in computer networks?
5.Explain the ISO-OSI model of computer
network with a neat diagram
6.What are the layers of the OSI reference
model?
7.What does 10Base-T mean?
• It is part of the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet family of standards, where "10" indicates a maximum data transfer
rate of 10 megabits per second (Mbps), "Base" refers to baseband signaling (digital signaling over a
single channel), and "T" stands for twisted pair cable, the type of cable used for the physical connection.
• Here's a breakdown of the components of "10Base-T":
• 10: The "10" in "10Base-T" signifies the maximum data transfer rate of 10 Mbps. This was considered a
significant improvement over earlier Ethernet standards like 10Base5 and 10Base2, which operated at
10 Mbps but used different types of physical cables.
• Base: "Base" refers to baseband signaling, which means that the entire bandwidth of the cable is used
for a single digital signal. In contrast, broadband signaling divides the available bandwidth into multiple
channels, each carrying a different signal.
• T: The "T" indicates the use of twisted pair cables for the physical connection. Twisted pair cables
consist of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI)
and crosstalk between adjacent pairs. "T" is often associated with twisted pair cabling, while other
letters such as "A" and "C" are used for different types of cables (e.g., "A" for coaxial cable and "C" for
fiber optic cable).
8.Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model
• Structure:
• OSI Model: The OSI model consists of seven layers, each representing a specific aspect of network
communication, from the physical transmission of data to the user interface.
• TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model is simpler, comprising four layers that loosely correspond to some of the
layers in the OSI model. These layers are Application, Transport, Internet, and Link.
• Layers:
• OSI Model: The seven layers of the OSI model are (from bottom to top): Physical, Data Link, Network,
Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application.
• TCP/IP Model: The four layers of the TCP/IP model are (from bottom to top): Link, Internet, Transport, and
Application.
• Abstraction Level:
• OSI Model: The OSI model is more abstract and theoretical, providing a conceptual framework for
understanding network communication protocols and standardization.
• TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model is more practical and closely aligned with the protocols used on the
Internet, such as TCP, IP, UDP, and HTTP.
• Adoption and Usage:
• OSI Model: While the OSI model was developed in the 1980s and served as a reference
model for standardization efforts, it is not widely implemented in practice. However, its
concepts influenced the development of other networking models and protocols.
• TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model is the de facto standard for networking protocols used
on the Internet and is widely implemented in networking equipment and software. It
provides the foundation for the TCP/IP suite of protocols, including TCP, IP, UDP, ICMP,
and others.
• Number of Layers:
• OSI Model: The OSI model has seven layers, providing a more granular breakdown of
network functions and protocols.
• TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model has four layers, which are more streamlined and closely
aligned with the protocols used on the Internet.
9.Explain the Full-Duplex mode:
• Full-duplex mode refers to a communication mode in which data can
be transmitted and received simultaneously on a communication
channel. In full-duplex communication, both sending and receiving
devices can operate independently, allowing for bidirectional data
flow without the need for switching between transmitting and
receiving modes. This mode is commonly used in various
communication systems, including telecommunications, networking,
and radio technology.
10.Difference between Half-duplex Transmission
Modes and Full-Duplex Transmission Modes
• the main differences between half-duplex and full-duplex
transmission modes lie in their simultaneous bidirectional
communication capabilities, use of communication channels, collision
handling mechanisms, and throughput. Half-duplex mode allows
bidirectional communication but not simultaneously, while full-duplex
mode enables simultaneous bidirectional communication with
separate channels, no collisions, and higher throughput. The choice
between the two modes depends on factors such as network
topology, cost, and performance requirements.
11.Explain the Design issues with data link
layer
12.Difference Between Packet Switching and
Circuit Switching
13.EXPLAIN BRUST ERROR?
• A burst error refers to a sequence of consecutive errors that occur
within a data transmission or storage medium. Unlike random errors,
which occur sporadically and affect individual bits or bytes, burst
errors typically affect multiple adjacent bits or bytes in a contiguous
sequence. These errors can occur due to various factors such as noise,
interference, signal degradation, or physical defects in the
transmission medium
14.Explain the Cyclic Redundancy Check
(CRC) with examples
15.Explain the Hamming Code Error
Correction
16.Explain the types of Sliding window protocol
1.Go-Back-N ARQ
2.Selective Repeat ARQ
• Sliding window protocols are a class of protocols used in computer
networks to manage the flow of data between sender and receiver.
They allow multiple frames to be in transit simultaneously, improving
network efficiency. Two common types of sliding window protocols
are Go-Back-N ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest) and Selective Repeat
ARQ. Let's explore each:
Go-Back-N ARQ:
Operation: In Go-Back-N ARQ, the sender is allowed to transmit multiple frames before receiving
acknowledgment from the receiver. The sender maintains a window of frames that have been sent
but not yet acknowledged. It continues to send frames within this window until it reaches the
maximum window size or until it receives a negative acknowledgment (NAK) from the receiver.
Retransmission: If the sender receives a NAK or if a timeout occurs, it retransmits all
unacknowledged frames within the window, starting from the oldest unacknowledged frame. This
is where the "Go-Back" terminology comes from, as the sender essentially "goes back" to
retransmit previously sent frames.
Receiver Side: The receiver acknowledges correctly received frames individually. If a frame is
received out of order or is corrupted, the receiver discards the frame but still sends
acknowledgment for the last correctly received frame. This allows the sender to identify which
frames need to be retransmitted.
Efficiency: While Go-Back-N ARQ is simple to implement, it may lead to inefficiencies if only a few
frames are lost or corrupted within a window. This is because the sender must retransmit all
frames since the last acknowledged frame, even if only a few frames are affected.
• Selective Repeat ARQ:
• Operation: Selective Repeat ARQ improves upon the efficiency of Go-Back-N by
allowing the sender to retransmit only the frames that are damaged or lost. Like Go-
Back-N, the sender maintains a window of frames that have been sent but not yet
acknowledged. However, the receiver can individually acknowledge correctly received
frames and negatively acknowledge (NAK) only the frames that are missing or
damaged.
• Retransmission: Upon receiving a NAK or timing out, the sender retransmits only the
frames for which a NAK was received. It does not need to retransmit frames that
were correctly received and acknowledged by the receiver.
• Receiver Side: The receiver buffers out-of-order frames until all preceding frames are
received. Once a gap in the sequence of received frames is filled, the receiver can
deliver the frames to the higher layers in the correct order.
• Efficiency: Selective Repeat ARQ is more efficient than Go-Back-N when there are only
a few lost or damaged frames within a window. It avoids unnecessary retransmissions
of frames that were correctly received, leading to improved network throughput and
reduced retransmission overhead.